DECO405_MANAGERIAL_ECONOMICS_ENGLISH.pdf

MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
Edited By
Ashwani Panesar

Printed by
EXCEL BOOKS PRIVATE LIMITED
A-45, Naraina, Phase-I,
New Delhi-110028
for
Lovely Professional University
Phagwara

SYLLABUS
Managerial Economics
Objectives: The main objective of this course is to understand the basic economic principles of production and exchange -
essential tools in making business decisions in today's global economy.
S. No. Description
1. Introduction to Managerial Economics: Scope of Economics, Economic Principles relevant to Managerial
Decisions, Relationship of Managerial Economics with Decision Sciences.
2. Market Demand and Supply: Determinants of Demand, Basis for Demand; Direct and Derived demand; Law
of Demand, Law of Supply, Market Equilibrium. Consumer Behaviour.
3. Utility analysis: Cardinal and Ordinal utility, Equi-marginal utility. Indifference curve and its properties.
Consumer Equilibrium with Cardinal and Ordinal approach, Consumer surplus, Price, Income and Cross
Elasticities of Demand.
4. Production Theory: Production Functions with one variable and two variable inputs, Producers’
Equilibrium, Expansion Path, Total, Marginal and Average Revenue curve; Law of Diminishing Returns to
Factor; Returns to Scale.
5. Cost Analysis: Types of Costs; Short Run and Long Run Cost Curves; Economics of Scope and Economies of
Scale. Revenue Analysis: Types of Revenue Curves and their applications.
6. Market Structure: Perfect Competition; Assumptions, Price and Output determination in Perfect
Competition in Short and Long run.
7. Imperfect Competition: Monopoly–Features; Price and Output decisions; Price Discrimination.
8. Monopolistic Competition: Features; Price and Output decisions; Short and Long run Equilibrium.
9. Oligopoly: Features; Cartels and Collusions (introductory); Kinked Demand curve.
10. National income: Concepts, Methods of measuring National Income, Problems in measuring National
Income, Circular Flow of Income in 2 Sector and 4 Sector model.

CONTENT
Unit 1: Introduction to Managerial Economics
Anand Thakur, Lovely Professional University
1
Unit 2: Market Demand
19
Unit 3: Market Supply and Equilibrium
30
Unit 4: Consumer Behaviour (Utility Analysis)
42
Unit 5: Elasticity of Demand
65
Unit 6: Production Theory
Ashwani Panesar, Lovely Professional University
86
Unit 7: Laws of Production
105
Unit 8; Cost Analysis
118
Unit 9: Market Structure – Perfect Competition
140
Unit 10: Imperfect Competition – Monopoly
Pavitar Parkash Singh, Lovely Professional University
161
Unit 11: Monopolistic Competition
175
Unit 12: Oligopoly
186
Unit 13: Basic National Income Concepts
203
Unit 14: Calculation of National Income
218

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1
Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Managerial Economics
1.2 Nature of Managerial Economics Importance of Economics in our Life
1.3 Scope of Managerial Economics
1.4 Economic Principles Relevant to Managerial Decisions
1.4.1 Division of Labour
1.4.2 Opportunity Cost
1.4.3 Equimarginal Principle
1.4.4 Market Equilibrium
1.4.5 Diminishing Returns
1.4.6 Game Equilibrium
1.4.7 Measurement Principles
1.4.8 Medium of Exchange
1.4.9 Income-Expenditure Equilibrium
1.4.10 Surprise Principle
1.5 Relationship of Managerial Economics with Decision Sciences
1.6 Central Problems of an Economy
1.6.1 Recessions, Depressions and Economic Fluctuations
1.6.2 Unemployment
1.6.3 Inflation
1.6.4 Economic Growth or Stagnation Decision-making at Asian Paints
1.7 Summary
1.8 Keywords
1.9 Self Assessment
1.10 Review Questions
1.11 Further Readings

2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Notes Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the nature and scope of managerial economics
Identify the role of economics in decision making
Discuss the concepts of economic analysis
Introduction
Countless firms have used the well-established principles of managerial economics to improve
their profitability. Managerial economics draws on economic analysis for such concepts as cost,
demand, profit and competition. It attempts to bridge the gap between the purely analytical
problems that intrigue many economic theorists and the day-to-day decisions that managers
must face. It now offers powerful tools and approaches for managerial policy-making. It will be
relevant to present here several examples illustrating the problems that managerial economics
can help to solve. These also explain how managerial economics is an integral part of business.
Demand, supply, cost, production, market, competition, price, etc. are important concepts in
real business decisions.
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Managerial Economics
Managerial Economics is a discipline that combines economic theory with managerial practice.
It tries to bridge the gap between the problems of logic that intrigue economic theorists and
the problems of policy that plague practical managers. The subject offers powerful tools and
techniques for managerial policy-making. An integration of economic theory and tools of
decision sciences works successfully in optimal decision-making in face of constraints. A study
of managerial economics enriches the analytical skills, helps in the logical structuring of
problems, and provides adequate solution to the economic problems.
To quote Mansfield, Managerial Economics is concerned with the application of economic
concepts and economic analysis to the problems of formulating rational managerial decisions.
According to McNair and Meriam, Managerial economics is the use of economic modes of
thought to analyse business situations.
Managerial Economics is concerned with the application of economic principles and
methodologies to the decision making process within the firm or organisation under the
conditions of uncertainty, says Prof. Evan J Douglas.
Spencer and Siegelman define it as The integration of economic theory with business practice
for the purpose of facilitating decision making and forward planning by management.
According to Hailstones and Rothwel, Managerial economics is the application of economic
theory and analysis to practice of business firms and other institutions.
1.2 Nature of Managerial Economics
A close interrelationship between management and economics has led to the development of
managerial economics. Management is the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a
group of people towards some common objective. It does tell us about the purpose or function
of management but it tells us precious little about the nature of the management process.

Notes
Koontz and O'Donell define management as the creation and maintenance of an internal
environment in an enterprise where individuals, working together in groups, can perform
efficiently and effectively towards the attainment of group goals. Thus, management is:
1. Coordination
2. An activity or an ongoing process
3. A purposive process
4. An art of getting things done by other people.
On the other hand, economics, in its broadest sense, is what economists do. Economists are
primarily engaged in analysing and providing answers to manifestations of the most fundamental
problem, scarcity. Scarcity of resources results from two fundamental facts of life:
1. Human wants are virtually unlimited and insatiable, and
2. Economic resources to satisfy these human demands are limited.
Thus, we cannot have everything we want; we must make choices broadly between three areas:
1. What to produce?
2. How to produce? and
3. For whom to produce?
These three choice problems have become the three central problems of an economy as shown
in Figure 1.1 Science of economics has developed several concepts and analytical tools to deal
with the problem of allocation of scarce resources among competing ends.
Figure 1.1: Three Choice Problems of an Economy
Managerial economics, when viewed in this way, may be taken as economics applied to problems
of choice or alternatives and allocation of scarce resources by the firms. Thus managerial
economics is the study of allocation of resources available to a firm or a unit of management
among the activities of that unit.
Did u know? What is positive and normative analysis in economics?
In positive economic analysis, the problem is analysed in objective terms based on principles
and theories. In normative economic analysis, the problem is analysed based on value
judgement.

Notes
Caselet Importance of Economics in our Life
E
conomics is the study of how finite resources are consumed by demand, according
to the costs imposed by their supply in relation to that demand. In other words,
economics tells us that a freeze in Florida that damages the orange crop will cause
the price of orange juice to change and how the price will modify demand over time.
History
Modern economic theory is said to have originated in The Wealth of Nations, a book
written by Scottish scholar Adam Smith in 1776. The theory holds that rational self interest
pursued by individuals and businesses in a free market society leads to optimal economic
conditions.
Significance
The study of economics helps formulate an understanding of the effects of financial actions
and reactions by individuals and institutions. This understanding allows the projection of
future economic conditions based on current indications.
Misconceptions
An understanding of economics assists governments in managing macroeconomic
conditions such as limiting a recession by inducing recovery. However, economic theory
is not foolproof because it is a social science based on the interplay between culture and
money. Economic effects change as cultural customs change.
Source: www.ehow.com/facts_5899581_importance-economics-life.html
1.3 Scope of Managerial Economics
Managerial economics is concerned with the application of economic concepts and analysis to
the problem of formulating rational managerial decisions. There are four groups of problem in
both decision making and forward planning.
1. Resource allocation: Scarce resources have to be used with utmost efficiency to get optimal
results. These include production programming, problem of transportation, etc.
2. Inventory and queuing problem: Inventory problems involve decisions about holding of
optimal levels of stocks of raw materials and finished goods over a period. These decisions
are taken by considering demand and supply conditions. Queuing problems involve
decisions about installation of additional machines or hiring of extra labour in order to
balance the business lost by not undertaking these activities.
3. Pricing problems: Fixing prices for the products of the firm is an important part of the
decision making process. Pricing problems involve decisions regarding various methods
of pricing to be adopted.
4. Investment problems: Forward planning involves investment problems. These are
problems of allocating scarce resources over time. For example, investing in new plants,
how much to invest, sources of funds, etc.

Notes
Study of managerial economics essentially involves the analysis of certain major subjects like:
1. Demand analysis and methods of forecasting
2. Cost analysis
3. Pricing theory and policies
4. Profit analysis with special reference to break-even point
5. Capital budgeting for investment decisions
6. The business firm and objectives
7. Competition.
An analysis of scarcity of resources and choice making poses three basic questions:
1. What to produce and how much to produce?
2. How to produce?
3. For whom to produce?
A firm applies principles of economics to answer these questions. The first question relates to
what goods and services should be produced and in what quantities. Demand theory guides the
manager in the selection of goods and services for production. It analyses consumer behaviour
with regard to:
1. Type of goods and services they are likely to purchase in the current period and in the
future, Goods and services which they may stop consuming,
2. Factors influencing the consumption of a particular good or service, and
3. The effect of a change in these factors on the demand of that particular good or service.
A detailed study of these aspects of consumer behaviour help the manager to make product
decision. At some particular time, a firm may decide to launch new goods and services or stop
providing a particular good or service. Knowledge of demand elasticities helps in setting up of
prices in context of revenue of a firm. Methods of demand forecasting help in deciding the
quantity of a good or service to be produced.
How to produce the goods and services is the second basic question. It involves selection of
inputs and techniques of production. Decisions are made with regard to the purchase of items
ranging from raw materials to capital equipment. Production and cost analysis guides a manager
in personnel practices such as hiring and staffing and procurement of inputs. For example, the
decision to automate clerical activities using PC network results in a more capital-intensive
mode of production. Capital budgeting decisions also constitute an integral part of the second
basic question. Allocation of available capital in long-term investment projects can be done
through project appraisal methods.
Firms' third basic question relates to segmentation of market. A firm has to decide:
For whom it should produce the goods and services. For example, it has to decide whether to
target the domestic market or the foreign market. Production of a premium good is another
example of market segmentation. An analysis of market structure explains how price and output
decisions are taken under different market forms.
Appropriate business decision making with the help of economic tools has gained recognition
in view of complex business environment. Since the macroeconomic environment is dynamic,
it changes over time; managerial decisions have to be reviewed constantly. In this context,
concepts of consumer behaviour, demand elasticities, demand forecasting, production and cost
analysis, market structure analysis and investment planning help in making prudent decisions.

Notes
Task Identify some quantitative techniques used in managerial decision-making.
1.4 Economic Principles Relevant to Managerial Decisions
Key economic principles that are relevant to managerial decisions are discussed in the following
sub-sections.
1.4.1 Division of Labour
I put the division of labor first mainly because Adam Smith did argue that division of labor is
the key cause of improving standards of living. Modern economics doesn’t do much with the
concept of division of labor, but two closely related concepts are important:
1. Returns to Scale: Returns to scale may be increasing, constant or decreasing. Increasing
returns to scale is the case that leads to special results, and division of labor is one cause
(arguably the main cause) of increasing returns to scale.
2. Virtuous Circles in Economic Growth: For Smith, a major consequence of division of labor
and resulting increasing productivity was a “virtuous circle” of continuing growth. Modern
“virtuous circle” theories have more dimensions, but division of labor and increasing
returns to scale are among them.
1.4.2 Opportunity Cost
The idea is that anything you must give up in order to carry out a particular decision is a cost of
that decision. This concept is applied again and again throughout modern economics.
1. Scarcity: According to modern economics, scarcity exists whenever there is an opportunity
cost, that is, where-ever a meaningful choice has to be made.
2. Production Possibility Frontier: The production possibility frontier is the diagrammatic
representation of scarcity in production.
3. Comparative Advantage: A very important principle in itself and a key to understanding
of international trade the principle of comparative advantage is at the same time an
application of the opportunity cost principle to trade.
4. Discounting of Investment Returns: Another application of the opportunity cost principle
that is very important in itself, this one tells us how to handle opportunities that come at
different times.
1.4.3 Equimarginal Principle
This is the diagnostic principle for economic efficiency. It has wide applications in modern
economics. Two of the most important are key principles of economics in themselves:
1. The Fundamental Principle of Microeconomics: This principle describes the circumstances
under which market outcomes are efficient.
2. The Externality Principle: It describes some important circumstances in which the markets
are not efficient.

Notes
3. Marginal Analysis: It is also an important principle in itself and very widely applied in
modern economics. There is no major topic in microeconomics that does not apply marginal
analysis and opportunity cost.
1.4.4 Market Equilibrium
The market equilibrium model could be broken down into several principles — the definitions
of supply, demand, quantity supplied and demanded and equilibrium, at least — but these all
complement one another so strongly that there is not much profit in taking them separately.
However, there are many applications and at least four important subsidiary principles:
1. Elasticity and Revenue: These ideas are a key to understanding how market changes
transform society.
2. The Entry Principle: This tells us that, when entry into a field of activity is free, profits
(beyond opportunity costs) will be eliminated by increasing competition. This has a
somewhat different significance depending on whether competition is “perfect” or
monopolistic.
3. Cobweb Adjustment: This might give the explanations when the market does not move
smoothly to equilibrium, but overshoots.
4. Competition vs. Monopoly: Why economists tend to think highly of competition, and
lowly of monopoly.
1.4.5 Diminishing Returns
Perhaps the best-known of major economic principles, the Principle of Diminishing Returns is
much more reliable in short-run than in long-run applications, so the Long Run/Short Run
dichotomy is an important subsidiary principle. Modern economists think of diminishing returns
mainly in marginal terms, so marginal analysis and the equimarginal principle are closely
associated.
1.4.6 Game Equilibrium
Game theory allows strategy to be part of the story. One result is that we have to allow for
several kinds of equilibriums.
1. Non-cooperative equilibrium
(a) Prisoners’ Dilemma (dominant strategy) equilibrium
(b) Nash (best response) equilibrium, (but not all Nash equilibrium are dominant
strategy equilibrium),
2. Cooperative equilibrium
3. Oligopoly
1.4.7 Measurement Principles
Economics is multidimensional, and that creates some difficulties in measuring things like
production, incomes, and price levels. Some of the problems can be solved more or less fully.
1. Value Added and Double Counting: One for which we have a pretty complete solution is
the problem of double counting: the solution is, use value added.

Notes 2. “Real” Values and Index Numbers: Since we measure production and related quantities in
dollar terms, we have to correct for inflation. Index numbers are a pretty good workable
solution, but there are some problems and criticisms.
3. Measurement of Inequality: Another issue is that the “average income” may not mean
very much, because nobody is average and income is unequally distributed. Even if we
cannot correct for that we can get a rough measure of the relative inequality and see where
it is going.
1.4.8 Medium of Exchange
Money is whatever is generally acceptable as a medium of exchange. That means a bank, or
similar institution, can literally create money, so long as people trust the bank enough to accept
its paper as a medium of exchange. We might call this magical fact the Fiduciary Principle.
1.4.9 Income-Expenditure Equilibrium
Like the market equilibrium principle, but even more so, this model pulls together a number of
subsidiary principles that complement one another and together constitute the “Keynesian”
theory of aggregate demand. The implications of this theory are less controversial than the
word “Keynesian” is — controversy has to do more with the details than the applications.
Among the subsidiary principles are
1. Coordination Failure
2. The income-consumption relationship
3. The Multiplier
4. Unplanned inventory investment
5. Fiscal Policy
6. The Marginal Efficiency of Investment
7. The influence of money on interest
8. Real Money Balances
9. Monetary Policy
1.4.10 Surprise Principle
People respond differently to the same stimuli if the stimuli come as a surprise than they would
if the stimuli do not come as a surprise. This new economic principle plays the key role with
respect to aggregate supply that “Income-Expenditure Equilibrium” plays with respect to
aggregate demand.
Rational Expectations: People don’t want too many unpleasant surprises. If they use the
information available to them efficiently, then they won’t be surprised in the same way very
often. This can lead to:
(a) Policy ineffectiveness
(b) Permanence
(c) Path Dependence

Notes
1.5 Relationship of Managerial Economics with Decision Sciences
Manageral eco helps the managers in taking various strategic decision. Demand analysis and
forecasting help a manager in the earliest stage in choosing the product and in planning output
levels. A study of demand elasticity goes a long way in helping the firm to fix prices for its
products. The theory of cost also forms an essential part of this subject. Estimation is necessary
for making output variations with fixed plants or for the purpose of new investments in the
same line of production or in a different venture. The firm works for profits and optimal or near
maximum profits depend upon accurate price decisions. Theories regarding price determination
under various market conditions enable the firm to solve the price fixation problems. Control
of costs, proper pricing policies, break-even point analysis, alternative profit policies are some
of the important techniques in profit planning for the firm which has to work under conditions
of uncertainty. Thus managerial economics tries to find out which course is likely to be the best
for the firm under a given set of conditions.
Economics and other Disciplines
Economics is linked with various other fields of study like:
1. Operation Research: This field is used in economics to find out the best of all possibilities.
Operation Research is a great aid in decision making in business and industry as it can
help in solving problems like determination of facilities on machine scheduling,
distribution of commodities, optimum product mix, etc.
2. Theory of Decision Making: Decision theory has been developed to deal with problems of
choice or decision making under uncertainty, where the applicability of figures required
for the utility calculus are not available. Economic theory is based on assumptions of a
single goal whereas decision theory breaks new grounds by recognising multiplicity of
goals and persuasiveness of uncertainty in the real world of management.
3. Statistics: Statistics helps in empirical testing of theory. With its help better decisions
relating to demand and cost functions, production, sales or distribution are taken.
Economics is heavily dependent on statistical methods.
4. Management Theory and Accounting: Maximisation of profit has been regarded as a central
concept in the theory of the firm in microeconomics. In recent years, organisation theorists
have talked about “satisficing” (a decision-making strategy that attempts to meet criteria
for adequacy, rather than to identify an optimal solution) instead of “maximising” as an
objective of an enterprise. Accounting data and statements constitute the language of
business. In fact, the link is so close that “managerial accounting” has developed as a
separate and specialised field in itself.
Scope of economics expands to the frontiers of big companies, both- Indian and International.
Some of the real world examples are discussed below:
Example: Birla Yamaha - Shriram Honda and Ensuing Competition: With Honda
acquiring a majority in Shriram Honda, arch rival Birla Yamaha now has a strong opponent to
tackle. As the two companies enjoy a virtual duopoly in the potable generator set market,
Honda’s move to acquire management control in its Indian venture was enough to rush Birla’s
executives back into a huddle. RS Sharma, MD, Birla Yamaha points out, “Our competitors are
now witnessing a change of management. As fresh funds are infused in the company, we will be
up against stronger competition.”
It is obvious that it will be difficult to understand and tackle this problem without the knowledge
of concepts like duopoly, competition, etc., which are a part of micro economics.

Notes ICI Paints and Market Leadership: ICI paints, which contributes 43 per cent to ICI Limited’s 850
crores turnover, has decided to gun for number one position in the Indian paints industry.
Ranking third currently, after Asian Paints and Goodlass Nerolac, it has launched a spate of
activities that emanate from a new, three-pronged strategy spearheaded by its new chief executive,
D Bhatnagar (May 98).
The three-pronged strategy encompasses expanding reach by revamping strategy network,
making marketing strategy more consumer friendly and taking initiatives in the supply chain
to ensure reach and efficiency.
The decision of the strategy, however, clearly shows how the knowledge of micro economics
and its concepts like supply, competition, etc., have been used.
Siemens and “MOST”: The storm clouds of the industrial slowdown have hit Siemens so hard
that for the first time in its history, the company went deep into the red. Stunned by this, the
German parent has chalked out a four-point rectification programme code named MOST
(Maynards Operation Sequence Technique). The most important cause of the flight of Siemens
has been a weak domestic demand and a severe cost-push effect on the internal front as a result
of fast growth. The most important component of the rectification programme is cost reduction
and improving cost structure, productivity and quality. Needless to say that cost is an important
concept dealt with in detail in micro economics.
Telco and Competition: The gloomier picture of Telco can be explained in terms of concepts of
micro economics integrated with other disciplines – high costs, piling inventories, a market
slowdown, low demand and competition. The move of Telco to go in for automobiles has come
as a result of slowdown in performance. The management admits that it is time to cut down costs
severely. Similarly, Telco is gearing itself for the imminent threat of competition in the truck
segment (10-tonne). The company has made this segment virtually its own with a cost advantage
and introducing measures for cost control.
Performance of Multinationals: The scope of micro economics is wide. Detailed studies and
evaluation can be made using it. For example, a study conducted by The Economic Times
Research Bureau of 29 MNCs for the year ended June 97 says, “Increasing costs and growing
competition have squeezed margins of multinational firms in India, despite an overall increase
in sales volumes”. Interestingly, last year’s (1997) first half saw bottom lines of most Indian
corporates reeling under increasing costs, higher interest rates and declining demand.
1.6 Central Problems of an Economy
Every economy faces some problems. These problems are associated with growth, business
cycles, unemployment and inflation. The macroeconomic theory is designed to explain how
supply and demand in the aggregate interact to concern with these four problems. Economists
these very important national problems as macroeconomic problems — that is, as problems
that could not be understood or solved without an understanding of the workings of the economic
system as a whole. The four distinctively macroeconomic problems are:
1. Recession
2. Unemployment
3. Inflation
4. Economic Growth or Stagnation
1.6.1 Recessions, Depressions and Economic Fluctuations
The event that created modern macroeconomics was called the Great Depression, but the
general term for decreasing national production, in modern economics, is a recession.

Notes
!
Caution A recession is defined as a period of two or more successive quarters of decreasing
production. Production is measured by a number of variables. Real Gross Domestic Product
is one important measure. We will focus mainly on it.
But why do economists regard a recession as a problem?
It is not self-evident that a drop in production is a bad thing. For example, it might be that people
want to enjoy more leisure, and spend less time producing goods and services. If production
dropped for that reason, we would have no reason to think of it as an economic problem.
But, in some periods of recession, we have evidence that this was not what happened. In many
recession periods, businesses that announced they were hiring had long lines of people who
wanted to apply, with many more people than they could hire. This suggests that the people
standing in line for a job had more leisure than they wanted, and would have preferred jobs and
income to buy more goods and services. In the 1930's, some people sold apples or pencils in the
street to get a little income, typically much less than they would have had in their old jobs.
Again, this suggests that people had too much leisure and would have preferred more work and
income. If this is so, then it seems that something was going wrong. In different terms, it seemed
that the recession had caused unemployment.
Another possibility is that production might drop because a war or disaster had destroyed
factories and other capital goods. But, in 1933, it seems very unlikely that the productive capacity
of the economy could have dropped by 30%. There had been no war. And in fact, factories had
been closed that could have been reopened and put to work, at the same time as many people
were looking for work. Perhaps these circumstances show why the recession is regarded as a
major economic problem.
Did u know? In which year The Great Depression occurred? It was in 1930.
1.6.2 Unemployment
Our second macroeconomic problem is unemployment. This problem is highly correlated with
recession, but is distinct, and we need to look at it in its own terms. Unemployment occurs when
a person is available to work and currently seeking work, but the person is without work. The
prevalence of unemployment is usually measured using the unemployment rate, which is defined
as the percentage of those in the labor force who are unemployed.
Economists distinguish between various types of unemployment. For example, cyclical, frictional,
structural and classical, seasonal, hardcore and hidden. Real-world unemployment may combine
different types. The magnitude of each of these is difficult to measure, partly because they
overlap.
Unemployment is a status in which individuals are without job and are seeking a job. It is one of
the most pressing problems of any economy especially the underdeveloped ones. This has
macroeconomic implications too some of which are discussed below:
1. Reduction in the Output: The unemployed workforce could be utilized for the production
of goods and services. Since they are not doing so, the economy is losing out on its output.
2. Reduction in Tax Revenue: Since income tax is an important part of the revenue for the
government. The unemployed are unable to earn, the government loses out on the income
tax revenue.

Notes 3. Rise in the Government Expenditure: The government has to give unemployment insurance
benefits to the claimants. Hence the government will lose from both sides in terms of
unemployment benefits and loss of tax revenue.
1.6.3 Inflation
In economics, inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy
over a period of time.
A rising price level — inflation — has the following disadvantages:
1. It creates uncertainty, in that people do not know what the money they earn today will
buy tomorrow.
2. Uncertainty, in turn, discourages productive activity, saving and investing.
3. Inflation reduces the competitiveness of the country in international trade. If this is not
offset by a devaluation of the national currency against other currencies, it makes the
country's exports less attractive, and makes imports into the country more attractive,
which in turn tends to create unbalance in trade.
4. Inflation is a hidden tax on nominal balances. That is, people who hold bonds and bank
accounts in dollars lose the value of those accounts when the price level rises, just as if
their money had been taxed away.
5. The inflation tax is capricious — some lose by it and some do not without any good
economic reason.
6. As the purchasing power of the monetary unit becomes less predictable, people resort to
other means to carry out their business, means which use up resources and are inefficient.
1.6.4 Economic Growth or Stagnation
!
Caution Stagnation is a period of many years of slow growth of gross domestic product,
in which the growth is, on the average, slower than the potential growth in the economy.
Causes of Stagnation
1. Population growth might high.
2. Fewer people might choose to work.
3. The growth of labor productivity might slow.
Stagnation is economic growth that, while positive, is less than the potential growth of the
economy. Some economists believe that stagnation is a serious problem and a cause of other
problems, but since identification of stagnation depends on one's idea of the potential, it remains
controversial whether the slowing we see is stagnation or a reduction of the potential.

Notes
Case Study Decision-making at Asian Paints
D
ecision-making the vision of Asian Paints (India) Ltd., is to become one of the top
five Decorative coatings companies worldwide by leveraging its expertise in the
higher growth emerging markets, simultaneously, the company intends to build
long term value in the Industrial coatings business through alliances with established
global partners.
Asian Paints is India’s largest paint company and ranks among the top ten decorative
coatings companies in the world today, with a turnover of 20.67 billion (USD 435 million)
and an enviable reputation in the Indian corporate world for Professionalism, Fast Track
Growth, and Building Shareholder Equity.
The October’ 2002 issue of Forbes Global magazine USA ranked Asian Paints among the
200 Best Small Companies in the World for 2002 and presented the ‘Best under Billion’
award, to the company. One of the country’s leading business magazines “Business Today”
in Feb 2001 ranked Asian Paints as the Ninth Best Employer in India. A survey carried out
by ’Economic Times’ In January 2000, ranked Asian Paints as the Fourth most admired
company across industries in India.
Among its various other achievements, Asian Paints is the only company in India to have
won the prestigious Economic Times – Harvard Business School Association of India
award on two separate occasions, once in the category of “Mini-Giants” and the other in
“Private sector giants”.
The major decisions taken by the company which helped it to achieve the set goals were:
1. Consumer Focus: The company has come a long way since its small beginnings in
1942. Four friends who were willing to take on one of the world’s biggest, most
famous paint companies operating in India at that time set it up as a partnership
firm. Over the course of 25 years Asian Paints became a corporate force and India’s
leading paints company. Driven by its strong consumer-focus and innovative spirit,
the company has been the market leader in paints since 1938. Today it is double the
size of any other paint company in India.
2. Wide Range of Products: Asian Paints manufactures a wide range of paints for
Decorative and Industrial use. Vertical integration has seen it diversify into Speciality
products such as Phthalic Anhydride and Pentaerythritol. Not only does Asian Paints
offer customers a wide range of Decorative and Industrial paints, it even Custom-
creates products to meet specific requirements.
3. International Tie-ups: To keep abreast of world technology and to protect its
competitive edge, Asian Paints has from time to time entered into technology
alliances with world leaders in the paint industry. It has a 50:50 joint venture with
Pittsburgh Paints Glass Industries (PPG) of USA, the world leader in Automotive
coatings, to meet the increasing demand of the Indian automotive industry.
Table 1: Tata’s Group Profile 2
In % Group Top 10 Top 20 Last 10
SALES 100 78 90 0.35
PAT 100 76 93 0.20
TOTAL ASSETS 100 72 87 0.80
NET WORTH 100 71 90 0.90
Contd...

Notes Table 2: Ratios
In % Group Top 10 Top 20 Last 10
RONW 17.8 18.9 18.3 4.2
ROCE 7.4 77 7.8 1.9
PAT/SALES 8.9 8.7 9.2 5.5
ASSETS
RONW =Return on Net Worth
ROCE = Return on Capital Employed
PAT = Profit After Tax
4. Latest Technology: It has also drawn on the world’s latest technology for its
manufacturing capabilities in areas like powder coatings and high-tech resins – thus
ensuring that its product quality lives up to exacting international standards, even
in the most sophisticated product categories.
5. Emphasis is on RD: The company places strong emphasis on its own in-house
RD, creating new opportunities by effectively harnessing indigenous creativity.
The Asian Paints Research Development Center in Mumbai has acquired the
reputation of being one of the finest in South Asia. With its team of over 125 qualified
scientists, it has been responsible for pioneering a number of new products and
creating new categories of paints. The entire decorative range of the company has
been developed by the RD team.
6. State of the Art Plants: The company boasts of state-of-the-art manufacturing plants
at Bhandup in the state of Maharashtra; at Ankleshwar in the state of Gujarat; at
Patancheru in the state of Andhra Pradesh; and at Kasna in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
All the company’s plants have been certified for ISO 9001 – the quality accreditation.
All the company’s plants have also received the ISO 14001 certificate for Environment
Management Standard. The Phthalic Anhydride plant has been certified for ISO 9002
and ISO 14001 whereas the Penta plant has been certified for ISO 14001. The Penta
plant will shortly receive its ISO 9002 certification.
7. Environment Friendly: In June 2002, Asian Paints plant in Patancheru was conferred
“The Golden Peacock” award by the World Environment Foundation and the award
for ’Excellence in Environment Management’ by the Government of Andhra Pradesh.
8. Emphasis on IT: Asian Paints was one of the first companies in India to extensively
computerize its operations. In addition to computerized manufacturing, computers
are used widely in the areas of distribution, inventory control and sophisticated MIS
to derive benefits of faster market analysis for better decision making. It is a
continuously evolving company deriving its cutting edge from the use of innovative
IT solutions. All the locations of the company are integrated through the ERP solution.
9. World Wide Presence: Asian Paints operates in 23 countries across the world. It has
manufacturing facilities in each of these countries and is the largest paints company
in nine overseas markets. It is also India’s largest exporter of paints, exporting to
over 15 markets in the Asia-Pacific region, the Middle East and Africa. In 12 markets
it operates through its subsidiary, Berger International Limited and in Egypt through
SCIB Chemical SAE.
Contd...

Notes
Further decisions that the company may consider are:
1. More focus on industrial paints, especially the automotive paints division
2. Manage the chemicals business more efficiently
3. Better marketing strategies to adopt top line growth in international operations
4. Reduce the input costs of production
5. Consolidate on the ‘colourworld’ and ‘home solutions’ initiatives to consolidate the
leadership position in decorative paints segment.
Question
How does economics play a role in decision-making at Asian Paints?
Ans. Analysis of economic variables allows the firm to make optimal business decisions.
The concepts of economics like demand, supply, production, costs and macro economic
variables that affect the entire economy play a vital role in decision-making.
Source: Atmanand, Managerial Economics, 2nd Edition, Excel Books, New Delhi.
1.7 Summary
Managerial Economics combines economic theory with managerial practice.
The subject offers powerful tools and techniques for managerial policy-making.
A close interrelationship between management and economics has led to the development
of managerial economics.
Managerial economics, may be taken as economics applied to problems of choice or
alternatives and allocation of scarce resources by the firms.
Managerial economics covers the four groups of problem essential in both decision making
and forward planning: Resource allocation, Inventory and queuing problem, Pricing
problems and Investment problems.
A firm applies principles of economics to answer these questions: What to produce and
how much to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce?
Every economy faces some problems. These problems are associated with growth, business
cycles, unemployment and inflation.
A recession is defined as a period of two or more successive quarters of decreasing
production.
Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work,
but the person is without work.
A rising price level means inflation. It has many disadvantages: uncertainty, discourage
productive activity, inefficient use of resources etc.
Stagnation is a serious problem and a cause of other problems in an economy.
1.8 Keywords
Inflation: It is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services in an economy over a
period of time.
Macroeconomics: It is study to economy as whole.

Notes Microeconomics: It is concerned with the study of individuals firm or unit.
Recession: It is defined as a period of two or more successive quarters of decreasing production.
Stagnation: It is a period of many years of slow growth of gross domestic product, in which the
growth is, on the average, slower than the potential growth in the economy.
1.9 Self Assessment
1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Managerial Economics is a discipline that combines economic theory with
............................... .
(b) Inflation is a ............................... in the general level of prices of goods and services.
(c) ............................... studies aggregates in the economy.
(d) Fixing ............................... for the products of the firm is an important part of the
decision making process.
(e) Capital Budgeting is related to ............................... investment.
2. State true or false for the following statements:
(a) Supply theory guides the manager in the selection of goods and services of
production.
(b) Managerial economics involves selection of inputs and techniques of production.
(c) Firm's third basic question related is to segmentation of market.
(d) The development of a product for a particular section of society consider question
for how to produce.
(e) A choice has to be made between ends (unlimited wants) and means (limited
resource).
(f) Scarcity and efficiency does not go hand to hand in a society.
(g) The study of managerial economics does not involve capital budgeting.
(h) Recession os a macro economic problem.
(i) Inflation is a hidden tax on nominal balances.
3. Choose the appropriate answer:
(a) Which is not type of unemployment?
(i) Cyclical (ii) Structural
(iii) Frictional (iv) Variable
(b) The following are the sign of inflation, except
(i) increased prices (ii) increased purchasing power
(iii) decreased savings (iv) decreased investment

Notes
1. How do you justify the fact that most of the economies in the world have registered
growth even after influenced by the global meltdown?
2. What was the reason for inflation touching a two digit number in India in the first half of
2009?
3. Being a student of management, how do you think US economy could have prevented
sub-prime crisis and the consequent recession?
4. Why does the entire managerial economics revolve around what to produce, how to
produce, and for whom to produce? Give examples to support your answer.
5. Among recession, unemployment, inflation and economic growth or stagnation, what do
you think is the biggest problem for an economy? Arrange them in a descending order of
importance and support your argument with reasoning.
6. 'Managerial Economics is often used to help business students integrate the knowledge of
economic theory with business practice.' How is this integration accomplished in your
point of view? What role do you think does the subject play in shaping managerial decisions?
7. Analyse the relationship of Managerial Economics with the following:
(a) Microeconomics,
(b) Macroeconomics,
(c) Mathematical economics, and
(d) Econometrics.
8. Examine various approaches of managerial decision-making.
9. Following are the examples of typical economic decisions made by managers of a firm.
Determine whether each is an example of what, how, or for whom to produce.
(a) Should the company make its own spare parts or buy them from an outside vendor?
(b) Should the company continue to service the equipment it sells or ask the customers
to use independent repair companies?
(c) Should a company expand its business to international markets or concentric in
domestic markets?
(d) Should the company replace its telephone operators with a computerised voice
messaging system?
(e) Should the company buy or lease the fleet of trucks that it uses to translate its
products to markets?
10. Analyse the impact of unemployment on Indian economy.
11. What are the causes of stagnation? Explain with example.
12. What is inflation? What should India do to check its stagflation?
13. How can you define recession?
14. Discuss the principles of economics. How can managers use these principles for effective
decision-making?
15. Economics is concerned with the application of economic concepts and analysis to the
problem of formulating rational individual and national decisions. Discuss.

Notes Answers: Self Assessment
1. (a) management practices (b) rise (c) macroeconomics
(d) prices (e) long term
2. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) True
(e) True (f) False (g) False (h) True
(i) True
3. (a) (iv) (b) (ii)
Books Dr. Atmanand, Managerial Economics, Excel Books, Delhi.
Haynes, Mote and Paul, Managerial Economics — Analysis and Cases, Vakils. Feffer
and Simons Private Ltd., Bombay.
Hague, D.C., Managerial Economics.
Introduction to Managerial Economics, Hutchinson University Library.
Malcolm P. McNair and Richard S. Meriam, Problems in Business Economics,McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Online links en.wikipedia.org
http://www.swlearning.com/economics/hirschey/managerial_econ/chap01.pdf
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Man-Mix/Managerial-
Economics.html
http://bilder.buecher.de/zusatz/14/14727/14727814_vorw_1.pdf

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
2.1 Market Demand
2.1.1 Determinants of Demand
2.1.2 Basis of Demand
2.1.3 Direct and Derived Demand
2.1.4 Law of Demand
2.2 Summary
2.3 Keywords
2.4 Self Assessment
Objectives
Identify the determinants of demand
Know the basis of demand
State the law of demand
Introduction
Demand and supply are two most fundamental concepts in economics. Demand conveys a wider
and definite meaning than in the ordinary usage. Ordinarily, demand to you would mean your
desire to buy something, but in economic sense it is something more than a mere desire. It is
interpreted as your want backed up by your purchasing power. Further demand is per unit of
time such as per day, per week etc. Moreover, it is meaningless to mention demand without
reference to price. Considering all these aspects the term demand can be defined in the following
words, “Demand for anything means the quantity of that commodity, which is desired to be
bought, at a given price, per unit of time.”
Example: Suppose price of a pen is 10 per unit of time. At this price, people are willing
to buy 100 units of that pen at a specific point of time. So, it is the demand for that pen.

Notes 2.1 Market Demand
Demand is one of the crucial requirements for the existence of any business enterprise. A firm is
interested in its own profit and/or sales, both of which depend partially upon the demand for its
product. The decisions which management takes with respect to production, advertising, cost
allocation, pricing, etc., call for an analysis of demand.
Demand for a commodity refers to the quantity of the commodity which an individual household
is willing and able to purchase per unit of time at a particular price.
Demand for a commodity implies:
1. Desire to acquire it,
2. Willingness to pay for it, and
3. Ability to pay for it.
Demand has a specific meaning. As stated earlier, mere desire to buy a product is not demand.
Example: A miser’s desire for and his ability to pay for a car is not demand because he
does not have the necessary will to pay for it. Similarly, a poor man’s desire for and his willingness
to pay for a car is not demand because he does not have the necessary ability to pay (purchasing
power).
One can also think of a person who has both the will and purchasing power to pay for a
commodity, yet this is not demand for that commodity if he does not have desire to have that
commodity.
Demand for a commodity has to be stated with reference to time, its price and that of related
commodities, consumer’s income and taste, etc. Demand varies with changes in these factors.
Example: As demand for sweets go up, the demand for sugar also goes up Or as your
income increases, you demand for branded clothes also goes up.
2.1.1 Determinants of Demand
The demand for a commodity arises from the consumer’s willingness and ability to purchase the
commodity. The demand theory says that the quantity demanded of a commodity is a function
of or depends on not only the price of a commodity, but also on income of the person, price of
related goods – both substitutes and complements – tastes of consumer, price expectation and all
other factors. Demand function is a comprehensive formulation which specifies the factors that
influence the demand for the product.
Dx
= f(Px
, Py
, Pz
, B, A, E, T, U)
Where,
Dx
= Demand for item x
Px
= Price of item x
Py
= Price of substitutes
Pz
= Price of complements
B = Income of consumer
E = Price expectation of the user
A = Advertisement Expenditure

Notes
T = Taste or preference of user
U = All other factors
The impact of these determinants on Demand is:
1. Price effect on demand: Demand for x is inversely related to its own price.
This can be shown as:
x
x
1
D
P
This shows that demand for x is inversely proportional to price of x. This means – as price
of x increases, the quantity demanded of x falls.
2. Substitution effect on demand: If y is a substitute of x, then as price of y increases, demand
for x also increases.
Example: Tea and coffee, cold drinks and juice etc. are substitutes.
x y
D P
This shows that the demand for x is directly proportional to price of substitute commodity
y. This means -demand for x and price of substitute commodity y are directly related.
3. Complementary effect on demand: If z is a complement of x, then as the price of z falls, the
demand for z goes up and thus the demand for x also tends to rise.
Example: Ink and pen, bread and butter etc. are complements.
x
z
1
D
P
This shows that the demand for x is inversely proportional to the price of complementary
commodity z. This means – demand for x and price for complementary commodity y are
inversely directly related.
4. Price expectation effect on demand: Here the relation may not be definite as the psychology
of the consumer comes into play. Your expectations of a price increase might be different
from your friends’.
5. Income effect on demand: As income rises, consumers buy more of normal goods (positive
effect) and less of inferior goods (negative effect). Examples of normal goods are t-shirts,
tea, sugar, noodles, watches etc. and examples of inferior goods are low quality rice,
jowar, second hand goods etc.
Dx
B, if X is a normal good.
And,
x
1
D
B
, if X is an inferior good.

Notes 6. Promotional effect on demand: Advertisement increases the sale of a firm up to a point.
Dx
A
This means that, demand for x is directly proportional to advertisement expenditure of
the firm producing x. (Note: advertisements do not that powerful effect on demand)
Socio-psychological determinants of demand like tastes and preferences, custom, habits, etc., is
difficult to explanation theoretically.
Did u know? If there is an increase in GDP, will the demand be affected?
Yes. An increase in GDP means that the total output of products and services have increased.
Since, it represents the economy of a country, so any increase will have a positive effect on
demand.
Task List a few products that are: (a) substitutes and (b) complements
2.1.2 Basis of Demand
The basic source of demand is the need of individuals. Individual need products and services and
they are also willing to pay a price to acquire those products and services. The firms analyse the
needs and create products and services for them. The market for a firm’s product cannot be
analysed without reference to the demand conditions. For a firm or an industry consisting of
several firms, the extent of demand determines the size of market. Successful business firms,
therefore, spend considerable time, energy and effort in analysing the demand for their products.
Without a clear understanding of consumers’ behaviour and a clear knowledge of the market
demand conditions, the firm is handicapped in its attempt towards profit planning or any other
business strategy planning.
Example: Estimating present demand and forecasting future demand constitutes the
first step towards measuring and determining the flow of sales revenue and profits which
generate internal resources to finance business. The stability and growth of business is linked to
size and structure of demand.
Case Study Micro Factors Affecting Demand for Tanishq Products
Price of Jewellery – Symbol of Quality Provided
Price of a commodity is known to have a direct influence on demand for it. This follows
from the Law of Demand. But in the case of Tanishq jewellery this does not hold true,
making it an exception to the Law. This can be explained in terms of Veblen effect, where
the price of a commodity is regarded as an indicator of its quality. Sometimes certain
commodities are demanded just because they happen to be expensive or prestige goods,
and hence have a snob appeal. These are generally luxury articles that are purchased by
the rich as status symbols. The price of Tanishq jewellery is regarded by patrons as being
the just cost of the purity and trustworthiness of the brand. Not only was Tanishq the first
to offer branded jewellery in India, but it was also the first to introduce concepts such as
Contd...

Notes
testing the purity of jewellery through the Karat meter, a buyback guarantee as well as
other exchange schemes. Each move by Tanishq has shown its confidence in its own
product. This has in turn inspired confidence in its customers, who are loyal. Usually,
when the price of gold bullion increases people tend to curb/postpone their purchases of
gold ornaments. However, the demand for Tanishq jewellery is independent of this price
factor because each piece of jewellery represents a promise of quality and purity, each
piece is something different and new, each piece is something special. As such the income
and substitution effects do not adversely affect the demand for Tanishq jewellery, and
price has title impact overall. But it has also been observed that an escalation in the gold
price, diamonds seem to have caught the fancy of the customer and the promotional offers
are being designed to provide customers with significantly enhanced value.
Designs Offered
The average Indian has always been very discerning when it comes to the purchase of
jewellery. However, with the spread of globalization customers want the best quality in
terms of designs. Best quality is provide to meet the international standards. Creativity is
the buzzword. Tanishq's primary customer, the urban Indian woman, has come along
way. She is smart, educated, and confident of handling career and family, and looking to
secure value for her money. Today's urban women no longer wear jewellery only at
weddings and formal occasions. They require trendy accessories that match her attire and
reflect her personality. In this context the demand is vast and widespread in terms of
prices. The women of today want the best of everything and have become more and more
and more selective in their choices. The brand's designs address the needs of the modern
woman. Tanishq had crafted award-winning designs in 18 karat and 24 karat gold and
gemstone jewellery. It's new range looks beautiful and yet is affordable and feels light.
Promotional Schemes
With cutthroat competition in the market, every company comes up with schemes to woo
the customers. These offers are all the more visible during the festival season. Purchase of
jewellery can happen any time of the year like - for birthdays, anniversaries, gifting,
impulse purchases, etc. and of course for marriages as well. Therefore, in absolute terms,
there is no lean period for jewellery - the jewellery market can be stimulated throughout
the year through a host of well-designed marketing inputs. Tanishq to promote its brand
comes up with all kinds of schemes like a jewellery exhibition which brings fresh talent to
the forefront, launched a nationwide jewellery design competition on May 22nd 2004, 'Get
Gold free with Diamonds' promotional offer across all 66 exclusive Tanishq boutiques in
India. Its also specially designed the three crowns for the Ponds Femina Miss India Contest
this year. It reached out to the target group through exclusive working women's meets,
where well known career women spoke about issues relevant to working women. In
addition, 'Tanishq Collection-G' ran joint promotions with brands such as L'Oreal and
Wills Lifestyle, which it believed appeal to a similar set of consumers. Tanishq has successful
stimulated demand for jewellery throughout the year through launches of new jewellery
collections, a range of exchange programs and other offers (such as our recently concluded
Impure to Pure exchange offer) and a number of in-store events. As a result of these
efforts, even while the market for jewellery declined by more than 15% last year, Tanishq
grew by 40% for the third successive year. Amongst the most recent initiatives of Tanishq
has been the targeting of the wedding market by making special offers on wedding
jewellery. This promotional scheme has had the masses thronging in, in very large numbers.
It also got the 4th Annual Lycra Images Fashion Awards in the Jewellery category.
Discounts
Discounts play a major role in determining the demand for a product. Tanishq periodically
offers discounts. In 2002 it offered a vast gamut of discounts in its showrooms in Bihar
during the festival of Dhanteras resulting in sales of 5 crore in one particular store.
During its fifth anniversary celebrations Tanishq offered discounts to customers, and the
response was so overwhelming that extra security was called to handle the crowd even
before the store opened. At select points of time in the year Tanishq also offers 20%-40%
discount on making charges, which is also a large crowd puller. Contd...

Notes Guarantee
Tanishq has managed to establish its position in the market because its quality products
are backed by a guarantee certificate. Each item of jewellery that is sold is accompanied by
a guarantee card that states the weight of the gold/platinum as well as the cartage of the
gemstones used. In case of any discrepancy the company is liable for legal action. All
diamonds used are VVS certified, and the platinum is passed by the official Platinum
Authority of India. 100% purity backed by an ironclad guarantee is thus the hallmark of
Tanishq jewellery. This is a major demand inducer as the traditional jewelers are
increasingly fudging on such things.
Question
Analyse the role of other factors (other than price of products) in influencing the demand
for Tanshiq's products.
2.1.3 Direct and Derived Demand
You must have noticed that our demand for basic necessities, like demand for food, clothing and
shelter, is independent of demand for any other good. On the other hand, demand for labour is
dependent on our demand for houses or products and demand for mobile phones depend on our
demand for communication with each other. The goods whose demand does not depend on the
demand for some other goods are said to have a direct demand, while the rest have derived
demand. However, there is hardly anything whose demand is totally independent of any other
demand. But the degree of this dependence varies widely from product to product. Thus, the
direct and derived demand varies in degree more than in kind.
Notes Transportation as a Derived Demand
In economic systems what takes place in one sector has impacts on another; demand for a
good or service in one sector is derived from another. For instance, a consumer buying a
good in a store will likely trigger the replacement of this product, which will generate
demands for activities such as manufacturing, resource extraction and, of course, transport.
What is different about transport is that it cannot exist alone and a movement cannot be
stored. An unsold product can remain on the shelf of a store until a customer buys it (often
with discount incentives), but an unsold seat on a flight or unused cargo capacity in the
same flight remain unsold and cannot be brought back as additional capacity later. In this
case an opportunity has been missed since the amount of transport being offered has
exceeded the demand for it. The derived demand of transportation is often very difficult to
reconcile with an equivalent supply and actually transport companies would prefer to
have some additional capacity to accommodate unforeseen demand (often at much higher
prices). There are two major types of derived transport demand:
Direct derived demand: This refers to movements that are directly the outcome of economic
activities, without which they would not take place. For instance, work-related activities
commonly involve commuting between the place of residence and the workplace. There
is a supply of work in one location (residence) and a demand of labor in another (workplace),
transportation (commuting) being directly derived from this relationship. For freight
transportation, all the components of a supply chain require movements of raw materials,
parts and finished products on modes such as trucks, rail or containerships. Thus,
transportation is directly the outcome of the functions of production and consumption.
Indirect derived demand: Considers movements created by the requirements of other
movements. The most obvious example is energy where fuel consumption from transportation
Contd...

Notes
activities must be supplied by an energy production system requiring movements from zones
of extraction, to refineries and storage facilities and, finally, to places of consumption.
Warehousing can also be labeled as an indirect derived demand since it is a non-movement of
a freight element. Warehousing exists because it is virtually impossible to move commodities
instantly from where they are produced to where they are consumed.
Transportation can also be perceived as an induced (or latent) demand which represents a
demand response to a reduction in the price of a commodity. This is particularly the case
in the context where the addition of transport infrastructures results in traffic increases
due to higher levels of accessibility. Roadway congestion is partially the outcome of
induced transport demand as additional road capacity results in mode shifts, route shifts,
redistribution of trips, generation of new trips, and land use changes that create new trips
as well as longer trips. However, the induced demand process does not always take place.
For instance, additional terminal capacity does not necessarily guarantee additional traffic
as freight forwarders are free to select terminals they transit their traffic through, such as
it is the case for maritime shipping.
Source: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch1en/conc1en/deriveddemand.html
2.1.4 Law of Demand
The Law of demand explains the functional relationship between price of a commodity and the
quantity demanded of the commodity. It is observed that the price and the demand are inversely
related which means that the two move in the opposite direction. An increase in the price leads
to a fall in quantity demanded and vice versa. This relationship can be stated as “Other things
being equal, the demand for a commodity varies inversely as the price”.
Example: Ram is demanding a motorbike manufactured by Company A. Now, if
Company A increases the price of the bike substantially, say by 10% , then Ram might change his
mind and decide to buy motorbike from company B whose price is lesser or he might postpone
his demand altogether.
A demand curve considers only the price-demand relation, other factors remaining the same.
The inverse relationship between the price and the quantity demanded for the commodity per
time period is the demand schedule for the commodity and the plot of the data (with price on the
vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis) gives the demand curve of the individual.
Example:
An Individual’s Demand Schedule for Commodity X
Price x (per Unit) Px Quantity of x demanded (in Units) Dx
2.0 1.0
1.5 2.0
1.0 3.0
0.5 4.5

Notes
Price
of
x
Demand of x
Demand Curve
The Demand curve is negatively sloped, indicating that the individual purchases more of the
commodity per time period at lower prices (other factors being constant).
The inverse relationship between the price of the commodity and the quantity demanded per
time period is referred to as the Law of Demand.
A fall in Px
leads to an increase in Dx
(so that the slope is negative) because of the substitution
effect and income effect.
The first reason for the validity of downward sloping demand curve is that the lower prices
bring in new buyers. Secondary, when the price of a commodity declines, the real income or
purchasing power of the consumers increases which induced them to buy of this commodity.
This is known as the income effect. Thirdly, when the price of a commodity falls while prices of
all other goods remain constant, the commodity becomes relatively cheaper. This induces the
consumers to substitute this commodity in place of other commodities which have been relatively
dearer. This is known as substitution effect.
Task Do you come across instances where you see that law of demand is not
being followed? Quote such instances.
Caselet Cardamom Prices Drop on Low Demand
C
ardamom prices declined in the last week of January 2011, on bearish sentiments
resulting from reports of increased availability at auctions.
“It might have dropped on correction after ruling at moderately higher levels. An
artificially created over supply situation also aided the price decline,” dealers in
Bodinayakannur said.
Upcountry demand was low as nobody was interested to buy from the declining market,
Mr P.C. Punnoose, General Manager, CPMC, told Business Line.
Contd...

Notes
The average price at the individual auctions dropped to 1,220 from 1,282 over the last
week of January 2011 at the KCPMC auction, he said.
Severe cold wave conditions in the north Indian states coupled with unconfirmed reports
of arrival of Guatemalan cardamom in the upcountry markets led to a slow down in
buying activities.
The market will improve from the first week of February, 2011 as the wedding season in
north India is to begin, traders said. At the same time, arrivals also declined to about one-
third of it during the peak time of the season. Besides, the quality of material arriving at
the market is also inferior which the trade attributed to holding back by growers hoping
the prices would move up in the coming days, they said.
Source: www.thehindubusinessline.com
2.2 Summary
In economics demand has a specific meaning. Demand for any commodity implies: desire
to acquire it, willingness to pay for it, ability to pay for it and at a particular time.
Demand depends on not only the price of a commodity, but also income, price of related
goods – both substitutes and complements – taste of consumer, price expectation and all
other factors.
According to Law of Demand, there is an inverse relationship between the price of a
commodity and the quantity demanded (other things remaining equal)
2.3 Keywords
Demand Function: A comprehensive formulation which specifies the factors that influence the
demand for the product
Demand: The quantity of the commodity which an individual is willing to purchase per unit of
price at a particular time.
Derived Demand: Goods whose demand is tied with the demand for some other goods
Direct Demand: Goods whose demand is not tied with the demand for some other goods
2.4 Self Assessment
(a) Demand of petrol is direct demand.
(b) Demand is just a want or desire to purchase a product or a service.
(c) Demand for labour is always a derived demand.
(d) When price of tea goes up, then the demand for coffee is likely to go up as well.
(e) When the price of X brand of soap went up, people began buying Z brand of soap.
This happened due to the substitution effect.
(f) When the price of bread goes up, the demand for butter usually goes up.
(a) Usually, income of the individuals and demand have a ……………. relationship.
(b) Demand for machinery in industries is a ………………demand.

Notes (c) Shoes and socks are ………………goods.
(d) The most basic source of demand is……………of the individuals.
(e) The shape of the demand curve is………………sloping.
1. Define ‘demand’. Discuss different types of demand.
2. Explain the law of demand. Discuss some practical applications of law of demand.
3. Distinguish between direct and derived demand with help of suitable examples.
4. Examine the impact of increase in prices of a good on its:
(a) Substitutes
(b) Complements
5. Demand for everything in this world is a derived demand. Discuss
6. It is generally believed that when fares of airlines go up, the demand for railway travel
also goes up? Does this seem logical to you?
7. Explain the downward sloping shape of demand curve.
8. It was noticed that even though the price of salt went up, there was no fall in demand. Can
you explain, why?
9. Explain the income effect and substitution effect with help of suitable examples.
10. Draw a demand curve based on following data- Number of units demanded of X: 35, 46, 67,
89, 90 and 120 and respective prices: 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 and 65.
Answers: Self Assessment
1. (a) False (b) False (c) True (d) True
(e) True (f) False
2. (a) Positive (b) Derived (c) Complementary (d) Need
(e) Downward
Haynes, Mote and Paul, Managerial Economics–Analysis and Cases, Vakils. Fellner
Malcolm P. McNair and Richard S. Meriam,Problems in Business Economics, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc.

Notes
Online links http://www.netmba.com/econ/micro/supply-demand/
http://www.basiceconomics.info/supply-and-demand.php
http://ingrimayne.com/econ/DemandSupply/OverviewSD.html
http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/as-markets-equilibrium-
price.html

Notes Unit 3: Market Supply and Equilibrium
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
3.1 Market Supply
3.2 Market Equilibrium
3.3 Summary
3.4 Keywords
3.5 Self Assessment
Objectives
State the law of supply
Explain how market equilibrium is reached
Introduction
It is true that economy runs on demand but that demand has to be fulfilled with corresponding
supply as well. Say, if there is a huge demand for mobile phones in an economy, there has to be
corresponding supply to fulfill that demand.
If adequate supply is not there, then the demand would not be fulfilled.
Example: You are willing to buy a tennis ball, but the shopkeepers tell you that there are
no balls available in the market due to short supply.
We all do face such situations, many a times.
3.1 Market Supply
Supply is the specific quantity of output that the producers are willing and able to make available
to consumers at a particular price over a given period of time. In one sense, supply is the mirror
image of demand. Individuals’ supply of the factors of production or inputs to market mirrors
other individuals’ demand for these factors. For example, if we want to rest instead of weeding
the garden, we hire someone: we demand labour. For a large number of goods, however, the
supply process is more complicated than demand.
Supply is not simply the number of a commodity a shopkeeper has on the shelf, such as
’10 oranges’ or ’10 packet of chips’, because supply represents the entire relationship between

Notes
the quantity available for sale and all possible prices charged for that good. The specific quantity
desired to sell of a good at a given price is known as the quantity supplied. Typically a time
period is also given when describing quantity supplied. For example, when the price of an
umbrella is 100, the quantity supplied is 500 umbrellas a week.
The supply of produced goods (tangibles) is usually indirect and the supply of non-produced
goods (intangibles) is more direct. Individuals supply their labour in the form of services
directly to the goods market. For example, an independent contractor may repair a washing
machine. The contractor supplies his labour directly.
Law of Supply
According to the Law of Supply, other things remaining constant, higher the price of a commodity,
higher will be the quantity supplied and vice versa. There is a positive relationship between
supply and price of a commodity.
As in the case of quantity demanded, price is the major determinant of quantity supplied. In
graphical terms supply refers to the entire supply curve because a supply curve tells us how
much of a commodity will be offered for sale at various prices. Quantity supplied refers to a
point on a supply curve. In case, the price of a good rises, individuals and firms can rearrange
their activities in order to supply more of that good to the market, substituting production of
that good for production of other goods.
With the firms, there is another explanation. Assuming firm’s costs are constant, higher price
means higher profits (the difference between a firm’s revenues and its costs). The expectation of
those higher profits leads it to increase output as price rises, which is what the law of supply
states.
Figure 3.1 depicts a supply curve, which is based on law of supply.
Figure 3.1: Supply Curve
The law of supply also assumes that other things are held constant. Other variables, like price of
inputs used in production, technology, producers’ expectations and number of producers in the
market, might change, causing a shift in supply. This will be discussed in the next section.
A supply schedule is a table which lists the possible prices for a good and service and the
corresponding quantity supplied.
Market supply is the summation of all individual supplies at a given price. The market supply
curve is the horizontal sum of the individual supply curve.
Price
of
X
(in
)

Notes
Example: From a supply schedule to a supply curve.
Let’s see how a supply curve is drawn on the basis of figures given in the supply schedule.
Supply Schedule
Price of X (in ) Quantity Supplied of X (in units)
10 200
20 250
30 300
40 350
50 400
From Supply Schedule to Supply Curve
Task Consider a hypothetical supply schedule for potatoes and draw a supply
curve for potatoes.

Notes
Caselet Nutmeg, Mace Prices Shoot up Amid Supply Crunch
The prices of nutmeg and mace have shot up in the Indian and international markets this
year due to a supply crunch following a fall in output in the major producing country,
Indonesia.
Though India is one of the major producers of this spice, production has not matched
demand, trade sources said.
The price of Indian mace in the domestic market ranges between 1,300 and 1,800 a kg
depending upon the colour, while that of the imported variety is 1,400-1,450 a kg for red.
Nutmeg with the shell was fetching 350 a kg while that without shell was sold at around
600 a kg, they said.
The area under the crop went up to 16,400 hectares in 2008-09 from 11,270 hectares in 2005-
06, but the output has not kept pace with the growing demand, they said.
Total production in the country is estimated at around 13,000 tonnes of nutmeg, including
the shell. Once the shell weight is reduced, the net weight of the nutmeg comes down to
9,100 tonnes, while the weight of the mace is only 10 per cent of the nutmeg i.e. around 910
tonnes as against the demand of over 2,000 tonnes in the country, they said.
Meanwhile, the requirement of nutmeg has ranged between 13,000 tonnes (without shell)
and 15,000 tonnes of late given its growing use in indigenous medicines/drugs, cosmetics
and in various food products.
Changes in food habits following a change in lifestyles has been responsible for the rise in
demand for many such commodities.
The annual growth in demand for nutmeg and mace is estimated at 5 to 10 per cent of late,
they said. Whereas the production (without shells) was around 8,000 tonnes in 2008-09,
with shell was at 11,362 tonnes from 16,400 hectares. The weight of the shell comes to
around 30 per cent, while that of mace is 10 per cent, they said.
It is grown in the mid-lands of Kerala, especially on the banks of rivers, as it requires a
deep, well-drained loamy sandy soil. Shade is required for the first two to three years. The
optimal growing temperature is between 20-30°C and the annual rainfall should be between
1,500-2,500mm, Spices Board sources said.
Kerala topped in area and production (13,494 ha/11,361 tonnes) of nutmeg and mace
followed by Karnataka (136 ha/1,997 tonnes) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (79 ha/4
tonnes) in 2006-07 according to the Board.
Half the trees are male and do not produce fruit. Unfortunately, the sex of the plants
cannot be determined until they are six to eight years old. However, budded plants which
are able to bear fruits, are made available by the nurseries run by the Universities/
Agricultural departments at a price, they said.
The principal import markets are the European Community, the US, Japan and India.
Singapore and the Netherlands are the major re-exporters.
The US is the biggest individual market for whole nutmegs. US importers prefer the East
Indian type of deep brown, aromatic nutmeg and orange-red mace in their whole form.
Contd...

Notes As the Indian production is below the demand, the country continues the import of both
nutmeg and mace. Much of the imports are by the oleoresin industry, they said. During
2008-09, India imported 1,325 tonnes of nutmeg valid at 25.37 crore and 265 tonnes of
mace worth 8.46 crore, they said. At the same time, the country has exported an estimated
3,275 tonnes of nutmeg and mace worth 91.87 crore. A good chunk of the Indian exports
of this commodity is value-added items such as oleoresins, oil and in powdered form,
they said.
Nutmeg and mace, their oleoresins and essential oils are used in the food and beverage
industries. Although whole nutmeg is available, ground nutmeg is more popular. The
ground form is mainly used in the food processing industry, extraction industry sources
said.
Nutmeg is a standard seasoning in many Dutch dishes. Nutmeg and its oleoresin are used
in the preparation of meat products, soups, sauces, baked foods, confectioneries, puddings,
seasoning of meat and vegetables, to flavour milk dishes and punches. The fleshy outer
cover of the fruit is crystallised or pickled or made into jellies, they said.
Mace is sold either whole or as ground spice and is used in savoury dishes. It is used to
flavour milk-based sauces and processed meats such as sausages. Soups, pickles and ketchup,
pickles and chutneys are also seasoned with mace. Because of its aroma, the essential oil is
used as a natural flavouring extract and is employed for flavouring food products and
liquors. Nutmeg oil and mace oil are used mainly in flavouring soft drinks, canned foods
and meat products.
Nutmeg oil is used in cosmetics, men's perfume and toiletries due to its aromatic properties.
Mace oil possesses almost identical physico-chemical and organoleptic properties as
nutmeg oil. Mace oil is also used to a limited extent in perfumes and soaps. They are used
in the pharmaceutical industries also, industry sources told Business Line.
Nutmeg is produced in the tropical areas of Indonesia and the West Indies. The world
production of nutmeg is about 25,000 tonnes a year. The global demand is also estimated
at around this level, they said.
The production of mace is about 3,000 tonnes. Indonesia and Grenada dominate production
and export both products with a world market share of 75 per cent and 20 per cent
respectively. The other producing countries include India, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea,
Sri Lanka and a few Caribbean islands.
3.2 Market Equilibrium
Price is determined in a free market by the interaction of supply and demand. We can underline
three dynamic laws of supply and demand.
1. When quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied, prices tend to rise; when
quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, prices tend to fall.
2. In a market, larger the difference between quantity supplied and quantity demanded, the
greater the pressure on prices to rise (if there is excess demand) or fall (if there is excess
supply).
3. When quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, prices have no tendency to change.
Price theory answers the question of interaction of demand and supply to determine price in a
competitive market. Let’s see an example, give in Table 3.1.

Notes
Table 3.1: Market Supply and Demand for Commodity X
Price of
Commodity
Total Quantity
Supplied per Month
Total Quantity
Demanded per Month
Surplus or Shortage
5 12,000 2,000 +10,000
4 10,000 4,000 +6,000
3 7,000 7,000 0
2 4,000 11,000 –7,000
1 1,000 16,000 –15,000
At a price of 3 units, and only at this price, the quantity which producers are willing to produce
and supply is identical to the amount consumers are willing to buy. As a result, there is neither
a shortage nor a surplus of commodity X at this price. A surplus causes prices to decline and a
shortage causes prices to rise. With neither shortage nor surplus at 3 units, there is no reason for
the actual price of commodity X to move away from this price. This price is called the equilibrium
price. Equilibrium represents a situation from where there is no tendency to change. It is a state of
balance. Stated differently, the price of X will be established where the supply decisions of
producers and demand decisions of buyers are mutually consistent.
Interaction of demand and supply to reach equilibrium is shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Equilibrium Point
e
Graphically, the interaction of supply and demand curves will indicate the equilibrium
point (E).
If market price is OP1
, the quantity demanded by consumers is OQ1
, while the quantity which
producers wish to supply is OQ2
. There is thus a surplus of Q1
Q2
at this price. It is well known that
a surplus leads to a downward pressure on price and so market price will fall. At the lower price
of OP2
, the quantity supplied is OQ1
, while the quantity demanded is OQ2
. There is, therefore, a
shortage at this price, represented by Q1
Q2
. This shortage tends to put an upward pressure on
price and market price is expected to rise.
There is only one price, at which the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity demanded, there
is no surplus or shortage, no rise or fall of price – OPe
. It is thus referred to as the equilibrium
position.

Notes Price Ceiling and Price Floors
A price ceiling occurs when the price is artificially held below the equilibrium price and is not
allowed to rise. There are many examples of price ceilings. Most price ceilings involve the
government in some way.
Example: In many cities, there are rent controls. This means that the maximum rent that
can be charged is set by a governmental agency. This rent is usually allowed to rise a certain
percent each year to keep up with inflation. However, the rent is below the equilibrium rent.
If the price ceiling is above the market price, then there is no direct effect. If the price ceiling is
set below the market price, then a “shortage” is created; the quantity demanded will exceed the
quantity supplied. The shortage may be resolved in many ways. One way is “queuing”; people
have to wait in line for the product, and only those willing to wait in line for the product will
actually get it. Sellers might provide the product only to family and friends, or those willing to
pay extra “under the table”. Another effect may be that sellers will lower the quality of the good
sold. “Black markets” tend to be created by price ceilings.
Figure 3.3 depicts the effect of price ceiling and price floor.
Figure 3.3: Price Ceiling and Price Floor
A price floor exists when the price is artificially held above the equilibrium price and is not
allowed to fall. There are many examples of price floors. In some cases, private businesses
maintain the price floor while, in other cases, it is the government that maintains the price floor.
One price floor that was maintained by the private businesses used to be called “fair trade”. In
the case of fair trade, the manufacturer would set a price for the product that was above the
equilibrium price. The manufacturer then told the retail stores that the price could not be
lowered or the store would not be able to sell any of the manufacturer’s products.
When a “price floor” is set, a certain minimum amount must be paid for a good or service. If the
price floor is below a market price, no direct effect occurs. If the market price is lower than the
price floor, then a surplus will be generated. Minimum wage laws are good examples of price
floors.
Task Give examples from real life situations, where a price ceiling or price floor
has been imposed.

Notes
Case Study Demand - Supply and Price of Gold
L
ast month saw more housewives in the jewellery shops than in any month in the
past. There were no big festivals, neither too many marriages. What attracted them
was the fall in the price of gold. That was so the world over.
Gold prices have been falling for nearly a decade now. Last week they had drifted to their
lowest in the past 18 years. The highest price in the world market was reached in 1980
when it touched $850 an ounce, almost three times the present price. Indian buyers did not
experience the full impact because of the restrictions on import of gold. These have been
significantly eliminated and the price behaviour in the domestic market now conforms to
the international price.
The fall in the price of gold has more to do with the change in demand. Gold has many
uses, Jewellery is only of them. It is an industrial metal, a form of saving for the rainy day
and an international reserve asset for most central banks. The lure of gold for ornaments
remains almost in tact. But as a form of saving or as reserve for the central banks, gold is
no longer attractive. It is precisely this loss in trust that has caused the fall in the price of
gold.
Gold has become a bad investment. Anyone would weigh an asset in terms of the return
it earns, the security it gives and the ready market it enjoys. The last is the best with gold.
But with the price going down; investment in gold makes no sense. An investment of
1,000 in gold in India in 1990 would have fetched today 1,120. That gives a yield of less
than 3 per cent. Not worth the game.
The same investment in equity would have matured into 1,900 and in bank deposit
2,200. Gold is no longer a viable investment though the housewife may still buy gold
partly for display and partly from ignorance about the alternative opportunities.
The penchant for jewellery is much more in India and West Asia than in most other
countries. The world demand for jewellery was 2,807 tonnes last year. Gold that was
actually mined was only 1,350 tonnes. The balance came from sales by the central banks.
The bankers are hard-nosed fellows and the new generation bankers even more so. For
their predecessors gold meant total security. That was not without reasons.
Countries had adopted gold standard and issue of currency had to have commensurate
gold backing. The system had continued till the beginning of this century and in a modified
form, even later. The final link with gold was given up in 1972, after the oil crisis, when the
dollar ceased to be convertible into gold. But the gold hangover continued until the new
generation bankers looked at gold only as an income generating asset. It had ceased to be
one.
Over the years, the central banks had piled up huge reserves of gold. These currently
exceed 37,000 tonnes – equivalent to 12 years' supply. When part of this gold began to
come to the market, prices crashed. Netherlands possibly took the lead to empty the
central bank coffers of gold. It sold 300 tonnes in four instalments to cut down its gold
reserves by a fifth. The big shock came when Australia slashed its reserves by two-thirds.
It was a shock because Australia is a major producer of gold.
Argentina came out even more boldly and sold out its entire gold reserve of 124 tonnes
for about $1.5 billion. Had it continued with gold, the central bank would have lost
$1.5 million for every one per cent fall in the price of gold. With the shift from gold to US
treasury bonds which are rated even higher than AAA the central bank would, instead, be
earning an income of $80 a year.
Contd...

Notes The real gold hoarders are the Swiss bankers. They are conservative and gold is the most
prized asset for them. However, last October, a panel of experts suggested that the banks
sell out a half of their reserves in gold. The report of the panel created big waves. The fear
that the central banks will unload their stocks of gold caused panic. Gold prices crashed.
The fall was the highest in any single day.
It is not just the mismatch between demand and supply that forced prices to drop so
sharply. Gold is a favourite with speculators. Even banks have been indulging in this
lucrative activity. Quite a few American banks sold gold short in anticipation of the fall in
price and earned a good packet. Speculation has made prices more volatile than what they
would have been. Considering the oversupply position, it is the bears that hold the sway.
Will gold prices recover? If they do gold would be a good investment. But they won't. The
demand for gold will now be almost exclusively for jewellery and, to a minor extent, for
industrial use. Even that demand is dwindling because gold does not have a good resale
value and has nearly ceased to be a status symbol for the rich. When most people understand
this the demand for gold, even for jewellery, purposes will shrink.
For the present, it may freeze at around 2,500 tonnes. There is no demand at all from the
bankers for reserves or for investment. The supply will be from the mines from which
2,300 tonnes are dug out every year. On top of that there will be sale by the central banks.
Even if 2 per cent of the world reserves are disposed off, nearly 700 tonnes of additional
supply will enter the market. Again a mismatch between demand and supply is likely
which will prevent prices from firming up.
Gold has little future. By and by even its use for ornaments will die out. A bad investment
and no longer kept for reserve, gold will be on par with other metals. The switch will be
from gold to US treasury bonds for the banks and from gold to equity for the general
public. In India, gold will survive a little longer until the public is acquainted with alternative
investment opportunities. Eventually, gold is bound to lose its lustre.
Table 1: World Gold Supply and Demand
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Mine
production
1908 2063 2133 2159 2234 2287 2278 2273 2257 2464
Official sector
sales
- 434 198 111 622 464 81 173 275 406
Old gold
Scrap
394 393 530 480 487 574 615 623 640 611
Gold Loans 164 78 5 - - - - - -
Forward sales 126 115 222 96 156 215 158 466 30 329
Option
hedging
63 - 7 15 103 - 57 92 101 18
Implied
disinvestment
91 2 - 304 - - 173 - 108 260
Total supply
fabrication
2746 3085 3095 3166 3602 3541 3362 3627 3510 4254
Jewellery 1645 2039 2188 2358 2760 2553 2615 2790 2837 3328
Electronics 207 209 216 205 176 180 191 206 211 237
Official coil
(sales)
130 141 123 143 93 117 80 84 63 99
Others 147 152 156 162 178 187 194 210 212 226
Total
fabrication
2130 2541 2683 2868 3208 3037 3079 3280 3322 3890
Bar Hoarding 461 530 224 252 282 162 231 306 182 337
Official sector
purchases
155 - - - - - - - -
Gold loans - - - 45 85 65 52 23 5
Forward sales - - - - - - - - -
Option - 15 - - - 35 - - -
Contd...

Notes
hedging
Implied
disinvestment
91 2 - 304 - - 173 - 108 260
Total supply
fabrication
2746 3085 3095 3166 3602 3541 3362 3627 3510 4254
Jewellery 1645 2039 2188 2358 2760 2553 2615 2790 2837 3328
Electronics 207 209 216 205 176 180 191 206 211 237
Official coil
(sales)
130 141 123 143 93 117 80 84 63 99
Others 147 152 156 162 178 187 194 210 212 226
Total
fabrication
2130 2541 2683 2868 3208 3037 3079 3280 3322 3890
Bar Hoarding 461 530 224 252 282 162 231 306 182 337
Official sector
purchases
155 - - - - - - - -
Gold loans - - - 45 85 65 52 23 5
Forward sales - - - - - - - - -
Option
hedging
- 15 - - - 35 - - -
Implied
investment
- - 188 - 27 242 - 17 -
Total demand 2746 3085 3095 3166 3602 3541 3362 3627 3510 4254
Gold Price
(PM fix,$/oz)
436.87 380.79 383.59 362.26 343.95 359.82 384.15 384.05 387.87
Question
Analyse the effect of demand and supply on the price of gold with the help of demand
supply curves.
3.3 Summary
Supply is the specific quantity of output that the producers are willing and able to make
available to consumers at a particular price over a given period of time.
According to the Law of Supply, more of a good will be supplied the higher its price, other
things constant or less of a good will be supplied the lower its price, other things remaining
constant.
Price is determined by the two forces of demand and supply, in a free market. A point of
balance, where demand equals supply is known as market equilibrium.
3.4 Keywords
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
Law of Supply: More of a good will be supplied the higher its price and vice-versa
Supply: Willingness and ability to produce a specific quantity of output available to consumers
at a particular price over a given period of time.
3.5 Self Assessment
(a) Supply is a positive function of price.
(b) A trader has 10 bags of cement in his store. This represents supply of cement.
(c) A supply schedule is a table that represents the various amounts of goods available
for supply at various prices.

Notes (d) When quantity demanded is more than quantity supplied, the prices tend to fall.
(e) Price floor can be imposed by anyone in the market.
(a) As per law of supply, more goods will be supplied at ............................. price.
(b) The supply curve is ............................. sloping.
(c) There is only one possible price at which quantity supplied is …………. quantity
demanded
(d) In price ceiling, price is purposely held………………..the equilibrium price.
(e) If the market price is lower than the price floor, then ………….. is generated.
(f) ……………. is a position at which there is no surplus or shortage in the economy.
1. Using demand and supply analysis explain why the government might wish to control
the price of rice below the market equilibrium price?
2. Using the supply analysis, describe the recent increase in food items worldwide.
3. Over time, the demand for wheat has shifted to the right. Why, do you think, it has
occurred?
4. Analyse the impact of taxes and subsidies on the supply of cigarette and LPG
5. Assume yourself as a manager of any FMCG firm. In what ways supply analysis is important
for you?
6. Consider the following simplified demand-supply functions
Demand: Q = 200 – 2P
Supply: Q = 20 + 4P
What are the equilibrium price and quantity sold? ( Hint: Just equate demand and supply
equations)
7. Given the data below showing the demand and supply of X in a given market:
Price at X per ton ( ) 1 2 3 4 5
Demand at X per period ( ) 25 16 12 10 9
Supply at X per period (Tons) 3 3 12 14 29
(a) What would be the free market price of X?
(b) What would be the price if demand increased by 4 tons at every price?
(c) What would be the effect of a government’s imposing of a minimum price of 5 per
ton in the original situation?
8. Discuss the concepts of price ceiling and price floor with examples.

Notes
1. (a) True (b) False (c) True (d) False
(e) False
2. (a) Higher (b) Upward (c) Equal to (d) Below
(e) Equilibrium (f) equilibrium
Haynes, Mote and Paul, Managerial Economics–Analysis and Cases, Vakils. Fellner
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Online links http://www.netmba.com/econ/micro/supply-demand/
http://www.basiceconomics.info/supply-and-demand.php
http://ingrimayne.com/econ/DemandSupply/OverviewSD.html
http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/as-markets-equilibrium-
price.html

Notes Unit 4: Consumer Behaviour (Utility Analysis)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Cardinal and Ordinal Utility
4.1.1 Marginal Utility Analysis
4.1.2 The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility: Marshillian Approach
4.2 Law of Equi-marginal Utility
4.3 Indifference Curves and its Properties
4.3.1 Assumptions
4.3.2 Properties of Indifference Curve
4.3.3 Budget Line
4.4 Consumer's Equilibrium with Cardinal Approach
4.5 The Consumer's Equilibrium with Ordinal Approach
4.5.1 Changes in Price
4.5.2 PCC and Demand Curve
4.5.3 Income of the Consumer
4.5.4 Price of Related Goods
4.6 Consumer Surplus
4.7 Summary
4.8 Keywords
4.9 Self Assessment
Objectives
Discuss the concepts of cardinal and ordinal utility
State the concepts of equi marginal utility
Analyse the indifference curve
Explain the concept of consumer equilibrium and consumer surplus

Notes
Introduction
In economic theory, consumer behavior addresses the concepts of consumer preference and
consumer surplus. Consumer surplus is the extra amount a consumer is willing to pay for a
good, but he actually paid less for the good. A consumers' surplus can exist only within the
context of the concept of diminishing marginal utility. This concept holds that, at some point,
consumption of additional incremental quantities of a good will yield successively smaller
increases in utility. Thus, it is assumed that an individual will be willing to pay more for the first
unit of consumption than for a unit consumed at some point further along.
Notes Utility Analysis
The decision of a consumer depends upon the concept of individual benefit, also known as
utility. If consumer gets more benefit from the product he will ready to spend more on the
product and the vice-versa. Consumers are able to order their preference depending on
the utility they get from the consumption of the particular product. Utility can be difficult
to measure. No consumer is able to measure the utility in quantitative terms. But he can
order his preference according to the satisfaction from the consumption goods. Thus,
there are two class of thoughts about the measurement of utility. One states that utility can
be measured in numbers or monetary terms, another says that satisfaction utility derived
from the consumption of goods can only be ordered. These two distinctions are called
cardinal utility and ordinal utility.
4.1 Cardinal and Ordinal Utility
Utility is an economic term referring to the total satisfaction received from consuming a good or
service. For example, satisfaction you get by consuming a cup of tea is the utility of that cup of
tea. If this measure is given, one may think of increasing or decreasing utility, and thereby
explain economic behavior in terms of attempts to increase one’s utility. Changes in utility are
sometimes expressed in fictional units called utils. There are mainly two kinds of measurement
of utility implemented by economists: cardinal utility and ordinal utility.
Utility was originally viewed as a measurable quantity, so that it would be possible to measure
the utility of each individual in the society with respect to each good available in the society, and
to add these together to yield the total utility of all people with respect to all goods in the
society. Society could then aim to maximise the total utility of all people in society, or equivalently
the average utility per person. This conception of utility as a measurable quantity that could be
aggregated (summed up) across individuals is called cardinal utility.
Cardinal utility quantitatively measures the preference of an individual towards a certain
commodity. Numbers assigned to different goods or services can be compared.
Example: For a coffee addict, a utility of 100 utils towards a cup of cappuccino is twice as
desirable as a cup of tea with a utility level of 50 utils.
The concept of cardinal utility suffers from the absence of an objective measure of utility.
For example, the utility gained from consumption of a particular good by ‘A’ will be different
than ‘B’.
Ordinal utility represents the utility, or satisfaction derived from the consumption of goods and
services, based on a relative ranking of the goods and services consumed. With ordinal utility,
goods are only ranked only in terms of more or less preferred, there is no attempt to determine
how much more one good is preferred to another.

Notes
Example: You may prefer to consume or buy more apples than bananas while your
friend may prefer to consume or buy more bananas than apple.
The modern economists have discarded the concept of cardinal utility and have instead employed
the concept of ordinal utility for analysing consumer behaviour. The concept of ordinal utility
is based on the fact that it may not be possible for consumers to express the utility of a commodity
in absolute terms but it is always possible for a consumer to tell introspectively whether a
commodity is more or less or equally useful as compared to another.
Example: A consumer may not be able to tell that an ice cream gives 5 utils and a
chocolate gives 2 utils. But he or she can always tell whether chocolate gives more or less utility
than ice cream.
This assumption forms the basis of the ordinal theory of consumer behaviour. Ordinal utility is
the underlying assumption used in the analysis of indifference curves.
4.1.1 Marginal Utility Analysis
Marginal utility is an additional utility obtained from the consumption or use of an additional
unit of a good. It can be put in other words as the change in total utility divided by the change in
quantity. Marginal utility indicates an extra satisfaction from consuming an extra unit. Marginal
utility needs to be contrasted with the related term total utility. Marginal utility is the additional
amount of satisfaction obtained from consuming one additional unit of a good. Total utility is
the overall amount of satisfaction obtained from consuming several units of a good. While the
maximization of total utility represents the ultimate goal of consumption, the analysis of
consumer behaviour gives greater emphasis on the marginal utility.
As consumer proceeds with his consumption total utility increases as more of a good is consumed,
but the marginal utility decreases with the consumption of each additional unit. The decrease in
marginal utility with an increase in the consumption of a good reflects law of diminishing
marginal utility.
4.1.2 The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility: Marshillian Approach
Marginal utility refers to the change in satisfaction which results when a little more or little less
of that good is consumed.
The law of diminishing marginal utility says that with the increase in the consumption of a
good there is a decrease in the marginal utility that person derives from consuming each additional
unit of that product.
Assumptions
The basic propositions of this traditional approach are
1. Cardinal measure of utility: Utility is a measurable and quantifiable concept. A person
can specify that he gets five units of utility by consuming one unit of good A etc. Utility is
an imaginary unit of measuring utility.
2. Independent utilities: Utility is additive; the utilities derived from different independent
goods can be added to get the measure of total utility.
3. Constant marginal utility of money: The marginal utility of money remains constant for a
particular consumer when he spends money on various goods. All other commodities except
money are subject to the law of diminishing marginal utility.

Notes
The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility can be put in other way as total utility increases
more and more slowly as the quantity consumed increases. With every additional increase in
the consumption the total utility increases but at decreasing rate. It is happens due to the
underlying decrease of marginal utility. The value of total utility also declines and it starts
declining when the value of marginal utility gets negative. Let us explain it with an example.
Example: When a thirsty person takes five bottles of cold drink continuously, the
consumption of first bottle gives him utility, second bottle gives him lesser utility than first but
his total utility increases. Third bottle gives him still less utility but increases total utility. The
utility from fourth bottle may be zero as he is no more thirsty. But the fifth bottle may cause
uneasiness and thus give negative utility, i.e., the total utility may now actually go down.
Task Do you think there are exceptions to the law of diminishing marginal utility?
Explain your opinion with the help of examples.
Table 4.1
Figure 4.1
According to the law of diminishing marginal utility when a person consumes more and more
units of a good his total utility increases while the extra utility derived from consuming successive
units of the good diminishes. The total utility reaches a maximum value when marginal utility
approaches zero and then total utility starts declining.

Notes 4.2 Law of Equi-marginal Utility
The Law of Equi-Marginal Utility is an extension to the law of diminishing marginal utility. The
principle of equi-marginal utility explains the behavior of a consumer in distributing his limited
income among various goods and services. This law states that how a consumer allocates his
money income between various goods so as to obtain maximum satisfaction.
Assumptions
The principle of equi-marginal utility is based on the following assumptions:
1. The wants of a consumer remain unchanged.
2. He has a fixed income.
3. The prices of all goods are given and known to a consumer.
4. He is one of the many buyers in the sense that he is powerless to alter the market price.
5. He can spend his income in small amounts.
6. He acts rationally in the sense that he want maximum satisfaction.
7. Utility is measured cardinally. This means that utility, or use of a good, can be expressed
in terms of units or utils. This utility is not only comparable but also quantifiable.
Principle
Suppose there are two goods 'x' and 'y' on which the consumer has to spend his given income.
The consumer's behavior is based on two factors:
1. Marginal Utilities of goods 'x' and 'y'
2. The prices of goods 'x' and 'y'
The consumer is in equilibrium position when marginal utility of money expenditure on each
good is the same.
Mathematically, the law can be explained by the help of the following formula:
MU of good A/ Price of A = MU of good B/ Price of B
In any case when the Marginal Utilities of the goods A and B are unequal, the consumer will
purchase a combination that will give him highest Marginal Utility per dollar value of each
good, in such a way that the entire budget amount is spent.
Example: A firm has a total capital of 100 million which it has the option of spending on
three projects, A, B, and C. Each of these projects requires a unit expenditure of 10 million.
Suppose also that the marginal productivity schedule of each unit of expenditure on the three
projects is given as shown in the following table.
Units of Expenditure ( 10 million)
Marginal Productivity
(MP)
Project A Project B Project C
1st 501 403 354
2nd 452 305 306
3rd 357 208 209
4th 2010 10 15
5th 10 0 12

Notes
Going by the equi-marginal principle, the firm will allocate its total resource ( 100 million)
among the projects A, B and C in such a way that marginal product of each project is the same i.e.,
MPA
= MPB
= MPC
.
It can be seen from the above table that going, by this rule, the firm will spend 1st, 2nd, 7th, and
10th unit of finance on project A, 3rd, 5th, and 8th unit on Project B, and 4th, 6th, and 9th unit on
project C. In all, it puts 4 units of its finances in project A, 3 units each in projects n and C. In other
words, of the total finances of 100 million, a profit maximization firm would invest 40
million in project A, 30 million each in projects B and C.
4.3 Indifference Curves and its Properties
An indifference curve may be defined as the locus of points. Each point represents a different
combination of two substitute goods, which yields the same utility or level of satisfaction to the
consumer. Therefore, he/she is indifferent between any two combinations of goods when it
comes to making a choice between them. Such a situation arises because he/she consumes a
large number of goods and services and often finds that one commodity can be substituted for
another. This gives him/her an opportunity to substitute one commodity for another, if need
arises and to make various combinations of two substitutable goods which give him/her the
same level of satisfaction. If a consumer faced with such combinations, he/she would be indifferent
between the combinations.
Example: If a consumer is asked whether he prefers combination 1 of two goods X and Y
(assuming that the market price of X and Y are fixed) or combination 2, he may give one of the
following answers:
1. he prefers combination 1 to 2
2. he prefers combination 2 to 1
3. he is indifferent about combinations 1 and 2.
The third answer implies that the consumer prefers 1 as much as 2. There may be some more
combinations of goods X and Y which are equally preferable to him. Suppose, there are five
different combinations of X and Y, that gives him the same level of satisfaction (shown in
Table).
Indifference Combination of X and Y Goods
Combination Units of X Units of Y
1 3 21
2 4 15
3 5 11
4 6 8
5 7 6

Notes Figure below shows the indifference curve drawn on the basis of the figure give in table.
It depicts, in general, all combinations of two goods which yield the same level of satisfaction to
the consumer. The consumer is indifferent about any two points lying on this curve.
Indifference Curve
An indifference curve of a consumer represents a particular level of satisfaction for the consumer.
A consumer may, infact, identify a large number of such curves each representing a different
level of satisfaction. An indifference map gives a complete description of a consumer’s tastes
and preferences as shown in Figure below to show the different satisfaction levels.
4.3.1 Assumptions
The following assumptions about the consumer psychology are implicit in indifference curve
analysis:
1. Transitivity: If a consumer is indifferent to two combinations of two goods, then he is
unaware of the third combination also.
2. Diminishing marginal rate of substitution: The rarer the availability of a good, the greater
is its substitution value. For example, water has a high substitution value as it is a scarce
resource.
3. Rationality: The consumer aims to maximise his total satisfaction and has got complete
market information.
4. Ordinal utility: Utility in this approach is not measurable. A consumer can only specify
his preference for a particular combination of two goods, he cannot specify how much.

Notes
4.3.2 Properties of Indifference Curve
Indifference curves have the four basic characteristics:
1. Indifference curves have a negative slope
2. Indifference curves are convex to the origin
3. Indifference curves do not intersect nor are they tangent to one another
4. Upper indifference curves indicate a higher level of satisfaction.
These characteristics or properties of indifference curves, in fact, reveal the consumer’s behaviour,
his choices and preferences. They are, therefore, very important in the modern theory of consumer
behaviour. Now, we will observe their implications.
Indifference Curves have a Negative Slope
In the words of Hicks, “so long as each commodity has a positive marginal utility, the indifference
curve must slope downward to the right”.
The negative slope of indifference curve implies-
1. that the two commodities can be substituted for each other
2. that if the quantity of one commodity decreases, quantity of the other commodity must
increase so that the consumer stays at the same level of satisfaction.
Example: Suppose you consume 10 apples and 20 bananas in a day, which gives you a
particular level of satisfaction. Now, if you consume 2 apples less, without increasing the number
of bananas, you will be at a lower level of satisfaction. You must consume 1 banana more, to
remain at the same satisfaction level. If you don’t do so, the bundle of goods (apples and bananas
together) gets smaller and you will not get as much satisfaction.
The consumer’s satisfaction cannot remain the same if indifference curves have a positive slope
( Y/ X0) or if slope is equal to infinity ( Y/ X ).
(Note: Y/ X gives the slope of the indifference curves)
These situations are shown in Figure 4.2 through inconsistent indifference curves.
Figure 4.2: Inconsistent Indifference Curves
K B
b
a
e c C
Qy
Q y
J
Q x
Qx
O
Commodity X
(per unit of time)
Commodity
Y
(per
unit
of
time)

Notes Let us suppose that the consumer is initially at point e where he/she is deriving some utility
from OQx
of X and OQy
of Y. If an indifference curve has a positive slope (i.e., Y/ X0); as
shown by the line OB and curve JK, it implies that the consumer is equally satisfied with larger
and smaller baskets of X and Y. This means an irrational behaviour of the consumer.
For instance, if the consumer moves from point e to b, the combination of the two goods
increases by ea (= bc) of Y and ec (= ab) of X. Unless MU of ea and ec are equal to zero, the level of
satisfaction is bound to increase whereas on an indifference curve, the total utility is supposed to
remain the same. Therefore, line OB and curve JK cannot be indifference curves.
Similarly, in the case of a vertical indifference line, aQx
, and the movement from e to a means an
increase in the quantity of Y by ea, while quantity of X remains the same, OQx
. If MU of ea0, the
total utility will increase. So is the case if an indifference curve takes the shape of a horizontal
line such as Qy
C.
Indifference Curves are Convex to Origin
Indifference curves are not only negatively sloped but are also convex to the origin. The convexity
of the indifference curves implies two properties:
1. The two commodities are imperfect substitutes for one another
2. The Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRS) between the two goods decreases as a consumer
moves along an indifference curve. This characteristic of indifference curves is based on
the assumption of diminishing marginal rate of substitution.
The assumption of diminishing MRS, as mentioned above, states an observed fact that if a
consumer substitutes one commodity (X) for another (Y), his willingness to sacrifice more units
of Y for one additional unit of X decreases, as quantity of Y decreases. There are two reasons for
this:
1. Two commodities are not perfect substitutes for one another.
2. MU of a commodity increases as its quantity decreases and vice versa.
Therefore, more and more units of the other commodity are needed to keep the total utility
constant.
Indifference Curves can neither Intersect nor be Tangent to one Another
If two indifference curves intersect or are tangent with one another, it will reflect two rather
impossible conclusions:
1. that two equal combinations of two goods yield two different levels of satisfaction
2. that two different combinations – one being larger than the other-yield the same level of
satisfaction.
Such conditions are impossible if the consumer’s subjective valuation of a commodity is greater
than zero. Besides, if two indifference curves intersect, it would mean negation of consistency or
transitivity assumption in consumer’s preferences.
Let us now see what happens when two indifference curves, IC and IC’, intersect each other at
point A (Figure 4.3).
Point A falls on both the indifference curves, IC and IC’. It means that the same basket of goods
(OM of X + AM of Y) yields different levels of utility below and above point A on the same
indifference curve.

Notes
The inconsistency that two different baskets of X and Y yield the same level of utility can be
proved as follows.
Consider two other points: point B on indifference curve IC’ and point C on indifference curve
IC both being on a vertical line.
Points A, B and C represent three different combinations of commodities X and Y. Let us call
these combinations as A, B and C, respectively. Note that combination A is common to both the
indifference curves.
The intersection of the two indifference curves implies that in terms of utility, A=B; and A=C;
therefore A=C. But if B = C it would mean that in terms of utility,
ON of X + BN of Y = ON of X + CN of Y
Figure 4.3: Intersecting Indifference Curves
Since ON of X is common to both the sides, the above equation would mean that
BN of Y = CN of Y
But Figure 4.3 shows BN CN. Therefore, combinations Band C cannot be equal in terms of
satisfaction. The intersection, therefore, violates the transitivity rule, which is a logical necessity
in indifference curve analysis. The same reasoning is applicable when two indifference curves
are tangent with each other.
Upper Indifference Curves represent a Higher Level of Satisfaction
An indifference curve placed above and to the right of another represents a higher level of
satisfaction than the lower one. In Figure 4.4, indifference curve IC2
is placed above the curve
IC1
. It represents, therefore, a higher level of satisfaction.
The reason is that an upper indifference curve contains all along its length a larger quantity of
one or both the goods than the lower indifference curve. And a larger quantity of a commodity
is supposed to yield a greater satisfaction than the smaller quantity of it, provided MU0. For
instance, consider the indifference curves IC1
and IC2
in, Figure 4.4.

Notes Figure 4.4: Comparison between Lower and Upper Indifference Curves
b
c
d
IC2
IC1
O X
Quantity of X
Quantity
of
Y
Y a
The vertical movement from point a on the lower indifference curve IC1
to point b and Quantity
of X on the upper indifference curve IC2
, means an increase in the quantity of Y by ab, the
quantity of X remaining the same (OX). Similarly, a horizontal movement from point a to d
means a greater quantity (ad) of commodity X, quantity of Y remaining the same (OY). The
diagonal movement from a to c, means a larger quantity of both X and Y. Unless, the utility of
additional quantities of X and Y are equal to zero, these additional quantities will yield additional
utility.
Therefore, the level of satisfaction indicated by the upper indifference curve (IC2
) would always
be greater than that indicated by the lower indifference curve (IC1
).
4.3.3 Budget Line
The budget line is also known as the price line, the consumption possibility line or the price
opportunity line. It represents different combinations of two goods X and Y which the consumer
can buy by spending all his income.
Example: A consumer having 1200 as income can buy 600 units of Y at 2 per unit or 300
units of X at 4 per unit as shown in Figure below. The straight line joining the two points A and
B is called the budget line.
Budget Line

Notes
At any point on AB, the consumer spends all his income but point C is unattainable. At point D
or any other point in DOAB he does not spend all his income.
4.4 Consumer's Equilibrium with Cardinal Approach
!
Caution Law of Equi-marginal Utility or the principle of Equi-marginal utility says that
the consumer would maximise his utility if he allocates his expenditure on various goods
he consumes such that the utility of the last rupee spent on each good is equal.
Suppose the consumer's utility function is U = u (X). The consumer buys X. His total expenditure
is X. Px
.
Presumably, he wants to maximise the difference between his utility and expenditure
L = U(X) – X. Px
By way of first order condition
x
dL du
P 0
dx dx
The term
du
dx
stands for marginal utility X, MUx
, and Px
stands for price of X.
Thus at equilibrium,
MUx
= Px
and … i
MUy
= Py
and … ii
or
x x
y y
MU P
MU P … iii
Then by cross-multiplying, we get
MUx
.Py
= MUy
.Px
… iv
or
y
x
x y
MU
MU
P P … v
And note by definition
y
x
x y
MU
MU
P P = MUm
, which is constant … vi
Where,
MUm
= Marginal Utility of money
MUx
, MUy
= Marginal Utility of X and Y
Px
, Py
= Unit price of X and Unit Price of Y respectively.
The proportionality rule stated above (v) is the tenet of the Law of Consumer Equilibrium. The
assumption of diminishing marginal utility proportionality rule when considered along with
equi marginal concept imply that a single price prevails for a commodity in the market. This is
true of a perfectly competitive market.

Notes
Caselet Should Canada Legalise Marijuana?
T
he war on drugs is an expensive battle, as a great deal of resources go into catching
those who buy or sell illegal drugs on the black market, prosecuting them in court,
and housing them in jail. These costs seem particularly exorbitant when dealing
with the drug marijuana, as it is widely used, and is likely no more harmful than currently
legal drugs such as tobacco and alcohol. There's another cost to the war on drugs, however,
which is the revenue lost by governments who cannot collect taxes on illegal drugs. In a
recent study for the Fraser Institute, Canada, Economist Stephen T. Easton attempted to
calculate how much tax revenue the government of the country could gain by legalising
marijuana.
The study estimates that the average price of 0.5 grams (a unit) of marijuana sold for $8.60
on the street, while its cost of production was only $1.70. In a free market, a $6.90 profit for
a unit of marijuana would not last for long. Entrepreneurs noticing the great profits to be
made in the marijuana market would start their own grow operations, increasing the
supply of marijuana on the street, which would cause the street price of the drug to fall to
a level much closer to the cost of production. Of course, this doesn't happen because the
product is illegal; the prospect of jail time deters many entrepreneurs and the occasional
drug bust ensures that the supply stays relatively low. We can consider much of this $6.90
per unit of marijuana profit a risk-premium for participating in the underground economy.
Unfortunately, this risk premium is making a lot of criminals, many of whom have ties to
organized crime, very wealthy.
Stephen T. Easton argues that if marijuana was legalized, we could transfer these excess
profits caused by the risk-premium from these grow operations to the government:
If we substitute a tax on marijuana cigarettes equal to the difference between the local
production cost and the street price people currently pay – that is, transfer the revenue
from the current producers and marketers (many of whom work with organized crime) to
the government, leaving all other marketing and transportation issues aside we would
have revenue of (say) $7 per [unit]. If you could collect on every cigarette and ignore the
transportation, marketing, and advertising costs, this comes to over $2 billion on Canadian
sales and substantially more from an export tax, and you forego the costs of enforcement
and deploy your policing assets elsewhere.
One interesting thing to note from such a scheme is that the street price of marijuana stays
exactly the same, so the quantity demanded should remain the same as the price is
unchanged. However, it's quite likely that the demand for marijuana would change from
legalization. We saw that there was a risk in selling marijuana, but since drug laws often
target both the buyer and the seller, there is also a risk (albeit smaller) to the consumer
interested in buying marijuana. Legalization would eliminate this risk, causing the demand
to rise. This is a mixed bag from a public policy standpoint: Increased marijuana use can
have ill effects on the health of the population but the increased sales bring in more
revenue for the government. However, if legalized, governments can control how much
marijuana is consumed by increasing or decreasing the taxes on the product. There is a
limit to this, however, as setting taxes too high will cause marijuana growers to sell on the
black market to avoid excessive taxation.
When considering legalizing marijuana, there are many economic, health, and social
issues we must analyze. One economic study will not be the basis of Canada's public
policy decisions, but Easton's research does conclusively show that there are economic
benefits in the legalization of marijuana. With governments scrambling to find new sources
of revenue to pay for important social objectives such as health care and education expect
to see the idea raised in Parliament sooner rather than later.

Notes
4.5 The Consumer's Equilibrium with Ordinal Approach
If we superimpose the indifference map and budget line as in Figure shown above, we find that
a consumer has to decide to purchase a particular combination (C) as it falls on his budget line,
though a different combination (D) would be more desirable as it will give a higher level of
satisfaction. At his point of equilibrium C, the price line is touching the indifference line
tangentially meaning that the slopes are equal. The slope of indifference curve indicates the
marginal rate of substitution between X and Y, and the slope of budget line indicates the ratio of
price of X to that of Y. Thus the principle of consumer's equilibrium works out; the marginal rate
of substitution between X and Y must be proportional to the ratio of price of X to that of Y.
MRSxy
= x
y
P
P
Figure 4.5
4.5.1 Changes in Price
According to the price consumption curve, if the price of X falls, the new budget or price line
becomes M-L1
, as more of X can be brought out of the given budget and thus C1
becomes the new
equilibrium point. If the price of X falls again, the price of Y and budget remaining same, the
new equilibrium point shifts to C11
. The line connecting such successive equilibrium points at C,
C1
and C11
is called PCC or price consumption curve.
Figure 4.6

Notes 4.5.2 PCC and Demand Curve
The individual consumer demand curve for the commodity X can be derived from the price
consumption curve. For example, when the price of X is given by the slope of ML, the amount of
X demanded is OX11
; when the price of X is given by slope ML1
, OX1
amount of X is purchased;
and OX is purchased at a price of X denoted by the slope of ML11
. Thus the price consumption
relations when taken out and plotted separately in Figure 4.7 gives the demand curve, D.
Figure 4.7
4.5.3 Income of the Consumer
When the price of the commodity X changes, the real income position of the consumer also
changes and this has a considerable effect on the consumer's demand.
The traditional marginal utility analysis ignored this income-effect assumption of constant
marginal utility of money spent. The indifference analysis considers this income effect, because
it is an important determinant of demand.
Figure 4.8 shows three parallel budget lines corresponding to three different levels of the
consumer's income which he spends on goods X and Y, the points E1
, E2
, and E3
being the three
equilibrium points. The curve joining such equilibrium points is known as the Income
Consumption Curve (ICC). The slope of the budget line depends on the price ratio and hence
remains constant.
Figure 4.8

Notes
In case both commodities X and Y are normal goods the income consumption curve can take
one of the shapes shown in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9
In case X is a normal good but Y an inferior good the income consumption curve would take the
shape depicted as ICC1
in Figure 4.10. This implies that as the income of the consumer increases he
buys more of both X and Y up to a point and beyond that he buys more of X and less of Y. The curve
ICC2
in Figure 4.10 depicts the case when X is an inferior good and Y is a normal good.
Figure 4.10
4.5.4 Price of Related Goods
Almost all the goods that a consumer purchases in a market are related goods either by way of
complementarity or substitutability. X and Y are compliments if the rise in demand of X increases
the demand for Y, e.g., pen and ink, bread and butter, etc. X and Y are substitutes, if the rise in
demand for x reduces the demand for Y, e.g., tea and coffee.

Notes
Did u know? Price Effect (KM) = Substitution Effect (KL) + Income Effect (LM).
The price effect can be broken up into two parts: income effect and substitution effect.
Income effect occurs due to increase (decrease) in real income resulting from a decrease
(increase) in the price of a commodity. Substitution effect occurs due to the consumer's
inherent tendency to substitute cheaper goods for relatively expensive ones.
Task Assign a measure of utility you are putting into your various subjects. Do
your study habits follow the principle of rational choice?
Case Study Auto Industry — Economic Slowdown as a
Determinant of Demand
A
utomobile sector is taken as the indicator of a modern and liberalised industrial
India. But as of now there is not much to write in praise of this star-studded sector
with gleaming Fords, Astras and Cielos. There is a gloom in this sector as on date.
The economic slowdown has led to unexpected downturn in demand.
With the first quarter of the current financial year (1997-98) having ended, the 30,000
crore automobile industry has shown very little signs of a much hoped for recovery from
the massive slowdown it registered last year. In fact it has shown continuous signs of a
decline in growth with most segments cutting down production due to poor sales and
inventory pile up. After witnessing whopping sales in 1995-96, the slowdown in the last
fiscal year was viewed by many as the inevitable correction in growth. However, the
continuing depressed condition has come as a dampener to the entire industry.
After becoming a blue-chip industry soon after the government liberalised the economy,
the automobile industry has been growing at break-neck pace, almost to the point of
being dubbed an overhead industry. The 1995-96 financial year saw the industry grow by
around 30%, the luxury car segment by nearly 130 per cent. Last year the growth rates
came back to normal figures, registering a decline of over 10 per cent. Worst affected was
the luxury car segment – from a 132% growth rate it registered a negative growth. Though
experts were quick to dismiss last year's poor performance, vis-à-vis 1995-96, as a correction,
the continuing depressed conditions are beginning to worry manufacturers as inventories
have started to pile up. With the general economy itself showing signs of a lethargy the
chances of a speedy recovery by the automobile industry look anything but likely.
Production and sale of vehicles has registered declining growths in the first two months of
the financial year according to the latest data released by the Association of Automobile
Manufacturers (AIAM). The only segment that was able to register any impressive growth,
both in production and sales, was the motor cycles segment. Despite the strong growth of
the solitary segment, the entire automobile industry showed a declining growth.
While automobile production showed a negative two per cent growth the sales were
dipping at a fraction over 0.6%. Worst affected were the scooter segment (production
down 14% and sales down 9%) and mopeds (production down 13% and sales 11%).
The poor sales of heavy commercial vehicles virtually sums up the performance of the
automobile industry. The industry is peculiar in the sense that most of the sales here take
place through hire purchase or financing. While the three major heavy truck manufacturers
Contd...

Notes
did not cut down production in the first two months, their sales were down by a massive 19.8
per cent. The entire industry was reeling under the liquidity crunch last year. The effects of
this do not seem to have worn out as evident from sales figures. With the general economy
not picking up, the demand for the heavy vehicles too has come down. In such a situation a
cut in production might be very pronounced in the coming months in this segment.
The light commercial vehicle segment was no different either. Boosted by the sales of Tata
'Sumo' last year, the light commercial vehicle segment has already shown signs of its
inability to sustain the tempo. Though 'Sumo' continued to do well and improve its
market share, the players in this segment cut down production by about two per cent.
However, the effect on sales was even more significant as it dipped by nearly 9.5 per cent.
No different was the case of luxury cars either. Although the car segment as a whole was
able to post a growth in sales of 2.6 per cent, for the second time in a row the luxury car
segment was able to grow only in single digits. Now that the base has widened much
more, the days of a double digit growth in any of these segments is a near impossibility.
Table 1: Production and Sales in April-May 1996-98
Production
1997-98
Variation
1996-97
Production
1997-98
Variation
1996-97
HCV 216.30 211.53 2.25 154109 192272 -19.80
LCV 21870 22293 -1.89 18682 20617 -9.38
Cars 60593 60415 0.29 58850 57360 2.59
Utility Veh. 71083 71239 -0.22 69471 69216 0.37
Scooters 189414 220645 -14.15 191457 211233 -9.37
Motor cycles 172703 140659 22.78 168337 136916 22.93
Mopeds 92470 10701 -13.59 89122 100969 -11.73
Question
How did slowdown affect the can industry?
4.6 Consumer Surplus
Consumer surplus is the satisfaction that a consumer obtains from a good over and above the
price paid. This is the difference between the maximum demand price that buyers are willing to
pay and the price that they actually pay. A related notion from the supply side of the market is
producer surplus.
Example: Suppose, for example, that Rahul is willing and able to pay 30 for a packet of
chips. This is his demand price. However, the going market price, the actual price that everyone
pays for a packet of chips is 25. While Rahul is willing and able to pay 30, he pays only 25.
He receives a 5 consumer surplus on this purchase.
A comparable surplus from the supply side of the market is producer surplus. It is the revenue
that a producer obtains from a good over and above the price paid. This is the difference
between the minimum supply price that sellers are willing to accept and the price that they
actually receive.
Example: Suppose that ABC Chips Producer is willing and able to accept 20 for a packet
of chips. This is its supply price. This is what it needs to receive to cover production cost.
However, the going market price, the actual price that everyone pays for a packet of chips is 25.
While ABC Chips Producer is willing and able to accept 20, it receives 25. It receives 5
producer surplus on this sale.

Notes A Diagrammatic Representation
The demand curve shows the quantum of demand at various potential prices, just as the supply
curve shows the supply level to the market at various potential prices. For example, at too high
a price like OP1
, there is no demand and at too low a price OP2
, there is no supply. Consumable
quantities are indicated by the demand curve and marketable supplies are indicated by the
supply curve.
Figure 4.11: Consumer and Producer Surplus
When OP gets settled as the actual equilibrium price, we can work out the area of:
1. Consumer’s Surplus: The upper triangle represents the difference between the potential
price and actual price paid by the buyers for all the units between O and Q.
2. Producer’s Surplus: The lower triangle represents the difference between the potential
price and actual price charged by the supplier for all the units between O and Q.
Note that at Qth unit of output and price P, there is neither consumer’s surplus nor producer’s
surplus. OP is that equilibrium price at which we have zero consumer surplus and zero producer
surplus.
4.7 Summary
Marginal utility means the utility derived by consuming every next unit of same thing.
According to the law of diminishing marginal utility when a person consumes more and
more units of a good his total utility increases while the extra utility derived from consuming
successive units of the good diminishes.
Law of Equi-marginal Utility or the principle of Equi-marginal utility says that the consumer
would maximise his utility if he allocates his expenditure on various goods he consumes
such that the utility of the last rupee spent on each good is equal.
Independent curve shows all combinations of two goods which yield the same level of
satisfaction to the consumer. The consumer is indifferent about any two points lying on
this curve.
Budget line represents different combinations of two goods X and Y which the consumer
can buy by spending all his income.
The indifference curve analysis considers the income effect. Change in the price of
commodity will change the real income position.

Notes
Indifference curve also considers the effect of substitution goods.
When the demand price is generally greater than the price actually paid, most consumers
under most circumstances receive some surplus of satisfaction. It is known as consumer
surplus.
When the supply price is less than the price actually received, most producers under most
circumstances receive some surplus of revenue. It is known as producer surplus.
4.8 Keywords
Budget line: It represents different combination of two goods which the consumer can buy by
spending all his incomes
Cardinal measure of utility: Utility is a measurable and quantifiable
Marginal utility: Utility derived from every next unit
Price consumption curve: The line connecting such (drawn because of change in price) successive
equilibrium points is called PCC or price consumption curve
The indifference curve: The curve at which satisfaction is equal at each point
4.9 Self Assessment
(a) With more units of consumption total utility increases and marginal utility also
increases.
(b) The total utility reaches a maximum value when marginal utility approaches zero.
(c) The law of demand can be derived from the law of diminishing marginal utility.
(d) Assumption of ordinal utility implies that utility is not measurable.
(e) The utilities derived from different independent goods cannot be added.
(f) Almost all the goods in a market are related goods either by way of complementarity
or substitutability.
(g) The traditional marginal utility analysis ignored the income - effect assumption of
constant marginal utility of money spent.
(a) Indifference curve represents a particular level of ........................ .
(b) Budget line is also known as the ........................ .
(c) The slope of indifference curve indicates the ........................ .
(d) The consumer is ........................ about any two points on the indifference curve.
(e) The concept of Ordinal Utility was given by ............... .
(f) The total utility reaches a maximum value, when marginal utility approaches ..........
(g) The goal of consumption is to maximize ................ .
(h) The law of diminishing marginal utility assumes constant marginal utility of ..........

Notes 4.10 Review Questions
1. Examine how the concept of Diminishing Marginal Utility can help to explain the
downward slope of the demand graph.
2. Suppose Charlie Parker CDs cost $10 apiece and Lester Young CDs cost $5 apiece. You
have $40 to spend on CDs. The marginal utility that you derive from additional CDs is as
follows:
# of CDS ----------- Charlie Parker --------- Lester Young
Have 0 buy number 1 ----------- 60 ---------- 30
Have 1 buy number 2 ------------ 40 ---------- 28
Have 2 buy number 3 ----------- 30 ---------- 24
Have 3 buy number 4 ------------ 20 --------- 20
Have 4 buy number 5 ------------ 10 --------- 10
How many of each CD would you buy? Suppose the price of a Lester Young CD rises to
$10. How many of each CD would you buy? Use this to show how the principle of rational
choice leads to the law of demand.
3. Discuss the law of diminishing marginal utility with the help of an illustrate schedule and
a corresponding graph.
4. Which of the following examples best shows the Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility and
why?
(a) Raina is happier after buying her fifth pair of shoes than she was after only four
pairs.
(b) A reasonably fat Motumal gets sick after eating too many Burgers.
(c) Ramnaresh loves cheeseburgers but finds that the third burger did less to increase
his happiness than the second burger did.
5. Give at least five examples to show how the law of diminishing marginal utility relates to
everyday life?
6. Every utility function uniquely determines the ordinal preferences, but for any ordinal
preferences, there are many utility functions that represent those preferences. Is this
statement true or false? Explain with reasons.
7. Manish is a typical economics graduate student and consumes 2 goods: economics text
books and coffee. He also earns a part time earning of 2000 a month. He can either spend
it all on books and get 5 or on coffee and get 20 cups.
(a) Given this information, construct the equation for Manish's budget line (put books
on the x-axis and coffee on the y-axis).
(b) The following are the bundles that Manish can afford with his income:
Books Coffee
1
0
8
2
In the above table, fill in the blanks with the quantities that will exhaust Manish's
income.

Notes
(c) Manish gets a research grant and his income increases to 4000 a month. What is the
new equation of his budget line? What if income stays constant at 2000, and the
price of a book increases to 5000?
(d) Assume that prices are the same as used in part a. If the marginal utility of a book is
20, what is the marginal utility of coffee if he is maximizing his utility?
(e) Now assume that textbooks and coffee are complements for Manish. For him to
consume one textbook, he needs 1 cup of coffee. How many textbooks does he
consume given his income of 2000, and the prices used in part a? What if economics
is so boring that Manish needs 2 coffees for every book that he consumes?
8. Discuss with example the law of marginal utility.
9. Assign a measure of utility to the study you are putting into your various courses. Do your
study habits follow the principle of rational choice?
10. What assumptions would you never alter while working on the theory of individual
choice and why?
11. The marginal utility of consumption of good A is 40; it changes by 2 with each change in
good A consumed. The marginal utility of consumption of another good B is also 40 but
changes by 3 with each change in good B consumed. The price of good A is 20 and the
price of good B is 30. How many of good A and good B should you consume?
12. Why do you think that the law of Equi-marginal utility holds under perfectly competitive
market.
13. The following table shows the marginal utility of your consumption of three goods, A, B
and C.
Units of Consumption MU of A MU of B MU of C
1 20 25 45
2 18 20 30
3 16 15 24
4 14 10 18
5 12 8 15
6 10 6 12
(a) Good A costs 80 per unit, and good B costs 40 and good C costs 120. How many
units of each should be consumed with 480 to maximise utility?
(b) How will the answer change if the price of B rises to 80?
14. Explain the properties of indifference curves with the help of suitable examples.
15. Explain the concepts of consumer and producer surplus with help of an example and
figure.
1. (a) False (b) True (c) True (d) True
(e) False (f) True (g) True
2. (a) satisfaction (b) price line (c) marginal rate of substitution
(d) indifferent (e) J.R. Hicks (f) zero
(g) total utility (h) money

Notes 4.11 Further Readings
Haynes, Mote and Paul, Managerial Economics — Analysis and Cases, Vakils. Fellner
and Simons Private Ltd., Mumbai.
Introduction to Managerial Economics, Hutchinson University Library.
Malcolm P. McNair and Richard S. Meriam, Problems in Business Economics,McGraw-
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Online links http://www.flatworldknowledge.com/node/28303#web-28303
http://www.vazecollege.net/Micro_Economics_Part_II.pdf
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199296378/01student/advanced/
02indifference/
http://tutor2u.net/economics/revision-notes/as-markets-consumer-surplus.html

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
5.1 Concept of Elasticity
5.1.1 Classification of Demand Curves according to their Elasticities
5.1.2 Numerical Measurement of Elasticity
5.1.3 Computation of Elasticity Coefficients
5.2 Price Elasticity of Demand
5.3 Income Elasticity
5.4 Cross Elasticity of Demand
5.5 Summary
5.6 Keywords
5.7 Self Assessment
Objectives
Calculate price elasticity of demand
Explain the income elasticity of demand concept
State how cross elasticities of demand are calculated
Introduction
Elasticity is the measure of responsiveness. It is the ratio of the percent change in one variable to
the percent change in another variable. The key thing to understand is that we use elasticity
when we want to see how one thing changes when we change something else. How does
demand for a good change when we change its price? How does the demand for a good change
when the price of a substitute good changes?
Elasticity varies among products because some products may be more essential to the consumer.
A good or service is considered to be elastic if a slight change in price leads to a sharp change in
the quantity demanded or supplied. Usually these kinds of products are readily available in the
market and a person may not necessarily need them in his or her daily life. For example, air
conditioners, televisions, movie tickets, branded clothes etc. On the other hand, an inelastic
good or service is one in which changes in price witness only modest changes in the quantity
demanded or supplied, if any at all. These goods tend to be things that are more of a necessity to
the consumer in his or her daily life. For example, rice, potatoes, onion, salt, medicines etc.

Notes 5.1 Concept of Elasticity
The law of demand tells us that consumers will respond to a price decline by buying more of a
product. It does not, however, tell us anything about the degree of responsiveness of consumers
to a price change. The contribution of the concept of elasticity lies in the fact that it not only tells
us that consumer's demand responds to price changes but also the degree of responsiveness of
consumers to a price change. Figure 5.1 shows two demand curves. Let Da
be the demand for
cheese in Switzerland and Db
be the demand for cheese in England.
Figure 5.1
At a price of $10, the quantity demanded in both countries is 60. When the price falls from $10 to
$5, the quantity of cheese demanded increases in both. However, for the same change in price,
from $10 to $5, the change in quantity demanded increases more in England compared to
Switzerland. In other words, for the same decrease in price in the two countries, the quantity
demanded responds more in England than in Switzerland.
We would describe the above situation by saying that the demand for cheese is more elastic in
England than in Switzerland. Elasticity, then, is first another word for responsiveness.
Elasticity of demand is important primarily as an indicator of how total revenue changes when
a change in price induces changes in quantity along the demand curve. The total revenues of the
firm will equal the price changed times the quantity sold (TR = P x Q). Naturally, total revenues
received by firms are equal to total spending by consumers. If consumers buy 50 units at $10
each, then the total revenue will be $500. By simple multiplication, total revenue can always be
calculated for each point in a demand schedule or diagram.
5.1.1 Classification of Demand Curves according to their Elasticities
Depending on how the total revenue changes, when price changes we can classify all demand
curves in the following five categories:
1. Perfectly inelastic demand curve
2. Inelastic demand curve
3. Unitary elastic demand curve
4. Elastic demand curve
5. Perfectly elastic demand curve

Notes
Figure 5.2 helps us to explain what these five categories imply about the relationship between
changes in total revenue and changes in price. It shows three different types of demand curves
each having a different implication for total revenue when price is reduced form $10 to $5.
1. In the case of demand curve Da
in Figure 5.2, when the price is $10, total revenue is $500 (10
x 50). When the price changes to $5, the quantity demanded does not respond at all and
remains at 50. The total revenue when the price is $5 is $250. In other words, when price
decreases, total revenue decreases as well.
All such demand curves where quantity demanded is totally unresponsive to changes in
price are called perfectly inelastic demand curves.
Further, such demand curves imply that when price decreases, the total revenue decreases
and vice-versa.
Finally, all such demand curves are supposed to have an elasticity coefficient, Ed
, equal
to 0. Elasticity coefficient is a number describing the elasticity of the demand curve.
Life saving drugs are most likely to have demand curves which resemble perfectly inelastic
demand curves. For example, a diabetic would be willing to pay almost any price to get
the required amount of insulin.
Figure 5.2
2. Demand curve Dc
in Figure 5.2(c) above represents another extreme case – a perfectly
horizontal demand curve. When the price is $10, 50 units are being sold and the total
revenue is $500. When the price falls to $5, the quantity demanded increases infinitely and
so does the total revenue. On the other hand, when price rises above $10 the quantity
demanded falls to Zero and total revenue also falls to zero.

Notes Such horizontal demand curves, where quantity demanded is infinitely responsive to
price changes, are called perfectly elastic demand curves.
These perfectly elastic demand curves have a property that when price decreases total
revenue increases, and vice-versa.
The elasticity coefficient, Ed
, is equal to infinity (Ed
= ).
3. The demand curve Db
in Figure 5.2(b) above represents the midpoint of a spectrum where
extremes are represented by the demand curves Da
and Dc
.
In the case of Db
when price decreases from $10 to $5, the total revenue remains unaffected
at $500, such a demand curve is said to be unitary elastic and has the property that when
price increases or decreases, the total revenue remains constant. The elasticity coefficient
for such demand curves is equal to one. Examples of unitary elastic demand curves occur
when a person budgets a certain amount of money for, say, meat or magazines and will
not deviate from that figure regardless of price. However, such cases are also unusual in
that few demand curves have constant unitary elasticity.
4. Besides the three types of demand curves we have discussed there are two more types of
demand curves.
Demand curves which have an elasticity coefficient between 0 and 1 are called relatively
inelastic or simply inelastic. When the price falls, the quantity demanded expands but
total revenue still decreases. Figure 5.3(a) shows Da
as an example of a relatively inelastic
curve.
Figure 5.3
Finally, demand curve Db
in Figure 5.3(b) is an example of a relatively elastic or simply elastic
demand curve. Such demand curves have an elasticity coefficient between 1 and and have the
property that when price decreases total revenue increases and vice-versa.
Believe it or not, in the real world, 99.99 per cent of the demand curves are either relatively
elastic or relatively inelastic.
Table 5.1 summarises the discussion we have had so far. It tells us how the firm's total revenues
(and the consumer's total expenditures) for a product will change as prices are raised or lowered.
As shown in the table the value of the elasticity coefficient, Ed
, can be anything from zero to
infinity and each value can immediately tell us the elasticity of the demand curve at the relevant
price. For instance, if a demand curve has an elasticity coefficient of 0.5 at a given price, then we
know that this is an inelastic demand curve at that price.

Notes
Table 5.1
5.1.2 Numerical Measurement of Elasticity
What does it mean when we say that the elasticity of demand is 0.5? 0.4? 2.3? To answer this
question we have to examine the following definition for elasticity coefficient, Ed
.
d
Percentage change in quantity demanded
E
Percentage change in price
One calculates these percentage changes, of course, by dividing the change in price by the
original price and the consequent change in quantity demanded by the original quantity
demanded. Thus we can restate our formula as:
d
Change in quantity demanded
Original quantity demanded
E
Change in price
Original in price
This formula can also be written as:
1 0
0
d
1 0
0
Q Q
Q
E
P P
P
Where P0
= Original price,
P1
= New price
Q0
= Original quantity demanded
Q1
= New quantity demanded
Sometimes we may also find this written as:
d
Q
Q
E
P
P
Where is a notation used to denote change.

Notes Let us answer a basic question about this formula: Why use percentages rather than absolute
amounts in measuring consumer responsiveness? The answer is that if we use absolute changes,
our impression of buyer responsiveness will be arbitrarily affected by the choice of units.
To illustrate, if the price of product X falls from $3 to $2 and consumers, as a result, increase their
purchases from 60 to 100 pounds, we get the impression that the consumers are quite sensitive
to price changes and therefore demand is elastic. After all, a price change of one has caused a
change in the amount demanded of 'forty. But by changing the monetary units from dollars to
pennies (why not?), we find that a price change of one hundred causes a quantity change of
forty, giving the impression of inelasticity. The use of percentage changes avoids this problem.
The given price decrease is 33 per cent whether measured in terms of dollars or in terms of
pennies. Thus, the use of percentages gives us the nice property that the units in which the
money or goods are measured — ¾ bushels or tons of wheat, dollars or cents or rupees — do not
affect elasticity.
Interpreting the Formula
!
Caution Demand is elastic if a given percentage change in price results in a larger
percentage change in quantity demanded. For example, if a two per cent decline in price
results in a 4 per cent increase in quantity demanded, demand is then said to be elastic. If
a given percentage change in price is accompanied by a relatively smaller change in the
quantity demanded, demand is inelastic. For example, if a 3 per cent change in price gives
rise to a 1 per cent increase in the amount demanded, demand is said to be inelastic. The
borderline case of unitary elasticity, which separates elastic and inelastic demands, occurs
where a percentage change in price and accompanying percentage change in quantity
demanded happen to be equal.
5.1.3 Computation of Elasticity Coefficients
We may use two measures of elasticity:
1. Arc elasticity, if the data is discrete and therefore incremental changes are measurable.
2. Point elasticity, if the demand function is continuous and therefore only marginal changes
are calculable.
Example: Given the following data, calculate the price elasticity of demand when
(a) price increases from 3.00 per unit to 4.00 per unit and (b) the price falls from 4.00 per unit
to 3.00 per unit.
Px (per unit) 6 5 4 3 2 1
Qx 750 1250 2000 3250 4650 8000
ep
=
(a) When price increases from 3 to Rs 4 per unit, P, the old price = 3 and Q, the old quantity
(from the table) = 3250 units.
New Price = 4
New Quantity = 2000 units.

Notes
P = New price – Old price = 4 – 3 = 1
Q = New quantity – Old quantity = 2000 – 3250 = – 1250
Substituting,
ep
=
( 1250) 3
( ) 1.15
1 3250
(b) When price falls from 4 to 3 per unit,
P, the old price = 4
Q, the old quantity (from the table) = 2000
New price = 3
New quantity = 3250 units
P = New price – Old price = 2000 – 3250 = –1250
Q = 3250 – 2000 = 1250
Substituting,
ep
=
The question is, how is it that we get different demand responses for the same range of price
change? The answer is that our initial quantity demanded and price have been different. When
we calculate for price fall, they are 2000 for initial quantity demanded and 4 for initial price.
When we calculate it for price rise they are 3250 for initial quantity demanded and 3 for initial
price. Hence elasticity tends to depend on our choice of the initial situation. However, demand
response should be the same for the same finite stretch of the demand curve. To get rid of this
dilemma created by the choice of the initial situations, we take the arithmetic mean of the two
quantities Q and the mean of the two prices P. This gives us the concept of arc elasticity of
demand.
Arc elasticity =
0 1
0 1
Q P P
Q Q P
or, e =
0 1
0 1
Q P P
P Q Q
Where Q0
and Q1
are the two quantities corresponding to the two points on the demand curve.
Similarly P0
and P1
are the two prices.

Notes The measurement of elasticity is done by two methods, namely, Geometrical Method and
Arithmetical Method.
A geometrical way of measuring the elasticity at any point on a demand curve is now in order.
Consider point P on the demand curve Dx in Figure 5.4 (we have taken a non-linear demand
curve). Draw a tangent line AB at point P on the demand curve. Applying point elasticity
formula, it follows that the elasticity at point P is:
e =
dQ
dp
dQ P
Q
dP Q
P
dQ
dP
is the inverse of the slope of the demand curve, hence is equal to
MB
PM
.
Figure 5.4
Price is equal to PM and quantity is equal to OM.
e =
MB
MB PM MB
PM .
OM PM OM OM
PM
In other words, the price elasticity of demand is measured graphically by the ratio of the two
segments of the horizontal axis identified by the intersection of the tangent to the point considered
with the horizontal axis and by the perpendicular from that point to the same axis.
If we now consider the similar triangles APN and PBM then AP/PM= PB/MB (from properties
of similar triangles) or MB/PN = PB/AP. Hence elasticity = MB/ON can be written as equal to
PB/AP, i.e., elasticity at P is also equal to PB/AP, the ratio of the lower segment of the demand
curve to the upper segment.
In the same way we can show that elasticity is equal to ON/NA (taking again similar triangles
and equating the ratio of sides).

Notes
Notes Some important factors that determine the elasticity of demand are:
1. Luxury or Necessity Goods: Luxury goods tend to have an elastic demand, while
necessity goods have an inelastic demand. Purchasers can stop buying the luxury
goods when their prices rise.
2. Percentage of Income: Big items in a budget tend to have a more elastic demand than
small items. For example consumers may be affected by a 1 per cent rise or fall in
price of a flat but are insensitive to such fluctuations in pens.
3. Substitutes: Items that can be substituted easily have a more elastic demand than
those that cannot.
4. Time: The demand for a product becomes more elastic the longer the time period
under consideration. It takes time to decide about another product before buying it
as one develops a habit of using a particular product.
5.2 Price Elasticity of Demand
The concept of price elasticity of demand is a numerical measure of the extent to which quantity
demanded responds to a change in price, other determinants of demand being kept constant.
Example: If the price of cigarettes fell by 20% and the price of salt fell by 20%, the
increase in quantity demanded due to equal changes in prices would be different for salt and
cigarettes. Thus salt and cigarettes are said to have a different price elasticity of demand.
Price elasticity of demand, ep
, measures the degree to which the quantity demanded responds to
a change in price when all other factors that influence demand such as tastes or income are kept
constant. In the example, it is extremely likely that the percentage increase in quantity demanded
would be much more for cigarettes than for salt, even though the percentage decreases in price
are the same. Thus price elasticity of demand allows us to compare the sensitivity of the demand
for various goods for the same changes in price. From the definition:
ep
= (–)
% change in quantity demanded
% change in price
Let us consider a commodity X. If its price rose, then the percentage change in price would be
positive (since the new price is greater than the old price) and the denominator in the expression
for ep
would be positive. However, the quantity demanded would fall and the percentage
change in quantity demanded would be negative. Hence the numerator in the expression would
be negative.
Thus, for most goods as quantity demanded and price have an inverse relationship, cetris paribus,
ep
is always likely to be negative.
!
Caution However by placing a minus sign in the formula we make ep
positive. The
reason is that we want to equate more elastic with more responsive. For example, let
two commodities X and Y have elasticities of + 10 and +0.5 (calculated after multiplying by
(–1) in accordance with the formula). The demand for commodity X is more responsive to
price changes than is the demand for commodity Y, and X has a larger elasticity since +10
is greater than +0.5. Hence more elastic is equated with more responsive. However, if

Notes we did not multiply by (–1), the two elasticities would be –10 and –0.5. Since –0.5 is greater
than –10 we would be likely to say that Y has a greater elasticity than X (when in fact it is
the other way round). Hence without multiplying by (–1) we would not be able to substitute
more elastic for more responsive.
A review of the basic formula of elasticity will show that it follows from the definition of price
elasticity.
p
e
% change in price
where,
% change in Quantity demanded =
New Quantity – Old Quantity
100
Old Quantity
and % change in price =
New Price – Old Price
100
Old Price
Let P = Old price
Q = Old quantity
Q = New quantity – Old quantity
P = New price – Old price
ep
=
Q
100
Q P
Q
.
P P Q
100
P
Task Given the following data, calculate the price elasticity of demand when
(a) price increases from 5.00 per unit to 8.00 per unit and (b) the price falls from 8.00
per unit to 5.00 per unit.
Px
(per unit) 6 5 4 3 2 1
Qx 200 350 600 850 900 1200
The price elasticity of a straight line demand curve varies from infinity at the price axis to zero
at the quantity axis.
Consider a straight line demand curve cutting both the axes as shown in Figure 5.5. Elasticity of
demand, ep
, is defined as the numerical measure of the degree to which quantity demanded
responds to a change in price ceteris paribus.
ep
=
Q P
.
P Q

Notes
Figure 5.5
Now the slope of the demand curve is dP/dQ (since the demand curve is a straight line and the
slope of a straight line is given by change in Y divided by change in X).
Hence the term dQ/dP in the expression for ep
is the reciprocal of the slope of the demand curve.
Since the slope of a straight line is the same throughout, the reciprocal of the slope will also be
the same throughout. Thus, for any straight line demand curve, the elasticity at any point is a
function of (depends upon) the P/Q ratio.
At the price axis, Q = 0 and P/Q is undefined, but as we let q approach zero, without ever
reaching it, the ratio p/q increase without limit. In other words, ep
approaches infinity as q
approaches 0. Thus, ep
is infinity at the price axis.
At the quantity axis, P = 0 and P/Q is zero. Thus ep
= 0 at the quantity axis.
By a similar reasoning we conclude that as we move down a demand curve, the p/q ratio falls
steadily as p keeps decreasing and q keeps increasing. Hence the coefficient of elasticity is
greater at a higher point (point B) than at a lower point (point C) since the higher point will have
a greater p/q ratio and dQ/dP is inconsequential.
Two parallel straight line demand curves have a different elasticity at each price.
Explain why the (proposition above) is true?
Let D1
and D2
be two parallel straight line demand curves, and let the (same) price at which their
elasticities are being compared be OM (Figure 5.6).

Notes Figure 5.6
Elasticity of demand, ep
, is defined as the numerical measure of the degree to which quantity
demanded responds to a change in price, ceteris paribus. From the definition,
ep
=
dQ P
. .
dP Q
Since the slope of a demand curve is dP/dQ, the term dQ/dP in the expression for ep
is the
reciprocal of the slope of a demand curve. Also, as the two demand curves are parallel, it follows
that their slopes and hence the reciprocals of their slopes are the same.
Thus at any given price level the elasticities of the straight line demand curves can be compared
by comparing their corresponding quantities.
At point A (demand curve D1
) the quantity demanded is OR and at point B (demand curve D2
, but
at the same price as A) the quantity demanded is OS. Since OS OR the P/Q ratio is greater in the
case of D1
. Hence point A has a higher elasticity than point B or the demand curve further away
from the origin is less elastic at each price than the one closer to the origin.
The elasticities of two intersecting straight line demand curves can be compared at the point of
intersection merely by comparing slopes, the steeper curve being less elastic.
Let two straight line demand curves, D1
and D2
, having different slopes, intersect each other at A,
as in Figure 5.7.
At the point of intersection, price (P) and quantity (Q) are the same for both demand curves.
Hence the P/Q ratio is the same for both demand curves at the point of intersection (point).

Notes
Figure 5.7
Since the slope of a demand curve is dP/dQ, the term dP/dQ in the expression for ep
is the
reciprocal of the slope. For both demand curves, since P/Q is the same, the elasticities can be
compared by comparing dQ/dP.
As D1
is steeper than D2
, dQ/dP for D1
is less than that for D2
. (Remember that dQ/dP measures
the reciprocal of the slope). Hence D2
(the steeper curve) is less elastic than D1
.
Arc Elasticity
The geometrical method of measurement of price elasticity of demand is applicable only for
infinitesimal changes in price. If price changes appreciably then we use the arc elasticity of
demand. Arc elasticity is calculated with the help of the following formula:
ep
=
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
P P /2 P P /2
Q Q
. .
P Q Q /2 P Q Q /2
Where P1
and Q1
are initial price and quantity, P2
and Q2
are new price and quantity and P and
Q are the changes in price and quantity respectively.
The arc elasticity is a measure of average elasticity, that is, the elasticity at the midpoint of the
chord that connects the two points (A and B) on the demand curve defined by the initial and new
price levels. The measure of arc elasticity is an approximation of the true elasticity of the section
AB of the demand curve. The more convex to the origin the demand curve is, the poorer the
linear approximation attained by the arc elasticity formula.
!
Caution It would be observed that the only difference between this formula and the
point elasticity formula is in the use of the average quantities and average prices. A basic
limitation of the point elasticity formula relates to the use of the base. If in Figure 5.8 we
have to measure elasticity of demand between the points A and B by the percentage
method, it is difficult to say which one of those will make a better base. The choice will be
entirely arbitrary. The problem can be solved by using average prices and average
quantities.

Notes Figure 5.8
Caselet Price Gouging takes you Home
P
icture this. It is raining and you are caught inside a mall after a long shopping
expedition. The auto drivers want twice the “normal” fare to take you home. Is life
unfair? Or is pure economics at play?
You know that price is determined by demand and supply. If demand goes up with supply
remaining same, prices ought to go up. And we know that the rain has increased the
demand for autos — people who would have otherwise walked or travelled by public
transport now want to hire an auto. The increased demand ought to increase the hire
charges, considering the supply of autos remain the same.
This does not, however, consider fairness of the price. You may argue that several people
who cannot afford to hire an auto for the twice the “normal” fare will be priced out of the
market. That is, of course, partially true.
If the rates are way too high, very few will hire the auto. This denies the auto drivers a
good chance to make more money. The sensitivity to price (or elasticity of demand) will
ensure that there is no intense price gouging.
The question still remains: Should auto drivers charge higher prices during rainy days or
such other market conditions? Suppose autos ply only on metered rate. You will agree
that driving on rainy days is more difficult than driving on other days. The risk for the
auto driver is higher but his return (metered fare), the same. There is, hence, no incentive
for auto drivers to work on rainy days. This would drive several autos out of the market.
It means you can hire an auto at “normal” fare… if you are lucky enough to get one!
So, consider price gouging (or call it free market pricing if you will) as a means to keep the
autos’ supply high… enough to get you home, if you agree on the price. This does not, of
course, justify unfair prices on regular days as well!

Notes
5.3 Income Elasticity
The income elasticity of demand (ei
) is similar to the concept of price elasticity of demand. Just
as price determines price elasticity, so does income, another determinant of demand, determine
income elasticity.
The income elasticity of demand is a numerical measure of the degree to which quantity demanded
responds to a change in income, other determinants of demand being kept constant.
For example, let there be two goods, clothing and salt. Let the consumers income increase by 5%.
Then the percentage change (increase) in quantity demanded would be different for clothing
and different for salt (the percentage increase in quantity demanded for clothing is likely to be
much higher than that for salt). Thus, clothing and salt are said to have a different income
elasticity of demand. Thus, for the same percentage increase in income (i.e., 5%) the percentage
increase in the quantity demanded for different goods is different. Income elasticity of demand
provides us with a numerical measure of this difference.
Thus, income elasticity of demand allows us to compare the sensitivity of the demand for
various goods for the same change in income. From the definition,
ei
=
% change in income
The income elasticity of a commodity may be positive (the usual or likely case) or negative,
depending on whether the good is normal or inferior.
A normal good is one where a percentage increase in income ceteris paribus causes a percentage
increase in quantity demanded and vice-versa. Thus for normal goods (e.g., clothing, cigarettes)
income and quantity demanded vary in direct proportion ceteris paribus due to which the
income elasticity of demand is positive.
An inferior good is one where a percentage increase in income ceteris paribus, causes a percentage
decrease in quantity demanded and vice-versa. Thus for inferior goods (e.g., cheap whisky,
artificial jewellery, imitation shoes, etc.) income and quantity demanded vary in an inverse
proportion ceteris paribus due to which the income elasticity of demand is negative.
When ei
= 1, the good is said to have unitary income elasticity; when ei
1, the good is said to be
income elastic, and so on. Remember when ei
is negative, the good is an inferior good.
5.4 Cross Elasticity of Demand
!
Caution The cross elasticity of demand (ec
) is a numerical measure of the degree to which
quantity demanded of a good responds to changes in the prices of other commodities, the
other determinants of demand being kept constant.
Let there be two goods X and Y. If the price of Y changes (increases or decreases), this may have
an effect on the quantity demanded of good X. The concept of cross elasticity provides a numerical
measure of the percentage change in quantity demanded due to a change in price of other
commodities. It measure the degree to which quantity demanded is a function of the price of all
other commodities. From the definition,
ec
=
% change in quantity demanded of good X
% change in price of good Y

Notes
Example: If X and Y (say butter and bread) are complements, ec
will be negative. If the
price of bread rose ceteris paribus, there would be a decrease in the quantity demanded of bread
and a decrease in the quantity demanded of butter. Thus, for complements, a change in price of
one good ceteris parbius causes the quantity demanded of the complements to move in the
opposite direction. If there is a percentage increase in the price of bread, the denominator in the
formula would be positive. Similarly, if there is a percentage decrease in the quantity of butter,
the numerator in the formula would be negative. Hence, ec
is negative for complements.
If X and Y (say tea and coffee) are substitutes, ec
will be positive. If the price of coffee rose ceteris
paribus, there would be a decrease in the quantity demanded of coffee and an increase in the
quantity demanded of tea as consumers would readily substitute tea for coffee. Thus, for
substitutes the price change of one good ceteris paribus causes the quantity demanded of the
substitute to move in the same direction. If there is a percentage increase in the price of coffee,
the denominator in the formula would be positive. Similarly, if there is a percentage increase in
the quantity demanded of tea, the numerator in the formula would be positive. Hence, ec
is
positive for substitutes.
The higher the numerical magnitude of cross elasticity, the greater is the degree of
complementarity/substitution between the two goods. Thus, theoretically the value of cross
elasticity ranges from minus infinity (- ) for perfect complements to plus infinity (+ ) for
perfect substitutes.
ec
=
x x
x x
dQ dP
Q P
=
x x
x x
dQ P
.
dP Q
Notes Applications of Elasticity
The concept of elasticity has a wide range of applications in economics. In particular, an
understanding of elasticity is fundamental in understanding the response of supply and
demand in a market.
Some common applications of elasticity include:
1. Effect of changing price on firm's revenues: If the demand for the product is price
inelastic, the firm would not want to lower its price since that would reduce its total
revenue, increase its total costs and this will give it lower profits.
2. Analysis of incidence of the tax burden and other government policies: In economics,
tax incidence is the analysis of the effect of a particular tax on the distribution of
economic welfare. Tax incidence is said to fall upon the group that, at the end of the
day, bears the burden of the tax. The key concept is that the tax incidence or tax
burden does not depend on where the revenue is collected, but on the price elasticity
of demand (and price elasticity of supply). For example, a tax on orange farmers
might actually be paid by owners of agricultural land or consumers of oranges.
3. Effect of international trade and terms of trade effects: Marshall-Lerner Condition
gives a technical reason why a reduction in value of a nation's currency need not
immediately improve its balance of payments. The condition states that, for a currency
devaluation to have a positive impact on trade balance, the sum of price elasticity of
exports and imports (in absolute value) must be greater than 1.
Contd...

Notes
4. Analysis of consumption and saving behavior: the way consumers respond to the
change in prices or other determinants of demand, determines their consumption
pattern and savings pattern. For example, a consumer purchases 2 bottles of cold
drinks instead to 4, when price rose from 10 to 15. Other things remaining
constant, he is saving more money than before.
5. If the elasticity of the firm's sales with reference to advertisement expenditure is
positive and higher than for its expenditure on product quality and customer service,
then the firms would find it more beneficial to concentrate its sales efforts on
advertising rather than on product quality and customer service.
Case Study Student’s Dilemma
A
small state university is faced with a critical financial problem. At present tuition
rates, the university is loosing 5 crore per year. The head of the university
urges that there should be a 25% increase in tuition fee. Based on the total students
enrolled, he projects that this increase would cover the 5 crore deficit in revenues.
Student leaders protest but it falls on deaf ears. Students realise that their only hope is to
demonstrate that the tuition hike is not in the best interest of the university. What can they
do?
Students find a journal article that discusses the price elasticity of demand for college
education. The author estimates that the elasticity of enrollment at state universities
is –1.3 with respect to tuition charges. That is, a 1% increase in tuition would decrease
enrollments by 1.3%. The data are current. Based on the elasticity estimate, the students
calculate that the proposed tuition hike of 25% would decrease enrollment by 32.5%. This
would result in a decrease in total revenue even after tuition increase.
The university is given this information and it is forced to withdraw its proposed hike and
find alternative ways to meet the deficit.
Question
Evaluate the ultimate decision of the university to withdraw the proposed hike.
Source: Atmanand, Managerial Economics, 2nd Edition, Excel Books.
Case Study The Perks of Pump Avoidance
Ralph Vartabedian
Higher gasoline prices are cleaning out the wallets of motorists, but there may be a silver
lining: Traffic is somewhat lighter on the heavily congested freeways and surface streets
of Southern California.
It only makes sense that the sharply higher prices at the pump are leading some people to
avoid discretionary trips with their cars, carpooling when possible and shifting to public
transportation.
Contd...

Notes Although there are no hard data yet, a broad range of experts say there is evidence that
people are buying less gasoline and finding ways to avoid using their cars, contributing to
less congestion on the roads.
“We have noticed that volumes are lighter than normal,” said Frank Quon, deputy director
of Caltrans freeway operations for Los Angeles County. “We haven’t done a study. But we
aren’t experiencing as much congestion, and travel times are shorter.”
Quon said the effect was most likely related to higher gasoline prices and the tail end of
spring break in schools, which causes somewhat lighter traffic.
A relatively small change in traffic volume can have a big effect on freeway speeds. That’s
because freeway speeds tend to remain stable as volume increases until the point when
lanes become saturated. Then speeds drop sharply.
The effect was illustrated in Southern California during the 1984 Summer Olympics, when
fewer drivers were on the road.
Meanwhile, Southland public transportation agencies are reporting that ridership has
jumped in the first months of 2005 — up between 3% and 12%, depending on the system.
Anecdotally, a lot of people I talk to say they are seeing the effect every day, which has cut
their commute times dramatically. Normally jammed freeways are mysteriously wide
open.
If people are indeed cutting back on driving, avoiding discretionary trips, car pooling and
using public transportation, it should mean that gasoline sales volumes are dropping.
John Felmy, chief economist at the American Petroleum Institute, the Washington, D.C.,
trade group that represents the oil industry, says that wholesale deliveries of gasoline
across the nation are down slightly.
“Some of the preliminary information we have in the last few weeks indicates that gasoline
demand appears to be down a little bit,” Felmy said.
Gasoline prices are up 51 cents a gallon this year across the nation, averaging $2.24 per
gallon, Felmy said. That’s a 29% increase in price. California prices are higher, averaging
$2.63 a gallon last week.
Question
In this article you can find estimates of both short run and long run elasticities of gasoline
demand. Find out the latter by reading carefully and applying the tools you have learnt in
this unit .
Source: Los Angeles Times, May 4, 2005
5.5 Summary
Elasticity of demand tells the degree of responsiveness of consumer to a price change. It is
measured as:
d
Percentage change in quantity demanded
e
Percentage change in price
The arc elasticity is a measure of average elasticity, that is, the elasticity at the midpoint of
the chord that connects the two points (A and B) on the demand curve defined by the initial
and new price levels.
The income elasticity of demand is a numerical measure of the degree to which quantity
demanded responds to a change in income, other determinants of demand being kept
constant.

Notes
The cross elasticity of demand is a numerical measure of the degree to which quantity
demanded of a good responds to changes in the prices of other commodities, the other
determinants of demand being kept constant.
An understanding of elasticity is fundamental in understanding the response of supply
and demand in a market.
5.6 Keywords
Arc elasticity: It computed if the data is discrete and therefore incremental change is measurable.
Cross elasticity: Degree to which demand for one product is affected by the price of another
product.
Demand elasticity: Elasticity used to show the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a
good or service to a change in its price.
Elasticity: It measures the degree of responsiveness of demand/supply to change in price.
Point elasticity: It computed if demand function is continuous and therefore only marginal
changes are calculable.
5.7 Self Assessment
(a) Elasticity of demand measures responsiveness of demand of a commodity to ………..,
…………… and ...................... .
(b) Such horizontal demand curves, where quantity demanded is infinitely responsive
to price changes, are called ........................ .
(c) Demand curves which have an elasticity coefficient as 1 are called ........................ .
(d) All such demand curves where quantity demanded is totally unresponsive to changes
in price are called .............. .
(e) The demand is ................ in the long run.
(a) If we go by the Law of Demand, the price elasticity for most goods would be negative.
(b) The price elasticity of a straight line demand curve varies from zero to infinity.
(c) When the income elasticity is equal to 1, the good is said to be income inelastic.
(d) When the income elasticity is negative, the good is an inferior good.
(e) For complementary goods, the cross elasticity will always be positive.
1. Discuss the factors that determine elasticity of demand.
2. Explain price elasticity of demand with help of examples.
3. Assume that our current consumption of paperback books is 1000 per year at the average
price of 1.50 per book. The estimated coefficient of price elasticity is 0.75. The price
increase is 50 paise per book. Calculate the change in the quantity of books demanded,
other things being equal.

Notes 4. The market demand function of a commodity is represented by QA
= 20 – 2PA
– 0.5 PB
+ 0.01 Y,
where QA
is the quantity demanded of A, PA
is the price of A, PB
is the price of B, and Y is the
consumer’s income. Calculate price and cross elasticities of demand for A when PA
= 5,
PB
= 10 and Y = 1000.
5. When the price of good X falls from 10 to 9, the demand for good Y increase from
20 Kg. to 25 Kg.
(a) What is the cross elasticity of demand of good Y for good X?
(b) Are goods X and Y compliments or substitutes?
6. You are given market data that says when the price of pizza is 60, the quantity demanded
of pizza is 80 slices and the quantity demanded of cheese bread is 120 pieces. When the
price of pizza is 30, the quantity demanded of pizza is 100 slices and the quantity demanded
of cheese bread is 100 pieces.
(a) Can the Price-Elasticity of Demand be calculated for either good?
(b) If so, calculate the Price Elasiticity of Demand for each product.
7. Consider the markets for screw-gauge and vernier caliper. You study survey data and
observe that if a screw-gauge costs 50, 100 screw-gauges are demanded. You also observe
that if a screw-gauge cost 30, 150 vernier calipers are demanded and if a screw-gauge cost
40 then 100 vernier calipers are demanded. If a vernier caliper costs 20, 125 vernier
calipers are demanded.
(a) Can the Price-Elasticity of Demand be calculated for either good?
(b) If so, calculate the Price Elasiticity of Demand for each good.
8. As a business manager, how do you find the demand elasticity to be useful? Also, can you
forecast you revenues in case you know the demand elasticity?
9. Examine the concept of price elasticity of demand. Which of the two methods of measuring
it is preferred by you and why?
10. When an individual's income was 2000, the demand for rice was 10kg. An increase of
500 in the individual's income leads to a fall in the demand of rice by 2kg. Assuming that
the price of rice remained constant, what is the income elasticity of demand for rice?
11. Think and state one situation where a business manager will use promotional elasticity to
make business decisions.
12. Discuss cross elasticity of demand, prove its utility for business managers.
13. What will be the impact of price elasticity of the demand on the following product ranges
available in the Indian market: (a) edible oil (b) computer hardware.
1. (a) Price, income of consumers and price of other goods
(b) Perfectly elastic (c) Unit elastic
(d) Perfectly elastic (e) More elastic
2. (a) True (b) True (c) False
(d) True (e) False

Notes
Dominick Salvatore, Managerial Economics, Thomson.
Haynes, Mote and Paul, Managerial Economics — Analysis and Cases, Vakils. Fellner
Malcolm P. McNair and Richard S. Meriam,Problems in Business Economics, McGraw
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Yogesh Maheshwari, Managerial Economics, Prentice Hall
Online links http://economics.about.com/cs/micfrohelp/a/priceelasticity.htm
www.quickmba.com/econ/micro/elas/ped.shtml
ingrimayne.com/econ/elasticity/Elastic1.html

Notes Unit 6: Production Theory
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 Meaning of Production
6.2 Production Function with One Variable Input
6.3 Production Function with two Variable Inputs
6.4 Producer’s Equilibrium
6.4.1 Isoquants
6.4.2 Concept of Producer’s Equilibrium
6.5 Expansion Path
6.6 Total, Marginal and Average Revenue
6.6.1 Total Revenue (TR)
6.6.2 Average Revenue (AR)
6.6.3 Marginal Revenue (MR)
6.7 Summary
6.8 Keywords
6.9 Self Assessment
Objectives
Describe production function with one and two variables
State the concept of producers equilibrium and expansion path
Explain the behaviour of total, average and marginal revenue curves
Introduction
The production analysis of the firm brings into focus the process of production and related costs
of production. We must take inputs into consideration applied for production and resulting into
output. There are different methods to produce a commodity. The firm has to identify the
technically efficient production processes for avoiding any wastage of resources. These technically
efficient production processes provide a choice for choosing the least-cost process.
Major portion of goods and services consumed in a modern economy are produced by firms. A
firm is an organisation that combines and organises resources for the purpose of producing

Notes
goods and services for sale at a profit. The most important reason for a firm or business enterprises
exist is that firms are specialised organisation devoted to manage the process of production.
6.1 Meaning of Production
Production refers to the transformation of inputs or resources into outputs or goods and services.
Production is a process in which economic resources or inputs (composed of natural resources
like labour, land and capital equipment) are combined by entrepreneurs to create economic
goods and services (outputs or products).
Firms are required to take different but interrelated production decisions like:
1. Whether or not to actually produce or shut down?
2. How much to produce?
3. What input combination to use?
4. What type of technology to use?
Figure 6.1 depicts a simple production process.
Figure 6.1: Production Process
In fact, production theory is just an application of constrained optimization technique. The firm
tries either to minimize cost of production at a given level of output or maximize the output
achievable with a given level of cost.
Inputs are the resources used in the production of goods and services and are generally classified
into three broad categories – labour, capital and land or natural resources. They may be fixed or
variable.
Fixed Inputs are those that cannot be quickly changed during the time period under consideration
except, perhaps at a very great expense, (e.g., a firms’ plant).
Variable Inputs are those that can be changed easily and on very short notice (e.g., most raw
materials and unskilled labour).
The time period during which at least one input is fixed is called the, short run, while the time
period when all inputs are variable is called, the long run. The length of the long run depends on
the type of industry, e.g., the long run for a dry cleaning business may be a few weeks or months.
Generally, a firm operates in the short run and plans increases or reductions in its scale of
operation in the long run. In the long run, technology generally improves so that more output
can be obtained from a given quantity of inputs, or the same output can be obtained from fewer
inputs.

Notes 6.2 Production Function with One Variable Input
A production function is a function that specifies the output of a firm, an industry, or an entire
economy for all combinations of inputs. In other words, it shows the functional relationship
between the inputs used and the output produced.
Mathematically, the production function can be shown as:
Q = f (X1
, X2
..................XK
)
where Q = Output, X1
.............. XK
= Inputs used.
For purposes of analysis, the equation can be reduced to two inputs X and Y. Restating,
Q = f (X, Y)
where Q = Output
X = Labour
Y = Capital
A more complete definition of production function can be:
‘A production function defines the relationship between inputs and the maximum amount that
can be produced within a given period of time with a given level of technology’.
A production function can be stated in the form of a table, schedule or mathematical equation.
But before doing that, two special features of a production function are given below:
1. Labour and capital are both unavoidable inputs to produce any quantity of a good, and
2. Labour and capital are substitutes to each other in production.
A form of production functions is the Constant Elasticity of Substitution, CES function,
Q = B[gL–h
+ (1 – g)K–h
]–1h
where h –1 and B, g and h are constants.
If h is assumed to be a variable, then the above function may be called the variable elasticity of
substitution, VES function.
Still another form is the fixed proportion production function also called the Leontief function.
It is represented by
Q = minimum
K L
, ,
a b
where a and b are constants and ‘minimum’ means that Q equals the
smaller of the two ratios.
Finally there is a very simple linear production function. Assuming that the inputs are perfect
substitutes so that all factors may be reducible to one single factor, say, labour, L, than the linear
production function may be,
Q = aL, where ‘a’ is the constant term and L stands for labour.
In order to analyse the relationship between factor inputs and outputs, economists classify time
periods into short runs and long runs.

Notes
Before further discussion it is necessary to conceptualize three terms: total product, average
product and marginal product.
1. Total product is the total quantity produced by that many units of a variable factor
(i.e., labour). For example, if on a farm 2000 Kg. of wheat were produced by 10 men, the
total product would be 2000 Kg.
2. Average product is the total output divided by the number of units of the variable factor
(or the number of men). Thus AP = TP/L. On the same farm, the average product would be
2000/10 = 200 Kg.
3. Marginal product is the change in total output resulting from the change (using one more
or one less unit) of the variable factor. If an eleventh man is now added to this farm and
the output rose to 2,100 Kg, the marginal product (of labour) would be 100 Kg. Thus,
MP = d(TP)/dL.
For a two-input production process, the total product of labour (TPL
) is defined as the maximum
rate of output coming up from combining varying rates of labour input with a fixed capital
input K . (Note: A bar over K or over any other variable means, that variable has been fixed,
and therefore is no more variable.)
TPL
= f (K,L)
and total product of capital function is
TPK
= f (K,L)
Marginal product (MP) is the change in output per unit change in the variable input. Thus the
marginal product of labour and capital is
For the Cobb-Douglas production function, Q = AKa
Lb
The marginal products are
and
Average product (AP) is total product per unit of variable input. It is found by dividing the rate
of output by rate of variable input, i.e.,
and
By holding the quantity of input constant and changing the other, we can derive TP of the
variable input.
Example: By holding capital constant at one unit (K = 1) and increasing units of labour
used from 0 to 6 units, we get total product of labour as in column (2) in Table.

Notes TP, MP and AP of Labour
(1)
Labour
(No. of workers)
(2)
Output or TP
(3)
MP of Labour
(4)
AP of Labour
(5)
Output Elasticity
of Labour
0 0 - - -
1 3 3 3 1
2 8 5 4 1.25
3 12 4 4 1
4 14 2 3.5 0.57
5 14 0 2.8 0
6 12 -2 2 -1
Marginal product (MP) of labour (MPL
) is the change in total product or extra output per unit
change in labour used. Average product of labour (APL
) equals total product divided by the
quantity of labour used.
Output elasticity of labour (EL
) measures the percentage change in output divided by percentage
change in quantity of labour used.
or
This means that from zero units of labour (and with K = 1), TP or output grows proportionally
to the growth in the labour input. For the second unit of labour EL
= 1.25 (that is, TP or output
grows more than proportionally to the increase in L), and so on.
Short Run and Long Run Production Function
The above features show that some quantity of both the inputs is required to produce a given
quantity of output. A two input long run production function for quantities of labour and capital
upto 10 units can be expressed as in Table 6.1.

Notes
Table 6.1: Long Run Production Function
Capital (K)
Labour
(L)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 5 15 35 47 55 62 61 59 56 52
2 0 12 31 49 58 66 72 77 72 74 71
3 0 35 48 59 68 75 82 87 91 89 87
4 0 48 59 68 72 84 91 96 99 102 101
5 0 56 68 76 85 92 99 104 108 111 113
6 0 55 72 83 91 99 107 112 117 120 122
7 0 53 73 89 97 104 111 117 122 125 127
8 0 50 72 91 100 107 114 120 124 127 129
9 0 46 70 90 102 109 116 121 125 128 130
10 0 40 67 89 103 110 117 122 126 129 131
If capital was the fixed input in the short run, then each column of the table represents a short run
production function with respect to a specific quantity of the fixed (Capital) input.
Example: For K = 2, the short-run production function would be as in Table.
Short Run Production Function
Labour (L) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output (Q) 0 15 31 48 59 68 72 73 72 70 67
The above functions can be shown on a two dimensional diagram with a family of production
curves, one for each production level. Figure below gives such a representation for two selected
levels of production, Q = 91 and Q = 122. Table shows that there are four alternative ways of
producing 91 units and three for producing 122 units of output.
Long Run Production Function

Notes
Task Consider any one manufacturing company and note down its production
in units for the last 5 years. Also try to find out what inputs do they use in their production.
6.3 Production Function with two Variable Inputs
A firm may increase its output by using more of two variable inputs that are substitutes for each
other, e.g., labour and capital. There may be various technical possibilities of producing a given
output by using different factor combinations. Which particular factor combination will be
actually selected by the firm depends both on the technical possibilities of factor substitution as
well as on the prices of the factors of production.
The technical possibilities of producing an output level by various combinations of the two
factors can be graphically represented in terms of Isoquants (dealt with in this chapter later).
Caselet Real World — Advantages of Just-in-time Production
D
uring the 1950s and 1960s, the Toyota Motor Company originated and developed
the just-in-time system of production which has had an enormous effect in
Japan and elsewhere. According to this system, materials, parts and components
are produced and delivered just before they are needed. One advantage is that inventories
of parts and of work in process are reduced considerably, but this is only part of the story.
In addition, the time and cost required to change from the production of one part or model
to another are reduced, thus cutting costs and enabling the firm to produce small lots
economically.
A careful comparison of an automobile plant using the just-in-time system with an
automobile plant not using it resulted in the following data:
Plant using just-in-time
System
Plant not using just-in-time
System
Cars produced per day 1,000 860
Total factory workers 1,000 2,150
Workers per car per day
Direct labour 0.79 1.25
Overhead personnel 0.21 1.25
Total 1.00 2.50
The above data reveals the following:
1. Yes – the number of cars produced per day divided by the number of workers is 1.0
in the plant using the just-in-time system but only 0.4 in the plant not using the just-
in-time system.
2. The average product of labour – the number of cars produced per day divided by the
number of workers – is the reciprocal of the number of workers per car per day.
Thus, the average product of overhead workers is 1/0.21 = 4.76 using the just-in-
time system, but 1/1.25 = 0.8 without it. On the other hand, the average product of
workers engaged in direct labour is 1/0.79 = 1.27 using the just-in-time system, but
1/1.25 = 0.8 without it. Clearly the percentage increase in average product is greater
for overhead workers than for direct labour.
Contd...

Notes
3. One reason why the just-in-time system decreases overhead labour considerably is
that the time required for planning and management is reduced because changeovers
are faster.
4. The firm's isoquants shifted inward to the origin.
6.4 Producer’s Equilibrium
Before discussing the concept of producer’s equilibrium, we must discuss the concepts of
Isoquants, marginal rate of technical substitution and isocost line. After learning these concepts,
you will be able to understand the concept of producer’s equilibrium better.
6.4.1 Isoquants
Isoquants are a geometric representation of the production function. The same level of output
can be produced by various combinations of factor inputs. Imagining continuous variation in
the possible combination of labour and capital, we can draw a curve by plotting all these
alternative combinations for a given level of output. This curve which is the locus of all possible
combination is called the ‘isoquant’.
Any quantity of a good can be produced by using many different combinations of labour and
capital (assuming both can be substituted for each other). An isoquant or an iso-product curve is
the line which joins together different combinations of the factors of production (L, K) that are
physically able to produce a given amount of output.
Suppose isoquant refers to 100 Kg. of output. This output can be produced by a large number of
different combinations of labour and capital. All the different combinations for the same amount
of output would lie on the same isoquant.
Example: 10 units of capital and 5 units of labour (A) provide the same output as 3 units
of capital and 20 units of labour input (B). The firm can choose any one of these combinations
(A or B) or any other combination which lies on the same isoquant to get 100 Kg. of output. The
isoquant does not tell us the combination of factor inputs the firm actually uses; (that combination
is based on process of the factors) but shows the technically possible combinations of factor
inputs that are required to produce a given level of output. Isoquant I has been drawn by joining
these combinations of labour and capital inputs which give out the same amount of total produce
i.e., 100 Kg. Points like A which require more capital but less labour represent capital intensive
methods of production. Points like B, which require less capital and more labour represent
labour intensive methods of production.
Units of Labour
Units of Capital

Notes For movements along an isoquant, the level of output remains constant and the ratio of capital
to labour changes continuously. However, a movement from the isoquant to another means
that the level of output changes.
Types of Isoquants
The production isoquant may assume various shapes depending on the degree of substitutability
of factors. The types are discussed in Table 6.2 and the matching graphs are shown in Figure 6.2.
Table 6.2: Types of Isoquants
Types of Isoquants Description
Linear Isoquants This type assumes perfect substitutability of factors of production. A given
commodity may be produced by using only capital, or only labour, or by an
infinite combination of K and L.
Input-output
Isoquants
This assumes strict complementarity, that is, zero substitutability of the
factors of production. There is only one method of production for any one
commodity.
The isoquant takes the shape of a right angle. This type of isoquant is called
Leontief isoquant.
Kinked Isoquants This assumes limited substitutability of K and L. There are only a few
processes for producing any one commodity. Substitutability of factors is
possible only at the kinks. It is also called activity analysis isoquant or
linear-programming isoquant because it is basically used in linear
programming.
Smooth, Convex
Isoquants
This form assumes continuous substitutability of K and L only over a
certain range, beyond which factors cannot substitute each other. This
isoquant appears as a smooth curve convex to the origin.
Figure 6.2: Types of Isoquants

Notes
Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution
Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (MRTS) is the amount by which the quantity of one
input has to be reduced (– x2
) when one extra unit of another input is used ( x1
= 1), so that
output remains constant (y = y ).
2 1
1 2
1 2
x MP
MRTS(x ,x )
x MP
where MP1
and MP2
are the marginal products of input 1 and input 2, respectively.
Along an isoquant, the MRTS shows the rate at which one input (e.g. capital or labour) may be
substituted for another, while maintaining the same level of output. The MRTS can also be seen
as the slope of an isoquant at the point in question.
Isocost Line
If a firm uses only labour and capital, the total cost or expenditure of the firm can be represented
by:
C = wL + rK
where C = total cost
w = wage rate of labour
L = quantity of labour used
r = rental price of capital
K = quantity of capital used
The equation shows that the total cost of the firm (C) is equal to the sum of its expenditures on
labour (wL) and capital (rK). This equation is a general one of the firm's isocost line or equal-cost
line. It shows the various combinations of labour and capital that the firm can hire or rent at a
given total cost.
Example: If C = 900 units, w = 10 units and r = 10 units, the firm could either hire 10 L or
rent 10 K or any combination of L and K shown on isocost line AB in figure. For each unit of
capital the firm gives up, it can hire one additional unit of labour. Thus the slope of the isocost
line is - 1.
By subtracting wL from both sides of the equation above and then dividing by r, we get the
general equation of the isocost line in the following more useful form:
C wL
K
r r
where C/r is the vertical intercept of the isocost line and -w/r is its slope. Thus for C=100 units
and w=r=10 units, the vertical intercept is c/r = 100/10=10K, and the slope is -w/r = -10/10 = -1.
A different total cost by the firm would define a different but parallel isocost line, while different
relative input prices would define an isocost line with a different slope.

Notes
Isocost Line
6.4.2 Concept of Producer’s Equilibrium
The theory of production may be viewed from two angles which are dual to each other. A firm
may decide to produce a particular level of output and then attempt to minimise the cost of total
inputs or it may attempt to maximise its output subject to a cost constraint.
A firm spends money on two inputs only, X and Y. It decides its budget and knows the price of
each of the inputs which remains constant. If the firm spends all its budget it can buy either OB
units of input X or OA units of input Y or a combination of X and Y represented by a point lying
on the straight line AB in Figure 6.3. The line AB is the budget line of the firm.
Figure 6.3: Optimum Factor Combination
5-6.eps
CorelDRAW
Tue Mar 01 16:25:51 2011
The slope of the budget line or the isocost line will be –
OA
OB
, where
OA =
Cost
Price of Y
and OB =
Cost
Price of X

Notes
Therefore, slope of AB =
OA
OB
= X
Y
Price of X P
Price of Y P
The negative sign indicates negative slope. In absolute terms, the slope of the budget line is
equal to the price ratio of the two inputs.
The budget line of the firm has been superimposed on its isoquant map. The firm would be in
equilibrium at a point where an isoquant is tangent to the budget line AB, i.e., point E. Thus in
equilibrium, the firm produces on the isoquant Q2
and uses OX1
units of input X and OY1
units of
input Y. At point E, the slope of the isoquant Q2
is equal to the slope of the budget line, i.e., the
marginal rate of technical substitution of X and Y is equal to the ratio of prices of two inputs.
Thus MRTSXY
= X X
Y Y
MP P
MP P
Thus, to minimise production costs (or to maximise output for a given cost outlay), the extra
output or marginal product spent on labour must be equal to the marginal product per unit
spent on capital.
6.5 Expansion Path
The case of a firm producing 1000 units of output using 10 units of capital and 10 units of labour
(at point a) with input prices w=2 and r=2 is shown in Figure 6.4 using isoquants and isocosts.
Figure 6.4
Thus the cost of this input combination is 40 units. At point a, the 1000 unit isoquant is tangent
to the 40 unit isocost line. If the firm wants to increase its output or expand its production, it will
move to point b if 1500 units are to be produced and then to point c if 1750 units of output are to
be produced. In general, the firm expands by moving from one tangency or efficient production
point to another. These efficient points represent the expansion path.

Notes Figure 6.5
An expansion path is formally defined as the set of combinations of capital and labour that meet
the efficiency condition
L L
K K
MP P
MP P .
An equation for the expansion path can be determined by first substituting the marginal product
functions and input prices into the efficiency condition, and then by solving for capital as a
function of labour. If the production function is Q = 100 K½
L½
, the corresponding marginal
product functions are:
1/2
L 1/2
dQ 50K
MP
dL L
6.6 Total, Marginal and Average Revenue
Revenue is the amount generated from sale of goods or services, or any other use of capital or
assets, associated with the main operations of firm before any costs or expenses are deducted.
In economics, we have three types of revenues-total revenue, average revenue and marginal
revenue-which are discussed in subsequent subsections.
6.6.1 Total Revenue (TR)
Total revenue is the total money received from the sale of any given quantity of output.
The total revenue is calculated by taking the price of the sale times the quantity sold, i.e.
TR = Price × Quantity.
Example: If price is 10 and quantity sold is 100, then total revenue would be 1000.
Figure depicts a total revenue curve.

Notes
Total Revenue Curve
6.6.2 Average Revenue (AR)
Average revenue is the revenue received for selling a good per unit of output sold. It is calculated
by dividing total revenue by the quantity of output, i.e.
AR= TR/Quantity
Average revenue often goes by a simpler and more widely used term- price. Using the longer
term average revenue rather than price provides a connection to other related terms, especially
total revenue and marginal revenue. When compared with average cost, average revenue shows
the amount of profit generated per unit of output produced. Average revenue is often shown by
an average revenue curve, shown in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Average Revenue Curve (Under Perfect Market)

Notes 6.6.3 Marginal Revenue (MR)
Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue resulting from a change in the quantity of
output sold. Marginal revenue indicates how much extra revenue a firm receives for selling an
extra unit of output. It is found by dividing the change in total revenue by the change in the
quantity of output. Marginal revenue is the slope of the total revenue curve and is one of two
revenue concepts derived from total revenue. The other is average revenue. To maximize profit,
a firm equates marginal revenue and marginal cost.
MR = Change in TR/Change in Quantity
Figure 6.7 depicts a MR curve under perfect market.
Figure 6.7: MR Curve
Task If price of a unit of good X is 35 and total quantity sold is 230. Find the
total revenue, average revenue and the marginal revenue? Can all the three values be
found with the given data?
Case Study Cotton Board over Estimated Production
T
he Southern India Mills' Association (SIMA) said the Cotton Advisory Board (CAB's)
has over estimated the production and under estimated the consumption. According
to industry experts any further export of cotton would surpass the quantity decided
by Group of Ministers by two lakh bales.
J Thulasidharan, chairman, SIMA said that CAB, at its first meeting held on January 6, 2011
has estimated the cotton production as 32.9 million bales and consumption as 27.5 million
bales (including 2 million bales of non-mill consumption), retained the exportable surplus
as 5.5 million bales and thus reducing the closing stock to 4.45 million bales as against the
Group of Ministers (GoM) promised quantity of 5 million bales.
Contd...

Notes
He said, CAB has over estimated the production and under estimated the consumption,
textile mills would be forced to curtail their production for want of raw cotton from July
onwards resulting abnormal increase in cotton and yarn price. CAB has reported, cotton
production in the northern region (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan) will be less than 4
million bales, which has been endorsed by the ginning and trading community. In the
past several years, Maharashtra farmers have been selling sizable kapas in Gujarat to fetch
higher income whereas in the current season, since the farmers are realising good prices
in Maharashtra itself, trading of kapas to Gujarat has come down drastically. This will
result in Gujarat crop to less than 10 million bales, he said, Thulasidharan said, in
Maharashtra, both production and quality, has been affected from the fact of large scale
arrivals of low micronnaire cotton. This in turn is an indication of severe crop damage in
this state, therefore Maharashtra crop would be only around 8 million bales as against the
CAB estimate of 9.2 million bales.
On extra long staple (ELS) cotton production, he said, erratic weather condition and
unseasonal rains have seriously affected the crop in Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Total DCH production may not cross even 125,000 bales, out of which sizeable quantity of
arrivals is in the hands of exporters due to recent export clearance and grant of additional
quota. With abnormally high ELS cotton prices (280 to 285 cents for PIMA and GIZA 88),
Indian spinning sector will have serious setback in fine and superfine counts, said
Thulasidharan.
He further said the hoarding of ELS cotton by the exporters has increased the DCH 32
cotton price from 53,000 per candy to 70,000 in a span of 10 days (spot prices), an
increase of 24 per cent.
Thulasidharan estimated cotton production for the season 2010-11 will be only around
30.9 million bales. As far as cotton consumption is concerned, he stated, that Textile
Commissioner Office has already estimated at 27.5 million bales for the current cotton
season. Non-submission of data to the Textile Commissioner's office is a handicap in
arriving at the consumption figure. If the consumption of non-reporting mills and also the
capacity being added in the spinning sector, the requirement including non-mill
consumption would exceed 28.5 million bales.
Viewing the production and consumption data, any further export of cotton would
seriously affect the entire textile value chain. Even with the current cotton position, mills
will face shortage of cotton from July onwards thus resulting in abnormal increase in yarn
prices, ultimately affecting the common man.
The Association has sought the ministry of textiles to take up the matter suitably with the
commerce and agriculture ministries and restrict the cotton export at 5.5 million bales and
pointed out that the permitted quantity of export of cotton has already exceeded the
quantity decided by Group of Ministers by 200,000 bales.
Question
Do you think that the estimates of Cotton Board are logical? Is it easy for the Board to
estimate production and therefore estimate the total revenue and the marginal revenue?
Source: www.business-standard.com

Notes 6.7 Summary
Production means conversion of inputs or resources into usable commodities or services.
Inputs are the resources used in the production of goods and services and are generally
classified into three broad categories — labour, capital and land or natural resources.
Production is a process in which economic resources or inputs are combined by
entrepreneurs to create economic goods and services.
An expansion path is formally defined as the set of combinations of capital and labour that
meet the efficiency condition.
Isoquants are a geometric representation of the production function. Various combinations
of factor inputs can produce the same level of output.
The marginal rate of technical substitution of L for K (denoted by MRTSL,K
) is defined as
the number of units of input K that a producer is willing to sacrifice for an additional unit
for L so as to maintain the same level of output
6.8 Keywords
Isoquants: These are a geometric representation of the production function
Kinked isoquant: This assumes limited substitutability of capital and labour.
Marginal revenue product of labour: Marginal product of labour times the marginal revenue
from the sale of extra output produced
Production function: A function that states the maximum amount of an output that can be
produced with a certain combination of inputs, within a given period of time and with a given
level of technology
Production: Transformation of inputs into output
6.9 Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. Production refers to the .............................. of inputs or resources into output of goods and
services.
2. .............................. are the resources used in the production of goods and services and are
generally classified into three broad categories-labour, capital and land or natural resources.
3. .............................. are those that can be varied easily and on very short notice.
4. The time period during which at least one input is fixed is called the .............................. .
5. Mathematically, the production function can also be shown as: .............................. .
6. The MPP of factor is a change in .............. resulting from a change in a factor of production.
7. Linear isoquant assumes ..................... substitutability of factors of production.
8. Kinked isoquant assumes ..................... substitutability of factors of production.
9. Kinked isoquant assumes ............ substitutability of capital and labour.
10. Average Revenue is, generally, also referred to as ……………………

Notes
1. Which of the following statements best describes the general form of a production function
and why?
(a) It is a purely technological relationship between quantities of input and quantities
of output.
(b) It represents the technology of an organisation, sector of an economy.
(c) Prices of inputs or of the output do not enter into the production function.
(d) It is a flow concept describing the transformation of inputs into output per unit of
time.
2. A firm has a production function of the following form Q = K + 2L Where Q is output, K is
the capital input and L is the labour input per time period. The wage rate and the rental
rate on capital is 50 per unit. Find out the cost minimising output.
3. A firm faces the following long run cost function:
TC = q3
– 40q2
+ 450q
Calculate the quantity (q) and the average cost (AC), when the latter will be at its minimum.
4. From the information given below calculate the average and marginal product of labour.
Land (acres) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Labour (number of men) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total product (kg.) 0 3 8 12 15 17 17 16
5. If a firm moves from one point on a production isoquant to another, which of the following
will not happen and why?
(a) A change in the ratio in which the inputs are combined.
(b) A change in the marginal products of the inputs.
(c) A change in the rate of technical substitution.
(d) A change in the level of output.
6. “The marginal rate of technical substitution is numerically equal to the negative of the
slope of an isoquant.” Comment.
7. Can Isoquants be drawn in different shapes? Examine their characteristics.
8. Calculate the total cost of production, if only two inputs are used- labour and capital.
Consider the following data: Cost of labour= 50/unit, price of capital= 500, number of
labour used= 35 and capital used 45.
9. Show that the different relative input prices would define an isocost line with a different
slope.
10. Show that the ratio of marginal products is equal to the ratio of price.
1. Transformation 2. Inputs
3. Variable Inputs 4. Short Run
5. Q = f(X1
, X2
……………Xk
) 6. output

Notes 7. perfect 8. limited
9. limited 10. Price
H.Craig Patersen, Managerial Economics, Prentice Hall
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Paul G. Keat, Managerial Economics, Pearson Education
Online links faculty.lebow.drexel.edu/McCainR/top/Prin/txt/MPCh/firm4a.html
ingrimayne.com/econ/TheFirm/ProductionFunct.html
http://www.docshare.com/doc/211217/PRODUCER-EQUILIBRIUM

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Law of Diminishing Returns to Factor (Law of Variable Proportions)
7.1.1 Three Stages of Production
7.1.2 Optimal use of Variable Input
7.2 Returns to Scale (Law of Returns to Scale)
7.3 Summary
7.4 Keywords
7.5 Self Assessment
Objectives
Discuss law of diminishing returns to factor and returns to scale
Explain the law of returns of scale
Introduction
In this unit, we will discuss the laws of production. In the short run, the law of diminishing
returns states that as we add more units of a variable input (i.e. labour or raw materials) to fixed
amounts of land and capital, the change in total output will at first rise and then fall. Diminishing
returns to labour occurs when marginal product of labour starts to fall. This means that total
output will still be rising - but increasing at a decreasing rate as more workers are employed. In
the long run, all factors of production are variable. How the output of a business responds to a
change in factor inputs is called returns to scale.
7.1 Law of Diminishing Returns to Factor (Law of Variable
Proportions)
If all inputs of a firm are fixed and only the amount of labour services differs, then any decrease
or increase in output is achieved with the help of changes in the amount of labour services used.
When the firm changes the amount of labour services only, it changes the proportion between
the fixed input and the variable input. As the firm keeps on changing this proportion by changing
the amount of labour, it experiences the law of variable proportion or diminishing marginal
returns. This law states that,
As more and more of the factor input is employed, all other input quantities remaining constant,
a point will finally be reached where additional quantities of varying input will produce
diminishing marginal contributions to total product.

Notes This underlines the short run production function. It can be shown in a Table 7.1 and Figure 7.1
as follows.
Table 7.1: Production Function with One Variable Input
Number of Labour
Units (L)
(1)
Total Product of
Labour (TPL)
(2)
Average Product of
Labour (APL)
(3 = 1 + 2)
Marginal Product of
Labour (MPL)
(4)
1 100 100 –
2 210 105 110
3 330 110 120
4 430 107.5 100
5 520 104 90
6 600 100 80
7 670 95.7 70
8 720 90 50
9 750 83.3 30
10 760 76 10
In Table 7.1 labour is assumed to be the only variable input. Columns 1 and 2 together represent
the production function of the firm. Column 3 shows the average combination of labour units
involved. Column 4 lists the amount of increase in output as a result of each additional unit of
labour, e.g., the marginal physical product of 5th unit of labour is the total physical product of
5 units of labour minus the total physical product of 4 units. Column 4 shows that the marginal
physical product starts decreasing from 4th unit of labour onward. If labour units employed
increase beyond 10, the marginal physical product will become zero and later become negative.
The stage from where the marginal physical product starts decreasing shows the law of
diminishing returns or law of variable proportions.
MP begins to fall before the AP does. The reason is that the AP attributes the increase in TP
equally to all the units of the variable factor whereas the MP, by definition, attributes the
increase in TP to the marginal unit of the variable factor.
If the MP is greater than the AP, the AP rises and if the MP is less than the AP, then the AP falls.
For example if the batsman’s next (or marginal) score is greater than his average score, then his
average score rises and if his next (or marginal) score is less than his average score, the average
score falls.
From this it follows, that when the MP is equal to the AP, the AP is at its maximum. The reason
is that when AP is increasing, MP is above AP, pulling it up; when the AP is at its maximum and
constant, AP is equal to MP; when AP is falling, MP is below AP, pulling it down.

Notes
Figure 7.1
7.1.1 Three Stages of Production
Diminishing returns to a factor can be graphically understood with the help of total and marginal
product curves. In Figure 7.1, the TPP curve rises first to an increasing rate in stage I and later at
a diminishing rate in stage II. At stage II, the TPP remains constant. Thus, the total output
increases more than proportionately until X units of labour are employed; between X units and
Y units of labour used, the total output rises with every additional unit of labour but this
increase is less than proportionate. If labour units increase beyond level Y, the total output
eventually starts decreasing. Correspondingly when TPP is rising at an increasing rate, MPP and
APP curves are rising; and when total product is rising at a diminishing rate, the MPP and APP
curves are declining. At Y, where TPP becomes constant, the MPP becomes zero, and additional
labour beyond Y makes MPP negative. These three phases of TPP curve are called the three
stages of production and are summarized in Table 7.2.
No firm will choose to operate either in Stage I or Stage III. In Stage I the marginal physical
product is rising, i.e., each additional unit of the variable factor is contributing to output more
than the earlier units of the factor; it is therefore profitable for the firm to keep on increasing the
use of labour. In Stage III, marginal contribution to output of each additional unit of labour is
negative; it is therefore, not advisable to use any additional labour. Even if cost of labour used
is zero, it is still unprofitable to move into Stage III. Thus, Stage II is the only important range for
a rational firm in a competitive situation. However, the exact number of labour units hired can
be found only when the corresponding data on wage rates is available.

Notes Table 7.2: Stages of Production
Total Physical
Product
Marginal Physical
Product
Average Physical
Product
Additional
Information
Stage I
Increases at an
increasing rate
Increases and reaches
its maximum
Increases (but
slower than MPP)
Fixed inputs grossly under
utilised, specialisation and
team work cause APP to
increase when additional
input is used
Stage II
Increases at a
diminishing rate
and becomes
maximum
Starts diminishing
and becomes equal to
zero
Starts diminishing Specialisation and teamwork
continue and result in
greater output when
additional input is used,
fixed input is being properly
utilised
Stage III
Reaches its
maximum,
becomes constant
and then starts
declining
Keeps on declining
and becomes negative
continues to
diminish but must
always be greater
than zero
Fixed inputs capacity is
reached, additional input
causes output to fall
7.1.2 Optimal use of Variable Input
It is important for the firm to decide how much labour it should use in order to maximize
profits. The firm should employ an additional unit of labour as long as the extra revenue
generated from the sale of the output produced exceeds the extra cost of hiring the unit of labour,
i.e., until the extra revenue equals the extra cost.
Thus, if an additional unit of labour generates 300/- in extra revenue and costs an extra 200
then it pays for the firm to hire this unit of labour as its total profit increases. This is an example
of application of the general optimization principle.
The extra revenue generated by the use of an additional unit of labour is called the Marginal
Revenue Product of Labour (MRPL
). This equals the Marginal Product of Labour (MPL
) times the
Marginal Revenue (MR) from the sale of the extra output produced. Thus,
MRPL
= (MPL
) (MR)
The extra cost of hiring an additional unit of labour or Marginal Resource Cost of Labour
(MRCL
) is equal to the increase in the total cost to the firm resulting from hiring the additional
unit of labour. Thus,
A firm should continue to hire labour as long as MRPL
MRCL
and until
MRPL
= MRCL
This is applicable to any variable input and not just labour.

Notes
Task Production manager of a company estimates that their production process
is currently characterises by the following production functions:
Q = 72x + 20x2
– x3
1. Determine the equation for the MP and AP of the variable factor.
2. What is the MP when seven units of the variable input are employed?
Case Study Productivity Side of Indian Industries
C
ompanies that attend to productivity and growth simultaneously manage cost
reductions very differently from companies that focus on cost cutting alone and
they drive growth very differently from companies that are obsessed with growth
alone. It is the ability to cook sweet and sour that undergrids the remarkable performance
of companies like Intel, GE, ABB and Canon.
In the slow growth electro-technical business, ABB has doubled its revenues from $17
billion to $35 billion, largely by exploiting new opportunities in emerging markets. For
example, it has built up a 46,000 employee organisation in the Asia Pacific region, almost
from scratch. But it has also reduced employment in North America and Western Europe
by 54,000 people. It is the hard squeeze in the north and the west that generated the
resources to support ABB's massive investments in the east and the south.
Everyone knows about the staggering ambition of the Ambanis, which has fuelled Reliance's
evolution into the largest private company in India. Reliance has built its spectacular rise
on a similar ability to cook sweet and sour. What people may not be equally familiar with
is the relentless focus on cost reduction and productivity growth that pervades the company.
Reliance's employee cost is 4 per cent of revenues, against 15-20 per cent of its competitors.
Its sales and distribution cost, at 3 per cent of revenues, is about a third of global standards.
It has continuously pushed down its cost for energy and utilities to 3 per cent of revenues,
largely through 100 per cent captive power generation that costs the company 4.5 cents per
kilowatt-hour; well below Indian utility costs, and about 30 per cent lower than the global
average.
Similarly, its capital cost is 25-30 per cent lower than its international peers due to its
legendary speed in plant commissioning and its relentless focus on reducing the weighted
average cost of capital (WACC) that, at 13 per cent, is the lowest of any major Indian firm.
A Bias for Growth
Comparing major Indian companies in key industries with their global competitors shows
that Indian companies are running a major risk. They suffer from a profound bias for
growth. There is nothing wrong with this bias, as Reliance has shown. The problem is
most look more like Essar than Reliance. While they love the sweet of growth, they are
unwilling to face the sour of productivity improvement.
Nowhere is this more amply borne out than in the consumer goods industry where the
Indian giant Hindustan Lever has consolidated to grow at over 50 per cent while its labour
productivity declined by around 6 per cent per annum in the same period. Its strongest
competitor, Nirma, also grew at over 25 per cent per annum in revenues but maintained
its labour productivity relatively stable. Unfortunately, however, its return on capital
Contd...

Notes employed (ROCE) suffered by over 17 per cent. In contrast, Coca Cola, worldwide, grew
at around 7 per cent, improved its labour productivity by 20 per cent and its return on
capital employed by 6.7 per cent.
The story is very similar in the information technology sector where Infosys, NIIT and
HCL achieve rates of growth of over 50 per cent which compares favourably with the
world's best companies that grew at around 30 per cent between 1994-95. NIIT, for example,
strongly believes that growth is an impetus in itself. Its focus on growth has helped it
double revenues every two years. Sustaining profitability in the face of such expansion is
an extremely challenging task.
For now, this is a challenge Indian infotech companies seem to be losing. The ROCE for
three Indian majors fell by 7 per cent annually over 1994-96. At the same time IBM Microsoft
and SAP managed to improve this ratio by 17 per cent.
There are some exceptions, however. The cement industry, which has focused on
productivity rather than on growth, has done very well in this dimension when compared
to their global counterparts. While Mexico's Cemex has grown about three times fast as
India's ACC, Indian cement companies have consistently delivered better results, not
only on absolute profitability ratios, but also on absolute profitability growth. They show
a growth of 24 per cent in return on capital employed while international players show
only 8.4 per cent. Labour productivity, which actually fell for most industries over 1994-
96, has improved at 2.5 per cent per annum for cement.
The engineering industry also matches up to the performance standards of the best in the
world. Companies like Cummins India has always pushed for growth as is evidenced by
its 27 per cent rate of growth, but not at the cost of present and future profitability. The
company shows a healthy excess of almost 30 per cent over WACC, displaying great
future promise.
BHEL, the public sector giant, has seen similar success and the share price rose by 25 per
cent despite an indecisive sensex. The only note of caution: Indian engineering companies
have not been able to improve labour productivity over time, while international
engineering companies like ABB, Siemens and Cummins Engines have achieved about
13.5 per cent growth in labour productivity, on an average, in the same period.
The pharmaceuticals industry is where the problems seem to be the worst, with growth
emphasised at the cost of all other performance. They have been growing at over 22 per
cent, while their ROCE fell at 15.9 per cent per annum and labour productivity at 7 per
cent.
Compare this with some of the best pharmaceutical companies of the world – Glaxo
Wellcome, SmithKline Beecham and Pfizer –who have consistently achieved growth of
15-20 per cent, while improving returns on capital employed at about 25 per cent and
labour productivity at 8 per cent. Ranbaxy is not an exception; the bias for growth at the
cost of labour and capital productivity is also manifest in the performance of other Indian
pharma companies. What makes this even worse is the Indian companies barely manage
to cover their cost of capital, while their competitors worldwide such as Glaxo and Pfizer
earn an average ROCE of 65 per cent.
In the Indian textile industry, Arvind Mills was once the shining star. Like Reliance, it had
learnt to cook sweet and sour. Between 1994 and 1996, it grew at an average of 30 per cent
per annum to become the world's largest denim producer. At the same time, it also
operated a tight ship, improving labour productivity by 20 per cent.
Despite the excellent performance in the past, there are warning signals for Arvind's
future. The excess over the WACC is only 1.5 per cent, implying it barely manages to
satisfy its investors expectations of return and does not really have a surplus to re-invest
Contd...

Notes
in the business. Apparently, investors also think so, for Arvind's stock price has been
falling since Q4 1994 despite such excellent results and, at the end of the first quarter of
1998, is less than 70 compared to 170 at the end of 1994.
Unfortunately, Arvind's deteriorating financial returns over the last few years is also
typical of the Indian textile industry. The top three Indian companies actually showed a
decline in their return ratios in contrast to the international majors. Nike, VF Corp and
Coats Viyella showed a growth in their returns on capital employed of 6.2 per cent, while
the ROCE of Grasim and Coats Viyella (India) fell by almost 2 per cent per annum. Even
in absolute returns on assets or on capital employed, Indian companies fare a lot worse.
While Indian textile companies just about cover their WACC, their international rivals
earn about 8 per cent in excess of their cost of capital.
Questions
1. Is Indian companies running a risk by not giving attention to cost cutting?
2. Discuss whether Indian Consumer goods industry is growing at the cost of future
profitability.
3. Discuss capital and labour productivity in engineering context and pharmaceutical
industries in India.
4. Is textile industry in India performing better than its global competitors?
7.2 Returns to Scale (Law of Returns to Scale)
If all inputs are changed at the same time (possible only in the long run), and suppose are
increased proportionately, then the concept of returns to scale has to be used to understand the
behaviour of output. The behaviour of output is studied when all factors of production are
changed in the same direction and proportion.
In the long run, output can be increased by increasing the ‘scale of operations’. When we speak
of increasing the ‘scale of operations’ we mean increasing all the factors at the same time and by
the same proportion. For example, in a factory, in the long run, the scale of operations may be
increased by doubling the inputs of labour and capital. The laws that govern the scale of operation
are called the laws of returns of scale.
The laws of returns to scale always refer to the long run because only in the long run are all the
factors of production variable. In other words, only in the long run is it possible to change all the
factors of production. Thus the laws of returns to scale refer to that time in the future when
changes in output are brought about by increasing all inputs at the same time and in same
proportion.
Returns to scale are classified as follows:
1. Increasing Returns to Scale (IRS): If output increases more than proportionate to the
increase in all inputs.
2. Constant Returns to Scale (CRS): If all inputs are increased by some proportion, output
will also increase by the same proportion.
3. Decreasing Returns to Scale (DRS): If increase in output is less than proportionate to the
increase in all inputs.
For example, if all factors of production are doubled and output increases by more than two
times, then the situation is of increasing returns to scale. On the other hand, if output does not
double even after a cent per cent increase in input factors, we have diminishing returns to scale.

Notes The general production function is
Q = f (L, K)
If land, K, and labour, L, is multiplied by h and Q increases by , we get,
Q = f(hL, hK)
We have constant, increasing or decreasing returns to scale, respectively depending upon, whether
= h, h or h.
For example, if all inputs are doubled, we have constant, increasing or decreasing returns to
scale, respectively, if output doubles, more than doubles or less than doubles.
The firm increases its inputs from 3 to 6 units (K, L) producing either double (point B), more than
double (point C) or less than double (point D) output (Q) as shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Returns to Scale
Increasing returns to scale arise because as the scale of operation increases, a greater division of
labour and specialization can take place and more specialised and productive machinery can be
used. Decreasing returns to scale arise primarily because as the scale of operation increases, it
becomes more difficult to manage the firm. In the real world, the forces for increasing or
decreasing returns to scale often operate side by side, with the former usually overpowering the
latter at small levels of output and the reverse occurring at very large levels of output.
If all the factors of production are increased in a particular proportion and the output increases
in exactly that proportion then the production function is said to exhibit CRS. Thus if labour and
capital are increased by 10% and the output also increases by 10% then the production function
is CRS.
If you look at Figure 7.3, to produce X units of output, L units of labour and K units of capital are
needed (point a). If labour and capital are now doubled (as is possible in the long run), so that

Notes
there are 2L units of labour and 2K units of capital, the output is exactly doubled i.e., equals 2X
(point b). Similarly, trebling input achieves treble the output and so on.
Figure 7.3: CRS Production Function
If all the factors of production are increased in a particular proportion and the output increases
by more than that proportion then the production function is said to exhibits IRS. For example,
in many industrial processes if all inputs are doubled, factories can be run in more efficient and
effective ways, there by actually more than doubling output. This is shown in Figure 7.4. To
produce X units of output, L units of Labour and K units of output are needed. If labour is
doubled to 2L units and capital to 2K units, an output greater than 2X is produced (point c lies on
a higher isoquant than point b).
If the factors of production are increased in a particular proportion and the output increases by
less than that proportion than the production function is said to exhibit DRS. For example, if
capital and labour are increased by 10% and output rises by less than 10% the production
function is said to exhibit decreasing returns to scale.
Figure 7.4: IRS Production Function

Notes If you look at Figure 7.5, to produce X units of output L units of labour and K units of capital are
required. By doubling the input, the output increases by less than twice its original level. For
example, if inputs are 2L and 2K, output level ‘a’ is reached, which lies below the one
showing 2X.
Figure 7.5: DRS Production Function
It is also necessary for students to know the causes for increasing and decreasing returns to
returns to scale.
Task Production managers of a company estimate that their production process
is currently characterised by the following short run production function:
Q = 72X + 15X2
– X3
where Q = tonnes of boxes produced per production period and X = units of variable input
employed per production period.
Graphically illustrate the production function, indicating the following:
1. the range of increasing returns
2. the range of decreasing returns.
Notes Causes of Increasing and Decreasing Returns to Scale
Causes of Increasing Returns to Scale
Increasing returns to scale are due to technical and/or managerial indivisibilities. One of
the basic characteristics of advanced industrial technology is the existence of mass
production methods. Mass production methods (like the assembly line car industry) are
processes available only when the level of output is large. They are more efficient than the
best available processes for producing small levels of output. For example, increasing
returns of scale may happen because each worker has specialised in performing a simple
Contd...

Notes
repetitive task rather than many different tasks. As a result labour productivity increases.
In addition, a larger scale of operation may permit the use of more productive specialised
machinery, which was not practically possible on a lower scale of operation.
Cause of Decreasing Returns to Scale
The most common causes are “diminishing returns to management”. The management is
responsible for the coordination of the activities of the various sections of the firm. Even
when authority is given to individual managers (production manager, sales manager,
etc.) the final decisions have to be taken by the board of directors. As the output grows, top
management becomes finally overburdened and hence less efficient in its role as
coordinator and ultimate decision-maker. Although advances in management science
have developed endless management techniques, it is still a commonly observed fact that
as firms grow beyond the appropriate optimal, management diseconomies come in. These
may result because as the scale of operations increases, communication difficulties make
it more and more difficult to run the business effectively.
Another cause for decreasing returns may be found in the exhaustible natural resources:
doubling the fishing fleet may not lead to a doubling of the catch of fish; or doubling the
plant in mining or an oil extraction field may not lead to a doubling of output.
Caselet Apache Aims to Double Adidas Shoe Production
A
pache Footwear India, the manufacturer for Adidas shoes in India, aims to double
production of shoes from its special economic zone (SEZ) here to 8 lakh pairs a
month by 2014.
At present, about four lakh pair of shoes are produced every month from the SEZ, located
in Mambattu village of Nellore district.
We have a target to double the production of shoes to 8 lakh pairs per month by 2014,
Apache Footwear General Manager Phillip Chen said.
The company's SEZ, spread over 314 acres, recorded a turnover of 240 crore in 2010 and
provides employment to about 6,300 people.
The company also plans to set up a development centre and supply centre in the state.
These centres would help reduce the time taken for production of shoes.
We are expecting that the turnover will increase to 300 crore this year, Chen said,
adding that a proposed supplier park will help the firm bring down the lead time for
production from two months at present to just five days.
Apache exports its shoes mainly to Europe, the US and Russia.
Chen said the firm is also trying to convince Adidas to buy raw material from India. We
are importing the entire raw material mainly from China, Vietnam and Indonesia, he
added.
Germany-based Adidas is a leading sports apparel and equipment manufacturer.
Source: www.business-standard.com

Notes 7.3 Summary
The law of variable proportion of says that as more and more of the factor input is
employed, all other input quantities remaining constant, a point will eventually be reached
where additional quantities of varying input will yield diminishing marginal contributions
to total product.
Returns to scale are classified as: (a) Increasing Returns to Scale (IRS), (b) Constant Returns
to Scale (CRS) and (c) Decreasing Returns to Scale (DRS).
7.4 Keywords
Fixed inputs: Inputs that cannot be readily changed during the time period under consideration
Inputs: Resources used in the production of goods and services
Long-run: The time period when all inputs become variable
Short-run: The time period during which at least one input is fixed
Variable inputs: Inputs that can be varied easily and on very short notice
7.5 Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. As we added more and more of variable input to a fixed input, the amount of extra product
will.................
2. Under decreasing return to scale increase in output is ..................... than proportionate to
the increase in input.
3. Increasing return to scale are due to ..................... and/or managerial indivisibilities.
4. Technical indivisibilities cause................ returns to scale.
5. In the long run, output can be .............. by increasing the scale of operations.
6. As per Law of Variable Proportions, when MP is equal to AP, AP is at its…………………….
7. In the third stage of Law of Diminishing Returns, there are …………….marginal returns.
8. A sensible firm would like to operate in the………………stage of production.
9. In ………………stage of production, any additional input employed would lead to a fall in
output.
10. In………………..returns to scale, the proportionate increase in input is not equal to the
proportionate change in output.
1. Examine the importance of the law of diminishing returns. What do you think to be its
causes and effects?
2. Are diminishing returns to a factor inevitable? Give reasons.
3. Give your comment on second stage of production.
4. Can labour productivity never increase when total production is falling? Discuss.
5. Analyse the day to day situations around you and provide evidence against the hypothesis
of constant returns to scale.

Notes
6. Suppose the production function for widgets has the form
Q = q(K,L)= 50K0.3
L0.7
Where q is the quantity of tools per day, K is the quantity of capital input, and L is the
quantity of labor input per day.
(a) Does this production function have increasing, constant, or decreasing returns scale?
(b) What is the marginal product of capital when the firm is suing 5 units of capital and
1 unit of labour?
(c) What is the marginal product labor when the firm is using 5 units of labor and 1 unit
of capital?
(d) What is the total output when the firm is using 5 units of capital and 5 units of labor?
Draw an isoquant representing this level of output.
(e) What additional information would you need to determine which of the combinations
on your isoquant is best? That is what would you want to know to choose the best
combination of labor and capital to use in your production process?
7. “Technical and/or managerial indivisibilities cause increasing return to scale.” Give your
opinion.
8. Discuss returns to scale with the help of examples.
9. Bring out the difference between increasing, decreasing and constant returns to scale with
the help of suitable figures only.
10. Comment on the role of specialization in increasing returns to scale.
1. fall off 2. less 3. technical
4. increasing 5. increased 6. Maximum
7. Negative 8. Second 9. Third
10. Increasing and Decreasing
H.Craig Patersen, Managerial Economics, Prentice Hall
Hill Book Co., Inc.
Paul G. Keat, Managerial Economics, Pearson Education
Online links faculty.lebow.drexel.edu/McCainR/top/Prin/txt/MPCh/firm4a.html
http://www.docshare.com/doc/211217/PRODUCER-EQUILIBRIUM
ingrimayne.com/econ/TheFirm/ProductionFunct.html

Notes Unit 8: Cost Analysis
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 Cost Concepts
8.2 Fixed and Variable Costs
8.3 Short Run and Long Run Costs
8.3.1 Short Run Average Costs and Output
8.3.2 Short Run Marginal Cost (MC) and Output
8.3.3 Costs in the Long Run
8.4 Total Cost, Average Cost and Marginal Cost
8.5 Economies of Scale
8.6 Economies of Scope
8.7 Types of Revenue Curves and their Applications
8.8 Summary
8.9 Keywords
8.10 Self Assessment
Objectives
Discuss various types of costs
Explain the behaviour of short run and long run cost curves
State the concept of Economies of scales and economies of scope
Discuss the revenue curves and their applications
Introduction
The cost which a firm incurs in the process of production of its goods and services is an important
variable for decision making. Total cost together with total revenue determines the profit level
of a business concern. In order to maximise profits a firm endeavours to increase its revenue and
lower its costs. To this end, managers try to produce optimum levels of output, use the least cost
combination factors of production, increase factor productivities and improve organisational
efficiency.

Unit 8: Cost Analysis
Notes
8.1 Cost Concepts
Costs play a very important role in managerial decisions involving a selection between alternative
courses of action. It helps in specifying various alternatives in terms of their quantitative values.
The kind of cost to be used in a particular situation depends upon the business decisions to be
made. Costs enter into almost every business decision and it is important to use the right
analysis of cost. Hence, it is important to understand what these various concepts of costs are,
how these can be defined and operationalised. This requires the understanding of the two
things, namely, (i) that cost estimates produced by conventional financial accounting are not
appropriate for all managerial uses, and (ii) that different business problems call for different
kinds of costs.
Future and Past Costs
Futurity is an important aspect of all business decisions. Future costs are the estimates of time
adjusted past or present costs and are reasonably expected to be incurred in some future period
or periods. Their actual incurrence is a forecast and their management is an estimate. Past costs
are actual costs incurred in the past and they are always contained in the income statements.
Their measurement is essentially a record keeping activity.
Incremental and Sunk Costs
Incremental costs are defined as the change in overall costs that result from particular decisions
being made. Incremental costs may include both fixed and variable costs. In the short period,
incremental cost will consist of variable cost — costs of additional labour, additional raw
materials, power, fuel, etc. — which is the result of a new decision being taken by the firm. Since
these costs can be avoided by not bringing about any change in the activity, incremental costs
are also called avoidable costs or escapable costs. They are also called differential costs.
Sunk cost is one which is not affected or altered by a change in the level or nature of business
activity. It will remain the same whatever the level of activity.
Example: The most important example of sunk cost is the amortisation of past expenses,
e.g., depreciation.
Out-of-Pocket and Book Costs
Out-of-pocket costs are those that involve immediate payments to outsiders as opposed to book
costs that do not require current cash expenditure.
Example: Wages and salaries paid to the employees are out-of-pocket costs while salary
of the owner manager.
If not paid, it is a book cost. The interest cost of owner's own fund and depreciation cost are other
examples of book costs. Book costs can be converted into out-of-pocket costs by selling assets
and leasing them back from the buyer.
Replacement and Historical Costs
Historical cost of an asset states the cost of plant, equipment and materials at the price paid
originally for them, while the replacement cost states the cost that the firm would have to incur
if it wants to replace or acquire the same asset now.

Notes
Example: If the price of bronze at the time of purchase, say, in 1974, was 15 a kg and if
the present price is 18 a kg, the original cost of 15 is the historical cost while 18 is replacement
cost. Replacement cost means the price that would have to be paid currently for acquiring the
same plant.
Explicit Costs and Implicit or Imputed Costs (Accounting Concept of Cost and
Economic Concept of Cost)
Explicit costs are those expenses which are actually paid by the firm (paid-out-costs). These costs
appear in the accounting records of the firm. On the other hand, implicit costs are theoretical
costs in the sense that they go unrecognised by the accounting system. These costs may be
defined as the earnings of those employed resources which belong to the owner himself.
Actual Costs and Opportunity Costs
Actual costs mean the actual expenditure incurred for acquiring or producing a good or service.
These costs are the costs that are generally recorded in books of account, for example, actual
wages paid, cost of materials purchased, interest paid, etc.
Notes The concept of opportunity cost occupies a very important place in modern
economic analysis. The opportunity costs or alternative costs are the returns from the
second best use of the firm's resources which the firm forgoes in order to avail itself of the
returns from the best use of the resources. To take an example, a farmer who is producing
wheat can also produce potatoes with the same factors. Therefore, the opportunity cost of
a quintal of wheat is the amount of the output of potatoes given up. Thus, we find that the
opportunity cost of anything is the next best alternative that could be produced instead by
the same factors or by an equivalent group of factors, costing the same amount of money.
Two points must be noted in this definition. Firstly, the opportunity cost of anything is
only the next best alternative foregone. Secondly, in the above definition it is the addition
of the qualification or by an equivalent group of factors costing the same amount of
money.
Direct (or Separable or Traceable) Costs and Indirect (or Common or Non-traceable)
Costs
There are some costs which can be directly attributed to the production of a unit of a given
product. Such costs are direct costs and can easily be separated, ascertained and imputed to a unit
of output. This is because these costs vary with the output units. However, there are other costs
which cannot be separated and clearly attributed to individual units of production. These costs
are, therefore, classified as indirect costs in the accounting process.
Shut-down and Abandonment Costs
Shut-down costs are required to be incurred when the production operations are suspended and
will not be necessary if the production operations continue. When any plant is to be permanently
closed down, some costs are to be incurred for disposing off the fixed assets. These costs are
called abandonment costs.

Notes
Private and Social Costs
Economic costs can be calculated at two levels: micro-level and macro-level. The micro-level
economic costs relate to functioning of a firm as a production unit, while the macro-level
economic costs are the ones that are generated by the decisions of the firm but are paid by the
society and not the firm. Private costs are those which are actually incurred or provided for by
an individual or a firm for its business activity. Social cost, on the other hand, is the total cost to
the society on account of production of a good. Thus, the economic costs include both private
and social costs.
Above are the some concepts of costs. But the important cost concepts which play crucial role in
managerial decision-making are as follows:
8.2 Fixed and Variable Costs
There are some inputs or factors which can be adjusted with the changes in the output level.
Thus, a firm can readily employ more workers if it has to increase output. Likewise, it can secure
and use more raw materials, more chemicals, without much delay, if it has to expand production.
Thus, labour, raw materials, chemicals are the factors which can be readily varied with the
change in output. Such factors are called variable factors. On the other hand, there are factors
such as capital equipment, building, top management personnel which cannot be readily varied—
it requires a comparatively long time to make variations in them. The factors such as capital
equipment, building, which cannot be readily varied and require a comparatively long time to
make adjustment in them are called fixed factors. Therefore, fixed costs are those which are
independent of output, i.e., they do not change with changes in output. These costs are a fixed
amount which must be incurred by a firm in the short run, whether the output is small or large.
Fixed costs are also known as overhead costs and include charges such as contractual rent,
insurance fee, maintenance costs, property taxes, interest on the capital invested, minimum
administrative expenses such as manager's salary, watchman's wages, etc. Thus, fixed costs are
those which are incurred in hiring the fixed factors of production whose amount cannot be
altered in the short run.
Variable costs, on the other hand, are those costs which are incurred on the employment of
variable factors of production whose amount can be altered in the short run. Thus, the total
variable costs change with changes in output in the short run. These costs include payments such
as wages of labour employed, the price of the raw material, fuel and power used, the expenses
incurred on transporting and the like. Variable costs are also called prime costs. Total cost of a
business firm is the sum of its total variable costs and total fixed costs. Thus, TC = TFC+TVC.
In Figure 8.1, output is measured on the X-axis and cost on Y-axis. Since the total fixed cost
remains constant whatever the level of output, the total fixed cost curve (TFC) is parallel to the
X-axis. This curve starts from a point on the Y-axis meaning thereby that the total fixed cost will
be incurred even if the output is zero. On the other hand, the total variable cost curve (TVC) rises
upward showing thereby that as the output is increased, the total variable costs also increase.
The total variable cost (TVC) starts from the origin which shows that when output is zero the
variable costs are also nil. It should be noted that total cost is a function of the total output, the
greater the output, the greater will be the total cost. In symbols, we can write:
TC = f(q)

Notes Figure 8.1: Short Run Total Cost Curve
Total cost curve (TC) has been obtained by adding up 'vertically' the total fixed cost curve and
total variable cost curve because the total cost is a sum of total fixed cost and total variable cost.
The shape of the total cost curve (TC) is exactly the same as that of total variable cost curve (TVC)
because the same vertical distance always separates the two curves.
8.3 Short Run and Long Run Costs
The short run is a period of time in which the output can be increased or decreased by changing
only the amount of variable factors such as labour, raw materials, chemicals, etc. In the short run
the firm cannot build a new plant or abandon an old one. If the firm wants to increase output in
the short run, it can only do so by using more labour and more raw materials. It cannot increase
output in the short run by expanding the capacity of its existing plant or building a new plant
with larger capacity. Long run, on the other hand, is defined as the period of time in which the
quantities of all factors may be varied. All factors being variable in the long run, the fixed and
variable factors dichotomy holds good only in the short run. In other words, it is that time-span
in which all adjustments and changes are possible to realise.
Short run costs are those costs that can vary with the degree of utilisation of plant and other fixed
factors. In other words, these costs relate to the variation in output, given plant capacity. Short
run costs are therefore, of two types: fixed costs and variable costs. In the short run, fixed costs
remain unchanged while variable costs fluctuate with output. Long run costs in contrast are
costs that can vary with the size of the plant and with other facilities normally regarded as fixed
in the short run. In fact, in the long run there are no fixed inputs and therefore, no fixed costs, i.e.,
all costs are variable.
8.3.1 Short Run Average Costs and Output
The cost concept is more frequently used both by businessmen and economists in the form of
cost per unit or average cost rather than as totals. We, therefore pass on to the study of short run
average cost curves.
Short Run Average Fixed Cost (AFC)
Average fixed cost is the total fixed cost divided by the number of units of output produced.
Therefore,
TFC
AFC
Q
where Q represents the number of units of output produced.

Notes
Thus, average fixed cost is the fixed cost per unit of output. Since total fixed cost is a constant
quantity, average fixed cost will steadily fall as output increases. Therefore, average fixed cost
curve slopes downward throughout its length. As output increases, the total fixed cost spreads
over more and more units and, therefore, average fixed cost becomes less and less.
Figure 8.2: Per Unit Output Cost Curve
Average Variable Cost (AVC)
Average variable cost is the total variable cost divided by the number of units of output produced.
Therefore,
TVC
AVC
Q
Thus, average variable cost is the variable cost per unit of output.
We know that the total variable cost (TVC) at any output level consists of payments to the
variable factors used to produce that output. Therefore TVC= P1
V1
+ P2
V2
+ …. Pn
Vn
where P is
the unit price and V is the amount of the variable input. Average variable cost for a level of
output (Q), given P is:
TVC PV V
AVC P
Q Q Q
The term V is the number of units of input divided by the number of units of output. Since the
average product (AP) of an input is the total output divided by the number of units of input (V),
so we can write,
V 1 1
Q Q/V AP
V 1
AVC P P
Q VP
That is, average variable cost is the price of the input multiplied by the reciprocal of the average
product of the input. We know that due to first increasing and then decreasing marginal returns
to the variable input, average product initially rises, reaches a maximum and then declines.
Since average variable cost is 1/AP, the average variable cost normally falls, reaches a minimum
and then rises. It first declines and then rises for reasons similar to those operating in case of
TVC. This is shown in Figure 8.2.

Notes Average Total Cost (ATC)
The average total cost or what is called simply average cost is the total cost divided by the
number of units of output produced. Therefore,
TC
ATC=
Q
Since the total cost is the sum of total variable cost and total fixed cost, the average total cost is
also the sum of average variable cost and average fixed cost.
This can be proved as follows:
TC
ATC =
Q
Since TC = TVC+TFC
Therefore,
TVC+TFC
ATC=
Q
TVC TFC
=
Q Q
= AVC + AFC
Average total cost is also known as unit cost, since it is cost per unit of output produced.
8.3.2 Short Run Marginal Cost (MC) and Output
Marginal cost is the addition to the total cost caused by producing one more unit of output.
In other words, marginal cost is the addition to the total cost of producing n units instead of
n-1 units.
MCn
= TCn
–TCn–1
In symbols, marginal cost is rate of change in total cost with respect to a unit change in output,
i.e.,
d(TC)
MC=
dQ
where d in the numerator and denominator indicates the change in TC and Q respectively.
It is worth pointing out that marginal cost is independent of the fixed cost. Since fixed costs do
not change with output, there are no marginal fixed costs when output increases in the short run.
It is only the variable costs that vary with output in the short run. Therefore, marginal costs are,
in fact, due to the changes in variable costs.
d(TVC)
MC=
dQ
The independence of the marginal cost from the fixed cost can be proved algebraically as follows:
MCn
= TCn
– TCn–1
= (TVCn
+ TFC) – (TVCn–1
+ TFC)
= TVCn
+ TFC – TVCn–1
– TFC
= TVCn
– TVCn–1

Notes
Hence, marginal cost is the addition to the total variable costs when output is increased from
n-1 units to n units of output. It follows, therefore, that the marginal cost is independent of the
amount of fixed costs.
In Table 8.1, MC is the slope of the TC curve. As TC curve first rises at a decreasing rate and later
on at an increasing rate, MC curve will also, therefore, first decline and then rise.
Table 8.1: The Relationship between MC, AC and TC
Advantage of TC: break-even analysis profit of firm
Advantage of AC: calculating per unit profit of a firm
Advantage of MC: to decide whether a firm needs to expand or not
!
Caution The properties of the average costs (AVC, AFC, ATC) and marginal costs
can briefly be described as follows:
1. AFC declines continuously, approaching both axes asymptotically.
2. AVC first declines, reaches a minimum and rises thereafter. When AVC attains
minimum, MC equals AVC.
3. As AFC approaches asymptotically the horizontal axis, AVC approaches ATC
asymptotically.
4. ATC first declines, reaches a minimum and rises thereafter. When ATC attains its
minimum, MC equals ATC.
5. MC first declines, reaches a minimum and rises thereafter — MC equals AVC and
ATC when these curves attain their minimum values. Furthermore, MC lies below
both AVC and ATC when they are declining; it lies above them when they are
rising.
The laws governing costs are the same as the laws governing productivity. When output is
increased in the short run, it can only be done by increasing the variable input. But as more and
more of a variable input is added to a fixed input, the law of diminishing marginal productivity
enters in. Marginal and average productivities fall.

Notes
Case Study PSEs: You Decide
T
here has been much debate about public sector enterprises (PSEs) ever since
Chidambaram set up the Disinvestment Commission under G V Ramakrishna.
Some speak of restructuring before disinvestment, others the reverse, and yet others
hang on to their socialist shibboleths. This column is no place to evaluate the debate,
except to say that the raison d'etre for State intervention — externalities and market
failure — have been long debased by having PSEs in hotels, textiles, cement, bread, aerated
water, leather, bicycles, tyres, photo-films and virtually everywhere else where markets
work perfectly well. Instead, let us discuss some incontrovertible evidence about the
performance of PSEs so that readers can come to their own conclusions.
Facing the Facts
The facts about centrally owned PSEs that are presented here are culled from two reputable
sources (i) the Public Enterprises Survey, which is published annually and covers 240 odd
PSEs excluding banks, financial institutions and insurance companies, and (ii) the annual
accounts of 500 top private sector manufacturing companies, ranked by sales. The analysis
is from research that was undertaken for the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development.
Fact Number 1
In the last 10 years, these 240 PSEs have never earned returns exceeding 5 per cent of capital
employed. In other words, a taxpayer is better off putting hard-earned money in one-year
fixed deposits (see Chart A). Indeed, compared to the government's 365 day treasury bills,
the PSEs have consistently given negative returns that exceed 6 percentage points.
Fact Number 2
On the whole, these PSEs are far less profitable than comparable private sector companies.
In the last five years, the difference in net profits as a percentage of sales between PSEs as
a whole and the private sector has been substantial, as Chart B shows.
The divergence is even more dramatic if one nets out of the 14 PSEs which form the state-
owned petroleum monopoly. Today, the difference in profitability between the private
sector and non-petroleum PSEs is a staggering 6 percentage points.
0
3
6
9
12
15
91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95 95-96
PSE returns on capital Interest on 1 year FD
Chart A: PSEs don’t give much, do they?
Contd...

Notes
So what? comrades Surjeet and Yechuri would say. After all, PSEs were set up to augment
the capital stock of the nation, promote balanced economic growth, foster employment
and create centres of technical and managerial excellence. These involve social benefits,
and only a benighted, Western-trained economist to the right Genghis Khan could use
private profit calculus to evaluate the contribution of our PSEs. Fair enough. Let us not
look at profitability, that base capitalist concept. Instead, let us look at costs, which even
Enver Hoxha would have desired to minimise.
0
2
4
6
8
10
91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95
PSE PSE without petroleum Private Sector
Chart B: Net Profit as % of Sales
Fact Number 3
PSEs as a whole are worse off even in terms of cost per rupee of sales. Chart C shows that
PSEs suffer from an almost eight-point disadvantage in terms of fixed costs as a percentage
of sales; the non-petroleum PSEs are worse off to the tune of almost 20 points.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
91-92 92-93 93-94 94-95
PSE PSE without petroleum Private Sector
Chart C: Fixed Cost as % of Sales
Thanks to higher fixed costs (over-staffing, greater interest costs, etc.), PSEs fare poorly in
average total costs. They are at least 5 points off compared to the private sector companies
Contd...

Notes and over 9 points off if one excludes the petroleum monopolies. How long can most of
these firms survive competition in such a state? Isn't it a crime not to take a decision one
way or the other? You decide.
Question
What is the reason of U-shaped average cost curve in this case?
Source: Business India, 97.
8.3.3 Costs in the Long Run
The long run is a period of time during which the firm can vary all its inputs. None of the factors
is fixed and all can be varied to expand output. Long run is a period of time sufficiently long to
permit changes in the plant, that is, in capital equipment, machinery, land, etc., in order to
expand or contract output. The long run cost of production is the least possible cost of production
of producing any given level of output when all inputs are variable including the size of the
plant. In the long run there is no fixed factor of production and hence there is no fixed cost.
If Q = f(L, K)
TC = L.PL
+ K.PK
Given factor prices and a specific production function, one can draw an expansion path which
gives the least costs associated with various levels of output which in fact yields the long run
total cost schedule/curve. LTC is an increasing function of output. The rates of change in these
two variables are not known unless the qualitative relationship is quantified. If one recalls the
concept of returns to scale and assumes fixed factor prices, one could see three things:
1. When returns to scale are increasing, inputs are increasing less than in proportion to
increases in output. It follows that total cost also must be increasing less than in proportion
to output. This relationship is shown in Figure 8.3(a).
2. When returns to scale are decreasing, total cost increases at a faster rate than does output.
This relationship is shown in Figure 8.3(b).
3. When returns to scale are constant, total cost and output move in the same direction and
same proportion. This is also shown in Figure 8.3(c).
Thus, depending upon the nature of returns to scale, there will be a relationship between LTC
and output, given factor prices. It is generally found that most industries and firms reap increasing
returns to scale to start with which are followed by constant returns to scale which give place to
decreasing returns to scale eventually. In this case, the long run total cost function first would
increase at a decreasing rate and then increase at an increasing rate as shown in Figure 8.4. Such
a total cost function would be associated with a U-shaped long run average cost function.
From LTC curve we can derive the firm's long run average cost (LAC) curve. LAC is the long run
total cost (LTC) divided by the level of the output (Q). That is,
LTC
LAC=
Q
Similarly, from the LTC curve we can also derive the long run marginal cost (LMC) curve. This
measures the change in LTC per unit change in output and is given by the slope of the LTC curve.
That is,
d LTC
TC
LMC= or
Q dQ

Notes
The relationships among the long run total cost, long run marginal cost with respect to output
are explained in the following table and Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.3(a): Increasing Returns in Scale
Figure 8.3(b): Decreasing Returns in Scale
Figure 8.3(c): Constant Returns to Scale

Notes Figure 8.4
The graphs of above relationships are provided in Figure 8.5.
Did u know? Can average cost curve be stair shaped or L-shaped?
Economic theory often mentions U-shaped nature of average cost curve, but in reality, we
come across various other types like the stair-shaped one, L-shaped learning curve or flat
bottomed average cost curve. To take care of these empirical situations, the modern theory
of costs has been developed.
Table 8.2
The LTC curve gives the least total cost for various levels of output when all the factors of
production are variable. Its shape is such that the curve is first concave and then convex as
looked from the output axis. As seen above its shape follows from the operations of the varying
degrees of returns of scale, given the factor prices.
The relationship between LAC and LMC follow from that of LTC curve. Both LAC and LMC are
U-shaped. Further, the following relationships hold good:
1. At the point of inflection on LTC curve (A), LMC takes the minimum value.
2. At the point of kink of LTC curve (B) — where the slope of the straight line from origin
to the LTC curve is the minimum — LAC assumes the minimum value.
3. LAC is the least when LMC = LAC.
4. LAC curve is falling when LMC LAC
5. LAC curve is rising when LMC LAC.

Notes
Figure 8.5
Task Fill in the blanks in the following table:
Output TFC TVC TC MC AFC AVC ATC
1 100 50
2 30
3 40
4 270
5 70
8.4 Total Cost, Average Cost and Marginal Cost
Total cost includes all cash payments made to hired factors of production and all cash charges
imputed for the use of the owner's factors of production in acquiring or producing a good or
service. Thus, total cost of a firm is the sum total of the explicit plus implicit expenditures
incurred for producing a given level of output. For example, a shoe maker's cost will include the
amount he spends on leather, thread, rent for his workshop, wages, interest on borrowed capital,
salaries of employees, etc., and the amount he charges for his services and his own funds invested
in the business.
Average cost is the cost per unit of output assuming that production of each unit of output incurs
the same cost. That is, it is obtained by dividing the total cost by the total quantity produced. If
TC=100 and X=10, AC = 10.
Marginal cost is the extra cost of producing one additional unit. At a given level of output, one
examines the additional costs being incurred in producing one extra unit and this yields the

Notes marginal cost. For example, if the total cost of a firm is 5,000 when it produces 10 units of a
good but when 11 units of the good are produced, it increases to 5,300 then the marginal cost
of the eleventh unit is 5,300 – 5,000 = 300. In other words, marginal cost of nth units (MCn
) is
the difference between total cost of nth unit (TCn
) and total cost of n-1th unit (TCn-1
).
MCn
= TCn
– TCn–1
The relationship between MC, AC and TC is shown in the following table.
Table 8.3
The total cost concept is useful in break-even analysis and in finding out whether a firm is
making profits or not. The average cost concept is significant for calculating the per unit profit
of a business concern. The marginal and incremental cost concepts are needed in deciding
whether a firm needs to expand its production or not. In fact, the relevant costs to be considered
will differ from one situation to the other depending on the problem faced by the manager.
Example: The Cost of Producing Rings ( )
TC= FC+ VC
ATC = TC/Q
AFC= FC/Q
AVC = VC/Q
ATC = AFC + AVC

Notes
Managerial economics devotes a great deal of attention to the behaviour of costs. Total cost
varies directly with output. The more output a firm produces, the higher will be its production
cost and vice versa. This is because increased production requires increased use of raw materials,
labour, etc., and if the increase is substantial even fixed inputs like plant and equipments and
managerial staff may have to be increased. The relationship between cost and output is rather
important.
Caselet Input Costs and Profit Levels of Maruti Udyog Ltd.
(MUL)
M
aruti currently dominates India's small car market and has a share of more than
80 per cent in its overall car market. MUL, a 50:50 joint venture between the
Indian Government and Japan's Suzuki Motors Corporation posted net profit
of 6510 crores in 1997-98 (April-March) compared with 5,100 crores in the previous
year. But MUL could find it difficult to maintain its profit levels because of soaring input
costs and a slowdown in the market. Input costs had risen substantially due to the imposition
of a special additional duty, an increase in levies on cold rolled steel and a restriction on
reclaims of value-added tax to 95 per cent of the amount. Due to the slowdown in the
market and increasing competition, it will be very difficult to pass on the cost increase to
customers, thus, leading to a squeeze on margins.
8.5 Economies of Scale
A larger plant will lead to lower per unit cost in the long run. However, beyond some point,
successive larger plants will mean higher average costs. Exactly, why is the long run ATC curve
U-shaped, needs further explanation.
It must be emphasised, first of all, that the law of diminishing returns is not applicable here for
it presumes that one resource is fixed in supply and also that in the long run resource prices are
variable. Also, we assume that resource prices are constant in the short run. The U-shaped long
run average cost curve is explainable, thus, in terms of “economies and diseconomies” of large
scale production.
Economies and diseconomies of scale are concerned with the behaviour of average cost curve as
the plant size is increased. Economies of scale explain the down sloping part of the long run AC
curve. As the size of the plant increases, LAC typically declines over some range of output for a
number of reasons. The most important is that, as the scale of output is expanded, there is greater
potential for specialisation of productive factors. This is most notable with regard to labour but
may apply to other factors as well. Other factors contributing to declining LAC include ability
to use more advanced technologies and more sophisticated capital equipment, managerial
specialisation, opportunity to take advantage of lower costs for some inputs by purchasing
larger quantities, effective utilisation of by-products, etc.
But after sometime, expansion of a firm’s output may give rise to diseconomies, and therefore,
higher per unit cost. Further expansion of output beyond a reasonable level may lead to problems
of over crowding of labour, managerial inefficiencies, etc., pushing up per unit cost.
All these are examples of internal economies and diseconomies of scale arising due to the firm’s
own expansion. According to Marshall, external economies and diseconomies of scale may arise
due to the expansion of industry as a whole.

Notes
Example: Improved infrastructure facilities due to industrial expansion may lead to
reduction in per unit cost of production in all the firms in an industry.
8.6 Economies of Scope
According to the concept of economies of scale, cost advantages follow from the increase in
volume of production or what is called the scale of output. According to the concept of economies
of scope, such cost advantages may follow from variety of output–product diversification within
the given scale of plant. If the same plant can produce multiple products, there is the scope for a
lot of cost savings because of joint use of inputs. Broad banding policy enables manufacturers to
exploit economies of scope through product diversification.
Example: Escorts produces four wheelers from the same plant for two wheelers with
small adjustments.
Instead of increasing the scale of production of an existing product, the firm can now add new
and newer products if the size and type of plant allow this scope. In this process, the firms will
have access to scope economies in place of scale economies. In certain processes, the firm can
plan wisely to exploit both types of economies simultaneously.
8.7 Types of Revenue Curves and their Applications
We have already discussed the shapes of the revenue curves in the previous unit. Just to refresh
your memories, we will define the terms once again.
Total revenue (TR) is the total money received from the sale of any given quantity of output
during a given period of time. (TR= P × Q, where P is the Price per unit and Q is the total quantity
sold)
Average revenue (AR) is the total receipts from sales divided by the number of units sold, i.e.,
AR= TR/Q. It plays a major role in the determination of a firm’s profit. The ‘per unit profit’ of a
firm is determined as average revenue minus average (total) cost. A firm generally seeks to
produce the quantity of output that maximises profit. (We will discuss this concept in subsequent
units.)
Marginal Revenue is the revenue associated with one additional unit of production. Marginal
revenue is calculated as:
MRn
= TRn
-TRn-1
Break-even Analysis
Many of the planning activities that take place within a firm are based on anticipated level of
output. The study of the interrelationship among firm’s sales, costs and operating profits at
various level of output levels is known as cost-volume profit analysis or break-even analysis.
This analysis is often used by business executive to determine the sales volume required to
break even and total profits and losses at different output levels. For illustrating the breakeven
analysis. It is assumed that the cost and revenue curves are non-linear as shown in Figure 8.6.
Total revenue is equal to the number of units of output sold multiplied by the price per unit. The
concave form of revenue curve implies that the firm can sell additional units of output only by
lowering the price. The total cost curve is based on traditional approach of relationship between
cost and output in short-run.

Notes
Figure 8.6: Break-even Analysis by using Non-linear TC and TR Curves
The difference between total revenue and total cost at any level of output represents the total
profit or loss that will be realised. The total profit (TP) at any level of output is given by vertical
distance between the total revenue (TR) and total cost (TC) curves. A breakeven situation (zero
profit) occurs whenever total revenue equals total cost. In Figure, breakeven condition occurs at
two different output level- Y1
and Y3
. Below an output level Y1
losses will incurred because
TR TC. Between Y1
and Y3
profits will be obtained because TR TC. An output level above Y3
,
losses will occur again because TR TC. Total profit are maximised within the range of Y1
to Y3
,
where the vertical distance between the TR and TC curves is greatest, that is at an output level
of Y2
.
For practical decision making the non-linear revenue output and cost output relationship of
economic theory are generally replaced by linear functions. The breakeven analysis based on
linear function is shown in Figure 8.7
Figure 8.7: Break-even Analysis by using Linear TC and TR Curves
Here TR is a straight line assuming that firms change a constant selling price P per unit of output.
In case of cost curve, total cost is taken as sum of fixed cost which are independent of the output
level plus the variable costs which increases at a constant rate per unit of output. In this case the
breakeven analysis occurs at point Yb
in Figure 8.7 where TR and TC intersect. If a firm’s output

Notes level is below this breakeven point that is If TR TC, it incurs operating losses. If firm’s output
level is above this breakeven point that is if TR TC it realises operating profits. Algebraically,
it can be defined as:
Total revenue is equal to the selling price per unit times the output level.
TR = P × Y
Total cost is equal to fixed cost plus variable cost, where the variable cost is the product of the
variable cost per unit times the output level.
TC = TFC + AVC × QY
Now break-even output level is that level where profit is zero.
TR = TC.
P × Y = TFC + AVC × Y
P × Y – AVC × Y = TFC
Y (P – AVC) = TFC
Y =
8.8 Summary
Costs enter into almost every business decision and it is important to use the right analysis
of cost. Different business problems call for different kinds of costs such as future and past
costs, incremental and sunk cost, out of pocket and book costs, replacement and historical
costa etc.
Fixed costs are those costs which do not very with the change in the level of output in the
short run. Variable costs change with output levels.
The short run is a period of time in which the output can be increased or decreased by
changing only the amount of variable factors such as labour, raw materials, chemicals, etc.
Long run, on the other hand, is defined as the period of time in which the quantities of all
factors may be varied.
There are short run average fixed cost and variable cost as well as long run average costs.
Total cost is the sum of total of the explicit plus implicit expenditure. Average cost is the
cost per unit of output. Marginal cost is the extra cost of producing one additional unit.
Economies of scope are reductions in average costs attributable to an increase in the
number of goods produced.
8.9 Keywords
Abandonment costs: Costs incurred for disposing of the fixed assets, when any plant is to be
permanently closed down.
Book costs: Costs that do not require current cash expenditure.
Direct costs: Costs which can be directly attributed to the production of a unit of a given product.
Explicit costs: Expenses which are actually paid by the firm (paid-out-costs).
Implicit costs: Theoretical costs which go unrecognized by the accounting system.

Notes
Incremental costs: Costs that are defined as the change in overall costs that result from particular
decision being made.
Indirect costs: Costs which cannot be separated and clearly attributed to individual units of
production.
Opportunity costs: The return from the second best use of the firm's resources which the firm
forgoes in order to avail itself of the return from the best use of the resources.
Shut-down costs: Costs incurred when the production operations are suspended and will not be
incurred, if the production operations continue.
Sunk costs: Costs that are not affected or altered by a change in the level or nature of business
activity.
Variable costs: Costs which are incurred on the employment of variable factors of production
whose amount can be altered in the short-run.
(a) Past cost are unadjusted historical cost data which have been recorded in the books.
(b) Incremental costs include only variable cost.
(c) Replacement costs means the price that would have to be paid currently for acquiring
the same plant.
(d) Explicit costs cannot be regarded as paid out costs.
(e) Actual costs are also called absolute costs or outlay costs.
(f) Average cost is obtained by dividing the total cost by the total quantity produced.
(g) Fixed costs can be altered in short run.
(h) Social cost is the total cost to the society on account of production of a good.
(a) Shut-down costs are required to be incurred when the production operations are
.......................... .
(b) Economic costs can be calculated at two levels .......................... .
(c) Marginal cost is the extra cost of producing .......................... .
(d) AVC first .......................... , reaches a minimum and rises thereafter.
(e) Implicit costs are the costs which go unrecognized by the ................. .
(f) Capital equipment is a .............. factor.
(g) The total cost concept is useful in ................ analysis.
(h) Direct costs are ................ costs.
1. What type of cost is depreciation – Direct cost or Indirect cost? Support your argument
with reasons.
2. What types of costs would you incur if you have to organise a musical concert in your city?

Notes 3. Output (units) 2,000 4,000 5,000
Cost per unit 100 £100 £80
Explain which type of cost the above figures represent.
4. A liberal arts college created a new business school. The overhead items – library, registrar,
classrooms and offices – were already in place or substantially so. No additional central
administration personnel had to be added at first, only faculty and staff for the new school.
The cost of these positions, plus the modest marketing budget, were more than offset by
the new b-school's tuition income in the second year of operation. There was every
indication that enrollment, and tuition, would grow.
Shortly after the school's creation, the college's provost decided it would be a good idea
to embark on a cost-allocation exercise. Provost and CFO decided on a fair formula
that allocated central administration overhead according to each school's use of office,
classroom, and laboratory square footage. Suddenly, the business school, still ramping
up its enrollment, didn't look so good. It more than covered its incremental cost, but
barely paid back its allocated cost in the current year. Its newly hired dean had been
promised the full attention of the college's fundraising office. After all, the b-school's
revenue was free in terms of incremental cost, and who wouldn't want more of that?
After the cost-allocation project, however, the college's president decided one of its older,
better-established schools deserved a higher fundraising priority.
What do you think was the problem with the college? How can it be rectified?
5. Raman has a widget producer with one widget producing machine that costed him 1000
last year. He wants to see if he should buy an appliance that paints the widgets yellow,
fetching 100 more per widget. But he has no idea if this is a good investment. In your
evaluation of the investment, do you include the cost of the widget machine? Why/why
not?
6. Why do increasing opportunity costs exist? Illustrate with examples.
7. Why are variable costs more relevant than fixed costs in short-term decision-making?
8. With the increase in output of the firms, their average total cost and average variable cost
curves come closer and closer to each other but never meet. Why?
9. Show the circumstances where the marginal cost is constant throughout but the average
cost is falling.
10. Can the short run average total cost ever be less than the long run average total cost?
11. The output and total cost data for a firm are given below. Work out the following costs:
TFC, TVC, AFC, AVC, ATC and MC at various levels of output.
Units of output 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Total Cost ( ) 120 180 200 210 225 260 330
12. Suppose that the short run costs for a paintbrush manufacturer are given by the expression:
TC = 100+2Q+0.01 Q2
(a) What are the fixed costs of this manufacturer?
(b) What are the total costs, average cost, average variable cost and marginal cost at 50
and 100 units of output?
(c) At what output is average cost the minimum?

Notes
13. Suppose that labour costs 10 per unit and capital costs 5 per unit. The least cost
combinations of capital and labour are as follows:
Output 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Labour 5 6 8 10 13 18 24
Capital 10 12 14 20 28 38 54
Prepare the table showing long run total cost, long run average cost and long run marginal
cost.
14. If machines were variable and labour fixed, how would the general shapes of the short run
average cost curve and marginal cost curve change?
15. If average productivity falls, will marginal cost necessarily rise? How about average cost?
16. Discuss the concept of economies of scale and economies of scope. Give suitable examples.
17. Examine the relevance of the concept of revenue in break even analysis.
(e) True (f) True (g) False (h) True
2. (a) suspended (b) micro level and macro level
(c) one additional unit (d) declines
(e) accounting system (f) fixed
(g) break even (h) traceable
Books Curwen, Managerial Economics, Macmillan.
Dr. Atmanand, Managerial Economics, Excel Books, Delhi.
Earl Heady, Economics of Agricultural Production and Resource Use, Prentice Hall.
Online links en.wikipedia.org
http://economicswebinstitute.org/glossary/costs.htm
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/De-Ele/Economies-of-Scale-
and-Economies-of-Scope.html
http://economics.about.com/cs/studentresources/a/short_long_run.htm

Notes Unit 9: Market Structure – Perfect Competition
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 Assumptions of Perfect Competition
9.2 Price and Output Determination under Perfect Competitive Firm
9.2.1 Short Run Analysis of a Perfectly Competitive Firm
9.2.2 Long Run Analysis of a Perfectly Competitive Firm
9.2.3 Shut-down Decision
9.2.4 Efficiency of a Firm
9.3 Supply and Demand Together
9.4 Summary
9.5 Keywords
9.6 Self Assessment
Objectives
State the assumptions of perfect competition
Discuss the price and output determination under perfect competition
Introduction
The function of a market is to enable an exchange of goods and services to take place. A market
is any organisation whereby buyers and sellers of a good are kept in close touch with each other.
It is precisely in this context that a market has four basic components (i) consumers (ii) sellers
(iii) a commodity (iv) a price. Price determination is one of the most crucial aspects in micro-
economics. Business managers are expected to make perfect decision based on their knowledge
and judgment. Since every economic activity in the market is measured as per price, it is important
to know the concepts and theories related to pricing under various market forms.
Perfect competition is a market structure characterised by a complete absence of rivalry among
the individual firms. Thus, perfect competition in economic theory has a meaning diametrically
opposite to the everyday use of this term. In practice, businessmen use the world competition as
synonymous to rivalry. In theory, perfect competition implies no rivalry among firms.

Notes
9.1 Assumptions of Perfect Competition
In a perfectly competitive market structure there is a large number of buyers and sellers of the
product and each seller and buyer is too small in relation to the market to be able to affect the
price of the product by his or her own actions. This means that a change in the output of a single
firm will not perceptibly affect the market price of the product. Similarly, each buyer of the
product is too small to be able to extract from the seller such things as quantity discounts and
special terms.
The model of perfect competition is based on the following assumptions:
1. Large numbers of sellers and buyers: The industry in perfect competition includes a large
number of firms (and buyers). Each individual firm, however large, supplies only a small
part of the total quantity offered in the market. The buyers are also numerous so that no
monopolistic power can affect the working of the market. Under these conditions each
firm alone cannot affect the price in the market by changing its output.
2. Product homogeneity: The technical characteristics of the product as well as the services
associated with its sale and delivery is identical. There is no way in which a buyer could
differentiate among the products of different firms. If the products were differentiated the
firm would have some discretion in setting its price. This is ruled out in perfect competition.
The assumption of large number of sellers and of product homogeneity implies that the
individual firm in pure competition is a price-taker: its demand curve is infinitely elastic,
indicating that the firm can sell any amount of output at the prevailing market price.
3. Free entry and exit of firms: There is no barrier to entry or exit from the industry. Entry or
exit may take time but firms have freedom of movement in and out of the industry. If
barriers exist, the number of firms in the industry may be reduced so that each one of them
may acquire power to affect the price in the market.
4. Profit maximisation: The goal of all firms is profit maximisation. No other goals are
pursued.
5. No government regulation: There is no government intervention in the market (tariffs,
subsidies, rationing of production or demand and so on are ruled out).
Figure 9.1
The above assumptions are sufficient for the firm to be a price-taker and have an infinitely
elastic demand curve. The market structure in which the above assumptions are fulfilled
is called pure competition. It is different from perfect competition, which requires the
fulfilment of the following additional assumptions.

Notes 6. Perfect mobility of factors of production: The factors of production are free to move from
one firm to another throughout the economy. It is also assumed that workers can move
between different jobs. Finally, raw materials and other factors are not monopolised and
labour is not organised.
7. Perfect knowledge: It is assumed that all the sellers and buyers have complete knowledge
of the conditions of the market. This knowledge refers not only to the prevailing conditions
in the current period but in all future periods as well. Information is free and cost less.
Market Condition
The assumptions of perfect competition imply that a particular relationship exists between the
firm and its market.
Figure 9.2(a) shows the market demand curve for a product. It shows the total amount of this
product demanded by consumers at different prices. It is a normal downward sloping demand
curve showing that for the industry as a whole quantity demanded increases as price falls.
Figure 9.2: Relationship between the Market and the Firm in Perfect Competition
Figure 9.2(b) shows the seller perceived demand curve which is horizontal, i.e., it is perfectly
elastic demand with respect to price. It hits the vertical axis at the current market price, P. Two
factors are stopping the producer from charging a price such as P1
, which is higher than P-perfect
knowledge and homogeneous product. If a higher price is charged, customers would know
immediately that a lower price is available elsewhere, and that the product for sale at the lower
price is a perfect substitute for the more expensive product. The producer is also not undercutting
its rivals and charging a price, P2
which is lower than P. The firm's output is small compared to
the industry as a whole and so its entire output can be sold at the current market price of P. At a
price lower than P the firm would not maximise its profit. Thus, over any feasible range of
output, the demand curve for the product of the individual firm is perceived to be horizontal.
Notes Equilibrium of the Firm
Firms aim to maximise profit and they can be in equilibrium only when they achieve this.
For all firms, profit maximisation is achieved when marginal revenue, (MR), equals
marginal cost (MC). If MRMC, the firm adds more to revenue than it does to costs by
increasing output and sales. When this happens profits will rise. On the other hand, if
MRMC, the firm adds more to costs than it does to revenue by expanding output and
sales. When this happens profits will fall. It follows thus, that the firm is in equilibrium
when MC=MR.
Contd...

Notes
Equilibrium of the Industry
The industry is in long run equilibrium when a price is reached at which all firms are in
equilibrium (producing at the minimum point of their LAC curve and making just normal
profits). Under these conditions there is no further entry or exit of firms in the industry,
given the technology and factor prices. At the market price P, the firms produce at their
minimum cost, earning just normal profits. The firm is in equilibrium because at the level
of output Q
LMC = SMC= P = MR
This equality ensures that the firm maximises its profit.
At the price P, the industry is in equilibrium because profits are normal and all costs are
covered so that there are no incentives for entry or exit.
Task Analyze stock market on the basis of the features of perfect market. Do you
find it close to the perfect market?
9.2 Price and Output Determination under Perfect Competitive Firm
9.2.1 Short Run Analysis of a Perfectly Competitive Firm
The aim of a firm is to maximise profits. In the short run some inputs are fixed and these give rise to
fixed costs which have to be incurred whether the firm produces or not. Thus, it pays for the firm to
stay in business in the short run even if it incurs losses. Thus, the best level of output of the firm in
the short run is the one at which the firm maximises profits or minimises losses.
This is possible when the marginal revenue (MR) of the firm equals its short run marginal cost
(MC). As long as MR exceeds MC, it pays for the firm to expand output because by doing so the
firm would add more to its total revenue than to its total costs. On the other hand, as long as MC
exceeds MR, it pays for the firm to reduce output because by doing so the firm will reduce its
total cost more than its total revenue. Thus, the best level of output of any firm is the one at
which MR=MC.
!
Caution Since, a perfectly competitive firm faces a horizontal or infinitely, elastic demand
curve, P=MR, so that the condition for the best level of output can be restated as one of
which P=MR =MC. This can be seen in figure diagrammatically and with calculus as
follows.
A firm usually wants to produce the output that maximises its total profits. Total profits (T) are
equal to total revenue (TR) minus total costs (TC). That is,
= TR–TC .... (1)
where TR and TC are all functions of output (Q).
Taking the first derivative of p with respect to Q and setting it equal to zero gives
d
dQ
=
d TR d TC
0
dQ dQ
.... (2)

Notes so that
d TR
dQ
=
d TC
dQ
... (3)
Equation (3) indicates that in order to maximise profits, a firm produces where marginal
revenue (MR) equals marginal cost (MC). Since for a perfectly competitive firm, P is constant
and TR = (P).(Q) so that
d TR
dQ
= MR = P
the first order condition for profit maximisation for a perfectly competitive firm becomes
P = MR = MC.
The second order condition for profit maximisation requires that the second derivative of p with
respect to Q be negative. That is
2
2
d
dQ
=
2 2
2 2
d TR d TC
0
dQ dQ
.... (4)
2
2
d TR
dQ

2
2
d TC
dQ
.... (5)
According to equation (5) the algebraic value of the slope of the MC function must be greater
than the algebraic value of the MR function. Under perfect competition, MR is constant (MR
curve is horizontal). So that equation (5) requires that the MC curve be rising at the point where
MR=MC for the firm to maximise its total profits.
The top panel of Figure 9.3 shows d which is the demand curve for the output of a perfectly
competitive firm. The marginal cost cuts the SATC at its minimum point. The firm is in equilibrium
(maximises its profits) at the level of output defined by the intersection of the MC and the MR
curves (point E in Figure 9.3). To the left of E profit has not reached its maximum level because
each unit of output to the left of Xe
brings revenue greater than its marginal cost. To the right of
Xe
each additional unit of output costs more than the revenue earned by its sale so that a loss is
made and total profit is reduced.
Figure 9.3

Notes
The fact that a firm is in short run equilibrium does not necessarily mean that it makes excess
profits – whether the firm makes excess profits or losses depends on the level of the ATC at the
short run equilibrium. If the ATC is below the price at equilibrium (Figure 9.4), the firm earns
excess (equal to the area PABE). If, however, the ATC is above the price (Figure 9.5), the firm
makes a loss (equal to the area FPeC). In the latter case the firm will continue to produce only if
it covers its variable costs. Otherwise it will close down, since by discontinuing its operations
the firm is better off: it minimises its losses. The point at which the firm covers its variable costs
is called the closing down point. In Figure 9.6 the closing down point of the firm is denoted by
point W. If price falls below Pw
the firm does not cover its variable costs and is better off if it
closes down.
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5

Notes Figure 9.6
Did u know? All firms in the industry have the same minimum long run average cost.
This, however, does not meant have all firms have the same efficiency.
9.2.2 Long Run Analysis of a Perfectly Competitive Firm
In the long run, all inputs and costs of production are variable and the firm can construct the
optimum or most appropriate scale of plant to produce the best level of output. The best level of
output is one at which price P=LMC equals the long run marginal cost (LMC) of the firm. The
optimum scale of the plant is the one in which short run average total cost (SATC) curve is
tangent to the long run average cost of the firm at the best level of output. If existing firms earn
profits, however, more firms enter the market in the long run. This increases the market supply
of the product and results in a lower product price until all profits are squeezed out. On the other
hand, if firms in the market incur losses, some firms will leave the market in the long run. This
reduces the market supply of the product until all firms remaining in the market just break-
even. Thus, when a competitive market is in long run equilibrium, all firms produce at the
lowest point on their long run average cost (LAC) curve and break-even. This is shown by point
E in Figure 9.7.

Notes
Figure 9.7
The condition for the long run equilibrium of the firm is that the marginal cost be equal to
the price and to the long run average cost.
LMC = AC = P
At equilibrium the short run marginal cost is equal to the long run marginal cost and the short
run average cost is equal to the long run average cost. Thus, given the above equilibrium
condition, we have
SMC = LMC = LAC = SAC P = MR
This implies that at the minimum point of the LAC the corresponding (short run) plant is
worked at its optimal capacity so that minimum of LAC and SAC coincide. On the other point,
the LMC cuts the LAC at its minimum point and the SMC cuts the SAC at its minimum.
Example: For a firm operating in a perfectly competitive market, the following data are
available
Price P = AR = MR = 20/- unit
Total cost function is C = 8 + 17Q – 4Q2
+ Q3
Let us find out the profit maximising output and the maximum profit.
Marginal cost will be available if the first derivative of the total cost function is obtained. Thus,
MC =
d(C)
dQ
= 17–8Q+3Q2
Maximum profit will be earned when
MC and MR are equal:
20 = 17–8Q+3Q2
Solving this equation gives two values for Q as –1/3 and 3. Obviously, negative output cannot be
produced; hence at Q = 3, the firm will maximise profits. Total revenue will be 60 and total cost
50. The maximum profit at the output of 3 units is 10.

Notes 9.2.3 Shut-down Decision
The supply curve of a competitive firm is its marginal curve. It is that part of the marginal cost
curve which is above the average variable cost curve.
At a price P, the firm is incurring a loss, but it does not shut down because of fixed costs
(Figure 9.8). In the short run, a firm knows it must pay these fixed costs regardless of whether or
not it produces. The firm only considers the costs it can save by stopping production and those
costs are its variable costs. As long as a firm is covering its variable costs, it pays to keep on
producing. It makes a smaller loss by producing. If it stopped producing, its loss would be the
entire fixed costs.
Figure 9.8
(a) (b)
However, once the price falls below AVC it will pay to shut down (point A). In that case the
firm's loss from producing temporarily and save the variable cost. Thus, the point at which
MC = AVC is the shut-down point (that point at which the firm will gain more by temporarily
shutting down than it will by staying in business. When price falls below the shut-down point,
the average variable costs the firm can save by shutting down exceed the price it would get for
selling the good. When price is above AVC, in the short run, a firm should keep on producing
even though it is making a loss. As long as a firm's total revenue is covering its total variable
cost, temporarily producing at a loss is the firm's best strategy because it is making less of a loss
than it would make if it were to shut down.
Case Study Economic Analysis of Agriculture
I
rony is the nature of the economics of agriculture; even as many in America still
struggle with hunger, the government has been offering subsidies to the American
farmer to artificially raise the price of produce, in some cases since 1933.
History of Subsidies
Because a typical farmer is so small compared to the entire market for the good he or she
offers, they cannot affect the price of the good, or try to affect the price of good too
efficaciously. Instead, they are referred to as ‘price takers’, who are forced to accept the
market price. However, subsidies alter this economic situation to occasionally illogical
results. At the end of World War I, farmers were rewarded by high prices as the government
Contd...

Notes
spent millions to rebuilt war-torn Europe. In fact, a small farmer who might have been
almost forced to sell the farm before the war was in fact currently quite successful. However,
in 1921, the nation fought through a recession as the farm goods they fervently produced
outpaced demand, probably due to Europe’s quick agricultural recovery. American farmers
now suffered, and continued to do so into 1922, where virtually every industry had
recovered except for agriculture. Large lands that had been opened up to feed Europe’s
millions pumped out more and more crops, but prices went lower and lower, and a
surplus quickly accumulated that prevented prosperity.
Rising Anger of Farmers
Farmers could no longer meet the cost of production, and many were forced to leave their
farms. Under neo-classical theory, this could be considered a frictional unemployment
situation; as each farm increases production until it doesn’t take as many to cover the
market, some of them should switch to other tasks. This ‘message of the market’ was a
message of sadness for many farmers. During the Great Depression, farmers were especially
hurt. For example, low dairy prices due to increased production meant that Midwestern
dairy farmers were earning less than ever. Milk, as a highly spoilable good, is a good
example of ‘perfect competition,’ when farmers can only earn the price the market tells
them. Even dairy farm strikes were ineffective, like those as a part of the Farmer’s Holiday
Association Strike of 1932 in Wisconsin and Iowa (some of these became violent as milk
haulers and milkmen scuffed on the picket lines).
Since the 1930s
FDR worked to create a national program to guarantee income to farmers by enacting a
significant number of measures to raise prices, beginning with the creation of the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration in May 1933, which began the subsidy system
that continues to this day, even though the AAA was declared unconstitutional in 1936.
The AAA measures paid landowners to leave part of their land fallow. This did raise
farmers’ incomes, but consumers were forced to endure high food prices during the worse
years of the Depression. Subsidies to farmers have been a part of the American agricultural
system ever since. Bill Clinton attempted to reduce payments and increase diversity of
crops with the Freedom to Farm Act in 1994. In 2000, however, the Farm Security and
Rural Investment Act restored the farming subsidies. While it is true that some farmers
struggle, the government spent $30 billion dollars in subsidies yearly, even though it is
estimated that it would only cost $10 billion dollars in crop insurances and other measures
to bring the poorest farmers in America up to middle class. On May 14, 2002, President
Bush signed a farm subsidy estimated to cost $190 billion dollars over ten years, rekindling
a national debate about subsidies. Today, large commercial farms dominate the agricultural
market; 8% dominate 72% of sales.
Farm policies are sometimes more the product of politics than economics. While security
of the food supply and preservation of small family-owned farms are good goals, well-
intentioned programs might be hugely inefficient. There are cost-effective ways of helping
small farmers, including crop insurance, but today some of these measures are still not
used.
Questions
1. Compare the earlier global agricultural scenario with the recent scenario. (as depicted
in the case)
2. Do you agree that agriculture is a perfectly competitive industry?
Source: www.ehow.com

Notes 9.2.4 Efficiency of a Firm
Since the price in the market is unique, this implies that all firms in the industry have the same
minimum long run average cost. This, however, does not mean that all firms are of the same size
or have the same efficiency, despite the fact that their LAC is the same in equilibrium. The more
efficient firms employ more productive factors of production and/or able managers. These
more efficient factors must be remunerated of their higher productivity, otherwise they will be
bid off by the raw entrants in the industry. Or, as the price rises in the market the more efficient
firms earn a rent which they must pay to their superior resources. Thus rents of more efficient
factors become costs for the individual firm, and hence the LAC of the more efficient firm shifts
upwards as the market price rises, even if the factor prices for the industry as a whole remain
constant as the industry expands. In this situation, the LAC of the old, more efficient firms must
be redrawn so as to be tangent at the higher market price. The LMC of the old firms is not
affected by the rents occurring to its more productive factors. It will be shifted only if the prices
of factors for the industry in general increase. Thus, the more efficient firms will be in equilibrium,
producing that output at which the redrawn LAC is at its minimum (at which point the LAC is
cut by the initial LMC given that factor prices remain constant). Under these conditions, with the
superior, more productive resources properly costed at their opportunity cost, all firms have the
same unit cost in their long run equilibrium. In Figure 9.9, at the initial price Po
the second firm
was not in the industry as it could not cover its costs at that price. At the new price P1
, firm B
enters the industry, making just normal profits. The established firm A earns rents which are
imputed costs, so that its LAC shifts upward and it reaches a new long run equilibrium producing
a higher level of output (Q2
).
Figure 9.9
9.3 Supply and Demand Together
The following three conditions exhibit how adjustment is likely to take place in the firm and in
the market under different situations.
Market Response to an Increase in Demand
Faced with an increase in demand which it sees as an increase in price and hence profits, a
competitive firm will respond by increasing output (from A to B) in order to maximise profit
(Figure 9.10). As all firms increase output and as new firms enter, price will fall until all profit is
competed away. Thus the long run supply curve will be perfectly elastic as is SLR
in (a). The final
equilibrium will be at the original price but a higher output. The original firms return to their
original output (A) but since there are more firms in the market the market output increases
to (C).

Notes
Figure 9.10
Market Response to a Technological Improvement
Figure 9.11
A technological improvement will shift AC and MC curves down, creating short run profits. As
existing firms expand output and as new firms enter, these profits will be competed away until
the price has once again fallen to equal average total costs (initially point B in the short run) and
ultimately point C in the long run (Figure 9.11).
Market with Specialised Inputs Response to a Decrease in Demand
Faced with a decrease in demand which it sees as fall in price and hence profit, a competitive
firm will respond by decreasing output in order to minimise losses. Firm output and market
output will fall. Figure 9.12 is the market response: as all firms decrease output, the demand for
specialised inputs will fall, causing the firm's cost in (a) to fall from AC0
to AC1
. The long run
equilibrium price will be lower than the original price, and the long run supply curve SLR
will be
upward sloping, rather than perfectly elastic.

Notes Figure 9.12
Caselet The Stock Market
T
he stock market is very close to a perfect competitive market. The price of a stock
usually is determined by the market forces of demand and supply of the stock and
individual buyers and sellers of the stock have little effect on price (they are price-
takers). Resources are mobile as stock is bought and sold frequently. Information about
prices and quantities is readily available. Funds flow into stocks and resources flow into
uses in which the rate of return. Thus stock prices provide the signal for efficient allocation
of investment in the economy. However, imperfections occur here also though the stock
market is very close to a perfect competition, for example, sale of huge amount of stocks
by a large corporation will certainly affect (depress) the price of its stocks.
Case Study Perfect Competition: The U.S. Bicycle Industry
(In words of J Townley)
I had an epiphany, as in a sudden insight into reality, in May at a meeting where a long
time friend in the industry offered the opinion that the U.S. bicycle industry is in a classic
state of perfect competition. My immediate response was ...that sounds like a good thing!
My friend, who went back to graduate school after working in a bike shop, for a major
component manufacturer and prominent bicycle brand quickly responded with ...no, you
don't understand. He went on to explain that when he studied economics in graduate
school he became aware of perfect competition which is a term of art in economics for the
most competitive market imaginable - one where the companies and businesses realize
the bare minimum profit necessary to keep them in business.
At the time we were in a meeting together with six other people from the bicycle
industry - and the room went silent for a time. As the group started to discuss the notion
Contd...

Notes
of perfect competition it became apparent that no one strongly disagreed, and in fact there
seemed to be more agreement than not that our industry was indeed in perfect competition.
We ended our meeting, and went our separate ways, but the concept of perfect competition
stayed with me, kind of like the dull pain of a toothache. When I got back to my office I did
a search on the web and found quite a lot about this subject. Here is a summary of what I
learned.
Perfect competition according to economists, is the most competitive market imaginable.
In the real world, it is rare, and there are even some economists that feel it may not even
exist in its purest (I take this as worst) form. The example of a market in perfect competition
that is referenced by those economists that believe it does exist - is agriculture.
Competition is ... competition, so what makes perfect competition different from all other
forms or kinds of competition? According to economists - because it is so competitive that
any individual buyer or seller has a negligible impact on the market price. Products are
homogeneous, or composed of parts that are all of the same kind. Product and pricing
information is also perfect in that everyone, including the ultimate purchaser knows
everything about the products, including the best prices available in the market.
In a market in perfect competition everybody is a price taker, producing and selling
essentially identical products and each seller has little or no effect on market price, and is
unable to sell any output at a price greater than the market price.
Firms earn only normal profit, or the bare minimum profit necessary to keep them in
business.
If firms do earn more than normal profit, which is called excess profit, the absence of
barriers to entry mean that other firms will enter the market and drive the price level
down until there are only normal profits to be made. Manufacturing output will be
maximized and price minimized.
This sounds very familiar to me - and I am sure you can also relate to real world examples
of the U.S. bicycle industry as you read through this explanation of perfect competition.
Component manufacturers scramble to get the latest designs and functionality to market
in a timely fashion. Bicycle suppliers struggle mightily to craft and specify bicycle products
that have more value than the competition and sweat over the timing and dealer programs
to introduce them. Bicycle retailers lose sleep over how much to commit for and what to
bring to market - and whether to become a concept store or remain independent, and
which suppliers to do business with. And with all this activity, no buyer or seller has a
negligible impact on the market price, and everybody in the channel of trade is a price
taker, earning the bare minimum profit necessary to stay in business.
Last year and this season are good examples. In 2005 we had our best year ever for the sale
of high-end road 700c bicycles selling above $1,000. And in 2005 the typical bike shop lost
5 margin points on the sale of new bicycles, continuing an unfortunate trend of losing
money on the sale of new bicycles that has plagued our channel of trade for over a decade.
High-profit bike shops, while they performed much better than the typical shop, also
came in just below their cost of doing business on the sale of new bicycles in 2005, the first
actual loss for high-profit shop on the sale of new bicycles in a decade.
Despite the continuing, and apparently growing losses on the sale of new bicycle, the U.S.
bicycle industry posted one of its best years for apparent market consumption in 2005 -
second only to the record set in 2000.
Contd...

Notes 2006 started off well enough, but now as we enter the 3rd quarter of the year, some bicycle
brands are reporting overstocks from last season, and retailers are reporting some 2006
models already are out of stock as the brands introduce and start to deliver 2007 models.
History does matter, and in economics, path dependence refers to the way in which
apparently insignificant events and choices can have huge consequences for the development
of a market or an economy. In the case of the specialty bicycle retail channel of trade, the
collective choice not to adopt Uniform Product Codes, or UPC's has come back to blind the
industry again, and again over the last twenty five to thirty years.
The seemingly insignificant, competitive based choice of not adopting UPC's has made
bar coding technology, and the full power of its inventory and sales tracking efficiency
uniformly unavailable across all levels of our channel of trade, making real channel
efficiency impossible. Simply stated - brands and manufactures don't know what is selling
at retail and retailers have little or no input or influence on what is reordered and
manufactured to refill the supply pipeline. As most economists will tell you...where we
have been in the past determines where we are now, and where we can go in the future.
This, in turn, leads to the importance of information.
Economic and channel efficiency is likely to be greatest when information is
comprehensive, accurate, and readily and cheaply available. As evidenced by the specialty
bicycle retail channels recurring pattern of having too much or not enough, many of the
problems facing economies and markets arise from making decisions without all the
information that is needed.
Currently our channel of trade operates on the premise that if a brand or company can
acquire or gather more information than its competitors it is a good thing. However,
economists will tell you that asymmetric information, when one channel player knows
more than the other channel players, can be a serious source of inefficiency and market
failure.
Uncertainty can also impose large economic costs. The power of the Internet has greatly
increased the availability of certain information. However, even with all its information
power, there are specialty bicycle retail channel inefficiencies, like not knowing what is
actually selling at retail, that the Internet will not be able to solve. Accordingly,
uncertainty - literally not knowing, will remain a huge source of specialty bicycle retail
channel inefficiency.
And this inefficiency makes our channels blindness complete. Potentially the most useful
information, about what will happen in the future...or the ability to more accurately
forecast future demand, replenishment, inventory and sales will simply never be available
under our channels current state of perfect competition.
The best example of perfect competition that I have heard recently is in my own
backyard...Madison Wisconsin, one of the best specialty bicycle retail markets in the
country. As most of the industry knows there are two Trek company stores in Madison,
and one of them, located on the East side has been identified as the company's flagship
store. Erik's Bike Shop is a successful multi-store retailer headquartered in the Minneapolis-
St. Paul Minnesota market. Erik's established a store in Madison several seasons ago, and
carries Specialized, as what I understand is its marquee brand.
Several weeks ago, according to the buzz among bicycle dealers, Specialized announced
to its dealers in Madison that Erik's will open a second store, reportedly directly across the
street from the Trek flagship store on the city's East side. By the way, both the Trek
flagship and the new Erik's that will carry Specialized are both in direct competition with
an established bicycle dealer that has carried both the Trek and Specialized brands for
many years - and is just one-mile away!
Contd...

Notes
To make this market situation even more perfect, the Trek flagship and new Erik's store
are located almost within sight of a large new Dick's Sporting Goods that opened last year.
This is, I suggest to you, much more than just two brand competitors going head-to-head
in one of the best specialty bicycle markets in the country. It is also a clear example of
perfect competition at its best, or should I say worst. The most competitive market
imaginable...where output will be maximized and price minimized. Consumers,
particularly adult enthusiast cyclists have been and will continue to be the clear
beneficiaries of this most competitive of markets.
The retailers, including the two backed by deep pocket bicycle brands, will beat on each
other and will become more efficient to survive, and as a result prices in the market will
be kept surprised. Keep in mind that in a state of perfect competition a firm that earns
excess profits will experience other firms entering the market and driving the price level
down until there are only normal profits to be made - the bare minimum profit necessary
to keep them in business. All of the retailers in this scenario, when it comes to full
fruition, including those backed by the big brands, will still only have a negligible impact
on the market, including the market pricing.
This all raises the question - at least in my mind, of the big guy that was there first, Trek
Bicycle, erecting or creating some type of barrier to entry. I am sure they will think about
such a thing - and they may actually try several potential barriers to another new store,
which might very well also be a brand concept, entering their geography, and market
space. At the end of the day...there is no real barrier to entry that can be put in place, or
actually exists for that matter, because the largest brand seller in our channel of trade still
doesn't have enough mass or leverage to dominate through a monopoly, and I am not
talking about the board game.
Most markets exhibit some form of imperfect or monopolistic competition. There are
fewer firms in this imperfect competition than in a perfectly competitive market and each
can to some degree create barriers to entry. Such barriers would allow the existing firms
to earn some degree of excess profits without a new entrant being able to compete to bring
prices down.
So far, the consolidation in the U.S. specialty bicycle retail channel of trade hasn't reached
a point where there are a small enough number of brands and /or manufacturers with
enough product differentiation to allow the creating of barriers to market entry. The
number of bike shops has kept falling over the last seven years, but here again, no retail
organization has grown to the point that it can create barriers to market entry.
And what about the current independent bicycle retailer that has been in the market the
longest? He is clearly at a dangerous place, but is the only one of the players who can
break away from the state of perfect competition that has a strangle hold on the rest of the
industry and the specialty bicycle retail channel of trade. By the way, this retailer was
made aware in advance by the brands, first that the Trek flagship store was going in a mile
from him, and next that Erik's Bike Shop was going to locate a new store within about the
same distance from him. He has reacted by remodeling the interior of his current location.
I have not spoken with this particular retailer since the news about the location for the
new Erik's store, but I have E-mailed, and when I do talk to him, here is what I am going
to suggest.
1. Hyper-differentiate your store. This is a term coined by Mike Basch, former CEO of
YaYa! Bike, and it means differentiate your store totally from any other bike shop or
bicycle retailer in your market so that you stand out as the brand in your market. It
will be important to keep the adult enthusiast cyclists that are now customers - but
the key will be crafting and marketing features and benefits to retain them as clients
Contd...

Notes for life. The battle between the two big bicycle brands is going to test the loyalty
of the adult enthusiasts in the market - but their loyalty is a question of personal
attachment, relationships and the deal they got most recently, so there is marketing
room for the independent to establish client loyalty programs and establish ongoing
communications so the relationship is maintained and strengthened. Items 7, 8 and
9 discussed below become very important here.
2. Market to and really welcome casual cyclists, women, minorities, baby boomers
seniors - everyone that is now underserved by all-the-other bike shops and concept
stores. This is a key strategy for growth. It involves a product selection that will
give all the non-enthusiast adults a truly enjoyable bicycle riding experience while
not forgetting about the kids. Proactive market outreach in the form of demographics
within zip codes and direct-response is essential, along with a formal referral-
marketing program to drive word-of-mouth.
3. Focus totally on the consumer. Our channel of trade is now very product focused,
and we think everyone that walks in the door is also product focused. This is a false
premise. Shoppers, all shoppers are looking for an enjoyable experience, and that
experience includes focusing on their wants and needs, while making them
comfortable in the store. Adult enthusiast cyclists want and seek out product
orientation, but also appreciate a more enjoyable experience. Casual cyclists and
non-cyclists, where the growth potential is, are seeking the shopping experience
and want to be comfortable with and develop a relationship with a consultant who's
expert advice about bicycle products will best meet their wants and needs.
4. Educate your whole organization to focus totally on shoppers and customers. Because
of the current product focus of our channel of trade, we don't educate our employees
about the vital importance of focusing totally on the shopper, and not making any
snap judgments about who a cyclist or customer is, or isn't. Hiring and educating
customer service naturals is way more important than in-depth product knowledge.
Educating them to really listen to shoppers and customers wants and needs is vital
to building lasting, lifetime relationships.
5. Make it all about them and an extraordinary shopping experience. There is no retail
selling today - everything a retailer does, everything retail employees do is
marketing. The whole store, and the whole attitude has to make it all about them
from the parking lot to the windows to the front door to the greeting - through
making the bicycle buying process easy and fun, and the whole visit to the store
extraordinary. Making it all about them and providing an extraordinary shopping
experience is the path to increased transaction values and increased close rates.
6. Make your store the brand. Work with, stock and sell products that will provide the
features and value your customers want and need, and the margins and inventory
turns you need to grow your business. Present a uniform brand image in everything
you do and that your staff does and says - one outward brand face. And develop and
promote formal word-of-mouth customer referral programs to leverage your store
brand in the market.
7. Create individual client solutions. You and your staff - your whole store, your
brand and the shopping experience you provide are for one purpose. To create
individual solutions for your customers wants and needs. In doing so you will
create clients for life.
8. Become an efficient database manager. Educate your staff to the importance to your
business of utilizing all the features built into to your computerized point of sale
system and any other retail shopping systems you incorporate into your retail
Contd...

Notes
process and shopping experience. The uniform entry of shopper, customer and
client information is as important to your business as a uniform and consistent new
bicycle assembly process and check list.
9. Become an efficient direct-response marketer. Staying connected to prospects,
shoppers, customers and clients utilizing a regular direct-response marketing plan,
is essential to growing the number of transactions generated by the business, and it
is reliant upon a clean and current database.
10. Follow the Phillips Rule of never ever selling anything in your retail store below
your cost of doing business. This will lead to consistently earning excess profits.
All ten of these suggestions together create the foundation for a new level of specialty
bicycle retailing that changes the paradigm and has the potential to take the retailers that
follow it out from under the state of perfect competition that the rest of the channel of
trade is trapped in.
Question
Comment on the suggestions made by the writer.
Source: http://www.jaytownley.com/the-bicycle-industry-competition?page=4
9.4 Summary
In theory, perfect competition implies no rivalry among firms.
In a perfectly competitive market structure there is a large number of buyers and sellers of
the product and the product is homogeneous.
There is free mobility of factors of production and the buyers and sellers have perfect
knowledge of the market.
In the short run the best level of output of the firm is the one at which the firm maximises
profits or minimises losses. This is possible at P = MR = MC. The point at which the firm
covers its variable costs is called the closing down point.
In long run the best level of output is one at which price P=LMC. At equilibrium the short
run marginal cost is equal to the long run marginal cost and the short run average cost is
equal to the long run average cost. Thus, given the above equilibrium condition, we have
SMC = LMC = LAC = SAC P = MR
9.5 Keywords
Equilibrium: Condition when the firm has no tendency either to increase or to contract its
output.
Minimum price: Price at which the sellers refuse to supply the goods at all and store it with
themselves.
Perfect competition: A market structure characterized by a complete absence of rivalry among
the individual firms.
Profit: Difference between total revenue and total cost Market period: A very short period in
which the supply is fixed, that is no adjustment can take place in supply conditions.

Notes 9.6 Self Assessment
(a) In a perfect market there are large number of sellers.
(b) In a perfect market there is products differentiation.
(c) In a perfect market a change in the output of a single firm will affect the market
price of the product.
(d) In perfect market, market agents are not fully aware of market.
(e) In a perfect market there is perfect mobility of resources.
(f) Under perfect competition the price curve and the marginal revenue curve are the
same.
(g) Industry has no role in the determination of price under perfect competition.
(h) When the supply of a commodity decreases and its demand remains constant then it
leads to decrease in price.
(i) For equilibrium MC curve should cut the MR curve from below.
(a) A perfectly competitive firm faces an ......................... elastic demand curve.
(b) The closing down point is at which the firm covers its ......................... cost.
(c) In the long run all costs are ......................... .
(d) In the long run the best level of output is, where P = ......................... .
(e) The LMC cuts the LAC at its ......................... point.
(f) The ................ LRS is generally a feature of rapid growth.
(g) The .................... of an industry might lead to a fall in prices of some of its input.
(h) The factors of production are .......... to move in perfect competition.
1. In which condition under perfect competition, would a firm maximize profit in the short
run?
2. A firm can sell its product for 20 each in a perfectly competitive output market. Its total
cost of production for the production range of 200 units to 205 units is given below:
200 201 202 203 204 205
3600 3615 3634 3658 3688 3720
What is the profit maximising level of production?
3. To maximize the profit in the short run, a perfectly competitive firm produces the output
for which price is equal to average variable cost- Why/Why not?
4. Why are firms operating under conditions of perfect competition depicted as having a
horizontal demand curve?

Notes
5. What will happen to the demand curve of a perfectly competitive firm if:
(a) new sellers are attracted to the industry by the existence of supernormal profits?
(b) there is an increase in market demand for the firm's output?
6. Why is it inappropriate to refer to a perfectly competitive firm as 'earning supernormal
profit in the long-run'?
7. Under what conditions will a firm operating in a perfectly competitive industry choose to
leave the industry?
8. For a perfectly competitive firm, why is it insufficient to say that profit maximisation
takes place at the output where marginal cost equals marginal revenue?
9. In the perfect market, if individuals are enjoying consumers' surplus, does it mean that, as
a consequence, producers are not receiving producers' surplus?
10. The case of perfect competition is sometimes referred to as a 'benchmark' industrial
structure. In this context, what do you think commentators mean by the term 'benchmark'?
11. Taking a real life example, discuss the features of the perfect competition.
12. Why is a firm under perfect competition described as a price-maker? Deduce its equilibrium
conditions in the short run.
13. Assume that firms in the short run are earning above normal profits. Explain what will
happen to these profits in the long run for a market having perfect competition.
14. How and when will you determine the closing down point in the short run?
15. Explain LMC= LAC= P. Comment.
16. Examine the shut down decision in the long run.
1. (a) True (b) False (c) False
(d) False (e) True (f) True
(g) False (h) False (i) True
2. (a) Infinitely (b) variable (c) variable
(d) LMC (e) minimum (f) rising
(g) expansion (h) free
Books Bibek Debroy, Managerial Economics, Global Business Press, Delhi.
Shapiro, Bensen, The Psychology of Pricing, Harvard Business Review.

Notes
Online links http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/competition/competition.htm
http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpdc=dspk=perfect
+competition
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/perfect-competition-characteristics.html
http://ayushveda.com/blogs/business/perfect-competition-the-root-of-market-
analysis/

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Features of Monopoly
10.2 Price and Output Decisions
10.2.1 Short Run Equilibrium
10.2.2 Long Run Equilibrium
10.3 Price Discrimination under Monopoly
10.4 Summary
10.5 Keywords
Objectives
State the features of monopoly competition
Discuss the price and output decisions under monopoly
Explain the concept of price discrimination
Introduction
Monopoly is exactly opposite to the perfect competition. We can define a Monopolist as a sole
supplier to particular market. In fact, after going through this unit you will realise that monopoly
is an extreme case and it is rarely found in practice. However, we may also understand the case
of monopoly by analysing two different cases - one that is presented in textbooks which says
that in a monopoly there is only one firm producing the good. And other, the real world case
such as the operating system monopoly, that says that in monopoly there is one firm that
provides the overwhelming majority of sales (say, for example Microsoft), and a handful of
small companies that have little or no impact on the dominant firm. In this unit, we will stress
more on the former case.
10.1 Features of Monopoly
Monopoly is said to exist when one firm is the sole producer or seller of a product which has no
close substitutes. According to this definition, there must be a single producer or seller of a
product. If there are many producers producing a product, either perfect competition or

Notes monopolistic competition will prevail depending upon whether the product is homogeneous
or differentiated. On the other hand, when there are few producers, oligopoly is said to exist. A
second condition which is essential for a firm to be called a monopolist is that no close substitutes
for the product of that firm should be available.
From the above discussion it follows that for monopoly to exist, following conditions are
essential:
1. One and only one firm produces and sells a particular commodity or a service.
2. There are no rivals or direct competitors of the firm.
3. No other seller can enter the market for whatever reasons — legal, technical or economic.
4. Monopolist is a price maker. He tries to take the best of whatever demand and cost
conditions exist without the fear of new firms entering to compete away his profits.
In the case of monopoly one firm constitutes the whole industry. Therefore the entire demand of
the consumers for that product faces the monopolist; which slopes downward. Monopolist can
lower the price by increasing his level of sales and output and he can raise the price by reducing
his level of sales. Demand curve facing the monopolist will be his average revenue curve, which
also slopes downward. Since average revenue curve slopes downward, marginal revenue curve
will be below it.
Market Conditions
In perfect competition, there is a difference between the market demand curve and the demand
curve for the output of an individual firm; when the firm acts as a price taker it views its demand
curve as being horizontal with average revenue equal to marginal revenue. However, under
monopoly, there is only one firm in the industry and so there is no difference between the
demand curve for the industry and the firm. Since a normal demand curve is assumed, it is
necessary for the monopolist to reduce price in order to increase the quantity sold. In other
words, in order to increase sales the monopolist must reduce the price of all goods sold and
therefore marginal revenue will always be less than average revenue under monopoly.
Table 10.1: Market Condition and Monopoly
Notes Sources of Monopoly
1. Legal Restrictions: Some public sector services are statutory monopolies, which
means their position is protected by law.
A monopoly position might also be protected by a patent which prevents other
firms from producing an identical good during the life of the patent. However,
similar products can often be produced and it is easy to exaggerate the protection
afforded by patents.
Contd...

Notes
2. Capital Costs: Certain businesses, such as international airlines and chemical
companies, have relatively high set-up costs. In such cases the minimum efficient
scale of production might be very high indeed and this creates a formidable barrier
to entry.
3. Natural Factor Endowments: Sometimes firms, within a particular country, between
them control a major proportion of the world output of a commodity: nitrates from
Chile, coffee from Brazil and gold from South Africa are cases in point. A particular
country has a monopoly in the supply of a particular commodity due to natural
factor endowments and it is impossible to obtain supply of the commodity from
any other source.
4. Tariffs and Quotas: It can happen that a firm has a dominant position in its home
country, but faces competition internationally. A tariff raises the price of goods
imported into the domestic economy and a quota restricts the volume that can be
imported. They, therefore, protect domestic industry from international competition.
10.2.1 Short Run Equilibrium
In the short run the monopolist maximises his short run profits or minimises his short run losses
if the following two conditions are satisfied:
1. MC = MR and
2. The slope of MC is greater than the slope of MR at the point of their intersection (i.e., MC
cuts the MR curve from below).
Figure 10.1
In the short run a monopolist has to work with a given existing plant. He can expand or contract
output by varying the amount of variable factors but working with a given existing plant.
Maximisation of profits in the short run requires the fixation of output at a level at which
marginal cost with a given existing plant is equal to marginal revenue. In Figure 10.1, SAC and
SMC are short run average and marginal cost curves. Monopolist is in equilibrium at E where
marginal revenue is equal to marginal cost. Price set by him is SQ or OP. He is making profits
equal to TRQP.
But in the short run he will continue working so long as price is above the average variable cost.
If the price falls below average variable cost the monopolist would shut down even in the short

Notes run. In case of losses, monopoly equilibrium is shown in Figure 10.2. The monopolist is in
equilibrium at OS level of output with price OP. Since price (or AR) is smaller than average cost,
he is making losses which are equal to area of the rectangle PQGH.
Figure 10.2
10.2.2 Long Run Equilibrium
In the long run, the monopolist has the time to expand his plant or to intensively use his existing
plant which will maximise his profits. Since there will be no new entry, it is not necessary for the
monopolist to reach an optimal scale. It means that monopolist will not stay in business if he
makes losses in the long run. The size of his plant and the degree of utilisation of any given plant
size depend entirely on market demand.
!
Caution He may reach the minimum point of LAC or remain at falling part of his LAC and
expand beyond the minimum LAC depending on the market conditions. In Figure 10.3 we
depict the case in which the market size does not permit the monopolist to expand to the
minimum point of LAC. This is because to the left of the minimum point of the LAC the
SRAC is tangent to the LAC at its falling part and also because the short run MC must be
equal to the LRMC. This occurs at E, while the minimum LAC is at b and the optimal use
of the existing plant is at a: since it is utilised at the level E, there is excess capacity.
Figure 10.3: Monopolist with Suboptimal Plant and Excess Capacity

Notes
In Figure 10.4, we depict the case where the size of the market is so large that the monopolist, in
order to maximise his output, must build a plant larger than the optimal and over utilise it. This
is because to the right of the minimum point of the LAC the SRAC and the LAC are tangent at a
point of their positive slope and also because the SRMC must be equal to the LAC. Thus, the
plant that maximises the monopolist's profits leads to higher costs for two reasons: firstly,
because it is larger than the optimal size and secondly because, it is over utilised.
Figure 10.4
Finally, in Figure 10.5 we show the case in which the market size is just large enough to permit
the monopolist to build the optimal plant and use it at full capacity.
Figure 10.5
It should be clear as to which of the above situations will emerge in any particular case depends
on the size of the market (given the technology of the monopolist).
Task Try to find out the organisations closer to monopoly competition in the
real world.
Did u know? What is Herfindhal Index?
It is commonly used by government bodies while measuring the degree of competition in
a market. It takes into account the size distribution of firms.

Notes
Case Study Medical Monopoly
N
on-physician providers of medical care are in high demand in the United States.
But licensure laws and federal regulations limit their scope of practice and restrict
access to their services. The result has almost unavoidably been less choice and
higher prices for consumers.
Safety and consumer protection issues are often said to be the reasons for restricting non-
physician services. But the restrictions appear not to be based on experimental findings.
Studies have repeatedly shown that qualified non-physician providers – such as midwives,
nurses, and chiropractors – can perform many health and medical services traditionally
performed by physicians – with comparable health outcomes, lower costs, and high patient
satisfaction.
Licensure laws appear to be designed to limit the supply of health care providers and
restrict competition to physicians from non-physician practitioners. The primary result is
an increase in physician fees and income that drives up health care costs.
At a time government is trying to cut health spending and improve access to health care,
it is important to examine critically the extent to which government policies are responsible
for rising health costs and the unavailability of health services. Eliminating the roadblocks
to competition among health care providers could improve access to health services,
lower health costs, and reduce government spending.
Question
Analyse the possible factors that have lead to this kind of situation.
Source: www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=1105
10.3 Price Discrimination under Monopoly
A seller indulges in price discrimination when he sells the same product at different prices to
different buyers. Price discrimination is 'personal' when different prices are charged from different
persons, 'local' when different prices are charged from people living in different localities, and
'according to use' when, for example, higher rates are charged for commercial use of electricity
as compared to domestic use.
Price discrimination is possible when the seller is able to distinguish individual units bought by
single buyer or to separate buyers into classes where resale among classes is not possible.
Thus, price discrimination is possible in case of personal services of doctors and lawyers. It is
also possible when markets are too distant or are separated by tariff barriers. There may be a
legal sanction for price discrimination as in the case of electricity charges from domestic and
industrial users. It is also possible when some people are prejudiced against a particular market
and prefer a posh market or when some people are too lethargic to move away from the nearest
shopping centre.

Notes
Case 1: Equilibrium under Price Discrimination
A monopolist firm sells a single product in two different markets either different elasticities of
demand. Resale among the customers is not possible. The firm has to decide how much total
output should be produced and how it should be distributed between sub-markets and what
prices should be charged in the two sub-markets. It is assumed that production takes place at the
same point.
Figure 10.6: Equilibrium of Monopolist under Price Discrimination
Figure 10.6 shows the equilibrium of a monopolist under the two sub-markets. It may be
observed that the monopolist faces a less elastic demand curve in sub-market 1 as compared to
2. The aggregate demand and MR curves are shown in part (c). Profits are maximised where MC
curve meets the MR curve from below, i.e., at point E. The total profits are represented by the
shaded area EFG lying between the MR and MC curves. The monopolist would produce Q units
of output. In order to know the distribution of Q in two sub-markets the equilibrium aggregate
MR is equated to MR1
and MR2
at points E1
and E2
respectively. The monopolist would sell
amount Q1
in sub-market 1 at a price P1
. He would sell amount Q2
at a price P2
in sub-market 2.
It should be noted that Q = Q1
+Q2
.
Case 2: Dumping
This is a special case when the firm is a monopolistic in the domestic market but faces perfect
competition in the world market. Figure 10.7 shows the equilibrium of such a firm. ARH
and
MRH
are the average and marginal revenue curves respectively which the firm faces in the home
market. ARW
or MRW
is horizontal straight line at the level of prices Pw
, prevailing in the world
market. MC denotes the marginal cost curve. The aggregate MR curve is given by the curve
AFEG which is the lateral summation of MRW
and MRH
. The profits are maximised when aggregate
MR=MC, i.e., at point E. The firm would sell total output Q. In the home market, the firm would
equate MRH
to the equilibrium MC. Thus, the firm would sell QH
units in the domestic market at
a price PH
which is higher than the international price PW
. The remaining amount (Q-QH
) would
be sold in the world market at price PW
. The area AFED denotes the total profits of this firm. The
producer is said to be 'dumping' in the world market since he is charging less price in the world
market than in the home market.

Notes Figure 10.7: Disequilibrium of a Monopolist under Price Discrimination
Caselet DeBeers : An Unregulated Monopoly
A
ccording to the New York Times (1986), the Central Selling Organisation, controlled
by DeBeers Consolidated Mines Ltd, is probably the world's most successful
monopoly. De Beers, founded in 1880 by Cecil Rhodes in South Africa, controlled
over 99 per cent of world's diamond production until about 1900. At present, the firm
mines only about 15 per cent of the world's diamonds, but it still controls the sales of over
80 per cent of the gem quality diamonds through its Central Selling Organisation which
markets the output of other major producing countries like Zaire, the Soviet Union,
Botswana, Namibia and Australia, as well as its own production. In the first half of 1989, its
sales were over $2 billion.
No one doubts that DeBeers controls the price of diamonds. Buyers are offered small
boxes of assorted diamonds at a price set by DeBeers on take it all or leave it basis. Those
that choose not to buy may have to wait some time before getting another opportunity. If
the demand for diamond fails, as it did in early 1980s (when inflation slowed and diamonds
as an investment lost much of their sparkle), DeBeers stands ready to buy diamonds to
support the price. Between 1979 and 1984, its stockpile of diamonds increased from about
$360 million to about $2 billion. In the first half of 1992, its earnings fell by about 25 per
cent because global recession had reduced the demand for diamonds.
Besides limiting the quantity supplied, DeBeers also works hard and cleverly to push the
demand curve for diamonds to the right. An important part of its sales campaign has been
to link diamonds and romance (according to its 50-year old slogan, A Diamond is Forever),
of course, this has also been helpful in keeping diamonds once sold, off the market. A
good that is drenched with lasting sentiment is less likely to be sold when times get tough.
DeBeers's policies have paid off very substantial profits, but the consumer has paid higher
prices than if the diamond market were competitive.

Notes
Case Study In Curbing Anti-Dumping, Chinese Companies Sued
for Monopoly in US.
I
n a closely watched case that could test the reach of U.S. antitrust law, four Chinese
companies face powerful evidence that they colluded to limit production and fix prices
of vitamin C in the United States. The evidence is so convincing, in fact, that the
defendants have not contested the allegations.
But they still have a potentially solid legal defense: the Chinese Government made them
do it. It's a position that has been bolstered by the Chinese government itself, which made
an official appearance in the case -- believed to be its first ever in a U.S. court -- to file briefs
in support of the defendants. After more than six years of litigation, a Brooklyn federal
judge is expected to decide soon whether the case can be decided without a trial.
The legal theory underpinning the defendants' argument is known as the foreign sovereign
compulsion doctrine, which protects foreign companies that were compelled by their
own government to break U.S. law. As Chinese companies increasingly become the target
of antitrust lawsuits in the United States, the doctrine is expected to undergo more legal
scrutiny. In addition to the vitamin C case, Chinese companies have raised the sovereign
compulsion defense in two other price-fixing cases.
The outcomes of those cases are not expected to have an immediate impact on U.S. trade
relations with China, the largest supplier of goods imported into the United States. As
China's economic power continues to grow, however, the disputes could be a sign of more
trade fights ahead.
Shanker Singham, a partner at Squire, Sanders Dempsey and the chairman of the
International Roundtable on Trade and Competition Policy, said that a ruling for the
defendants would undermine global competition. It would be a declaration of war on the
market system where business competition on the merits is the organizing economic
principle, Singham said.
Pact Limits Export Volumes
Until recently, Chinese companies have been known for low production costs that have
benefited consumers worldwide, and only in the last five years have they been accused of
coordinating production in an effort to raise prices. The appearance of Chinese cartels
that are hiding behind the state is a disturbing trend, said John Connor, a professor at
Purdue University specializing in antitrust law enforcement.
Among the documents in the vitamin C case is a 2001 written production and price
agreement among the four Chinese manufacturers, which together controlled around 60
percent of the world's vitamin C market. The pact explicitly limited each company to a
specific volume for export. According to the plaintiffs, after the agreement was made, spot
prices for vitamin C shot to as high as $7 per kilogram in December 2002 from $2.50 per
kilogram in December 2001.
In an amicus brief filed in support of the defendants, China's Ministry of Commerce
argued that the vitamin C manufacturers were compelled by Chinese law to coordinate
their production and pricing. It also argued that a ruling against the manufactures would
improperly penalize them for the sovereign acts of their government and would adversely
affect implementations of China's trade policy.
Contd...

Notes The foreign sovereign compulsion defense has rarely been litigated and it has only been
successful once, according to antitrust law experts. But the presence of the Chinese
government in the vitamin C case could cause Judge Brian Cogan to look for a way to
dismiss the case. You can see why a judge would be reluctant to keep the case when it's
about foreign affairs and trade policy, said Spencer Waller, director of the Institute for
Consumer Antitrust Studies at Loyola University Chicago School of Law.
No U.S. Action
The Chinese government's participation may explain why neither the U.S. Department of
Justice nor the Federal Trade Commission has taken any action against the Chinese
companies. According to enforcement guidelines that the government issued in 1995, the
DOJ and FTC will not take action against a company if a foreign government makes a
sufficiently detailed presentation that a specific law compelled the defendant's actions.
William Isaacson, a partner at Boies, Schiller Flexner and the co-lead counsel for the
plaintiffs, said that neither the Chinese government nor the defendants have been able to
point to such a law.
Isaacson and his law firm have a unique perspective on the vitamin C market. In the late
1990s, they investigated a vitamin C cartel among European and Japanese companies.
Their probe led to U.S. prosecutions that resulted in more than $900 million in corporate
fines and several guilty pleas. Isaacson said he is bewildered that the U.S. government has
not contacted him for more information about his case against the Chinese companies.
I've never understood why they don't want to find out what's been happening. The
Department of Justice's antitrust division and the FTC declined to comment.
The plaintiffs, two U.S. buyers of vitamin C, alleged in one of their briefs that the defendants
fixed prices without any help from the government. It was only after the defendants were
accused of price fixing that they invoked their government's involvement, according to
the plaintiffs.
For their part, the Chinese manufacturers say that China's Ministry of Commerce directed
an entity called the Chamber of Commerce of Medicines and Health Products Importers
and Exporters to coordinate production. According to the brief submitted by the Ministry
of Commerce, the action was taken in order to mitigate the exposure Chinese companies
faced in potential antidumping investigations from other countries and to ensure China's
orderly transition to a market-driven economy.
But that position could turn out to be problematic for China in a dispute with the United
States at the World Trade Organization. In that proceeding, the United States has charged
that China has played a role in limiting exports of certain raw materials, in violation of
WTO rules. To bolster its case, the United States has pointed to China's admission in the
vitamin C case that in fact it is involved in setting production limits.
The case is Animal Science Products and The Ranis Company v. Hebei Welcome
Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd. et al, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York, No.
05-00453.
Question
Do you think what China is doing is right?
Source: Reporting by Andrew Longstreth of Reuters Legal; Editing by Amy Singer and Eddie Evans; This article first appeared
on Westlaw News Insight, www.westlawnews.com

Notes
10.4 Summary
In the case of monopoly one firm constitutes the whole industry.
There must be a single producer or seller of a product and the product has no close
substitute.
In the short run the monopolist maximises his short run profits or minimises his short run
losses if the following two conditions are satisfied: (i) MC = MR and (ii) The slope of MC
is greater than the slope of MR at the point of their intersection.
In the long run, the monopolist has the time to expand his plant or to intensively use his
existing plant which will maximise his profits.
A seller indulges in price discrimination when he sells the same product at different prices
to different buyers. A monopolist firm sells a single product in two different markets
either different elasticities of demand.
10.5 Keywords
Dumping: When the firm is a monopolistic in the domestic market but faces perfect competition
in the world market.
output.
Imperfect competition: A market structure wherein individual firms exercise control over the
price to a smaller or larger degree depending upon the degree of imperfection present in a case.
Market period: A very short period in which the supply is fixed, that is no adjustment can take
place in supply conditions.
Monopoly: Existence of a single producer or seller which is producing or selling a product
which has no close substitutes.
Perfect competition: A market structure characterized by a complete absence of rivalry among
the individual firms.
Profit: Difference between total revenue and total cost.
(a) In the case of monopoly one firm constitutes the whole industry.
(b) In case of monopoly, the marginal revenue is less than the price.
(c) In the short-run, a monopolist cannot be in equilibrium if MC cuts the MR curve
from below, even if MC=MR.
(d) Monopoly represents an efficient use of resources at the macro level.
(a) Given the same cost and revenue schedules, a profit-maximizing monopolist will
produce:
(i) less output than a competitive industry
(ii) more output than a competitive industry

Notes (iii) the same amount of output as a competitive industry
(iv) none of above.
(b) The quantity supplied by a profit maximizing monopolist is:
(i) equal to quantity demanded at competitive market price
(ii) insufficient to supply the quantity demanded at monopoly price
(iii) equal to quantity demanded when price equals marginal cost
(iv) insufficient to satisfy the quantity demanded at the competitive market price
(c) Which of the following is not true of a profit maximizing monopoly firm in
equilibrium?
(i) total profit is maximum for the firm
(ii) there is less output than under competitive conditions
(iii) average costs are minimum at the equilibrium rate of output
(iv) the price is higher than under competitive conditions.
(a) Under monopoly .............. firm constitutes the whole industry.
(b) In monopoly the demand curve for the firm and industry is............. .
(c) In the short run monopolist will continue working so long as price is above the
............. .
(d) In monopoly seller may indulge in price ................... .
(e) Since there will be no new entry, it is not necessary for the monopolist to reach
............ scale.
(f) If a seller is charging less price in the world market than in the home market, it is
called ............. .
(g) In monopoly product has no close ............... .
1. What perfect competitive market and pure monopoly market have in common?
2. How can a monopoly market be a disadvantage to consumers?
3. In what market did Microsoft have a monopoly in the late 1990s? What technological
advances threatened that monopoly?
4. The water company is privately owned and is the only water company in town. It is
licensed and franchised by the city for a 10 - year term, just renewed. They advertise on TV,
enclose a newsletter with their bills, and donate to local school activities. Why do they do
these things?
5. The diagram below represents an industry that was in perfect competition that has become
a monopoly. Which area on the graph shows the level of producer surplus that will exist
under the monopoly?

Notes
6. Examine the features of monopoly competition through appropriate examples.
7. Show that under monopoly PMC at equilibrium.
8. Consider the following table and locate the profit maximising level of output; also estimate
the degree of monopoly corresponding to that level of output.
Output 1 2 3 4 5
Price 5 4 3 2 1
Average costs 3 3 3 3 3
9. Why is the monopolist's MR less than AR?
10. A monopolist is selling fish. But if the fish don't sell, they rot. What will be the likely
elasticity at the point on the demand curve at which the monopolist sets the price?
11. Discuss the relation between the average revenue curve and the marginal revenue curve
under simple monopoly.
12. How is price determined under a simple monopoly?
13. Will a monopolist continue to produce in the short run even if production means losses?
Explain.
14. A TV manufacturer produces X sets a week at a total cost of (1/25 X2
+ 3X + 100). He is a
monopolist and the demand of his market is X = 75 - 3P, when the price is P per set. Show
that the maximum net revenue is obtained when about 30 sets are produced per week.
What is the monopolist's price?
15. If you are a monopolist, how will you determine the price discrimination in various
markets?
1. (a) True (b) True (c) True (d) False
2. (a) i (b) iv (c) i
3. (a) one (b) same (c) average variable cost
(d) discrimination (e) an optimal (f) Dumping (g) substitute

Notes 10.8 Further Readings
Online links http://alpha.fdu.edu/~koppl/note19.htm
http://tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/economics/C180/
http://www.ehow.com/about_6601606_monopoly-economics_.html

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 Features of Monopolistic Competition
11.3 Application of Monopolistic Competition
11.4 Summary
11.5 Keywords
Objectives
State the features of monopolistic competition
Discuss the short run and long run equilibrium of a monopolistic firm
Introduction
Monopolistic competition has an element of product differentiation. We can define a monopolistic
competitive market as a market in which there are a large number of firms and the products in
the market are close but not perfect substitute. The real world is widely populated by monopolistic
competition. Perhaps half of the economy's total production comes from monopolistically
competitive firms. The best examples of monopolistic competition come can be retail trade,
including restaurants, clothing stores, and convenience stores.
11.1 Features of Monopolistic Competition
Monopolistic competition is a form of market structure in which a large number of independent
firms are supplying products that are slightly differentiated from the point of view of buyers.
Thus, the products of the competing firms are close but not perfect substitutes because buyers do
not regard them as identical. This situation arises when the same commodity is being sold under
different brand names, each brand being slightly different from the others. For example, Lux,
Liril, Rexona, Hamam, etc., are brands of toilet soap, or Colgate, Cibaca, Prudent, Promise, etc.,
brands of toothpaste.
Each firm is, therefore, the sole producer of a particular brand or product. It is a monopolist as
far as that particular brand is concerned. However, since the various brands are close substitutes,
a large number of monopoly producers of these brands are involved in keen competition with

Notes one another. This type of market structure, where there is competition among a large number of
monopolists is called monopolistic competition.
The differentiation among competing products or brands may be based on real or imaginary
differences in quality. Real differences among brands refer to palpable differences in quality
such as shape, flavour, colour, packing, after sales service, warranty period, etc. In contrast,
imaginary differences mean quality differences which are not really palpable but buyers are
made to imagine or are conditioned to believe that such differences exist and are important.
Advertising often has the effect of making buyers imagine or believe that the advertised brand
has different qualities. When there is product differentiation, each firm has some degree of
control over price.
As a result, under monopolistic competition, the demand or average revenue curve of an
individual firm is a gradually falling curve. It is highly elastic but not perfectly so. Therefore,
the marginal revenue curve of the firm is also falling and lies below the average revenue curve
at all levels of output. It is in this respect that monopolistic competition differs from perfect
competition.
In addition to product differentiation, the other three basic characteristics of monopolistic
competition are:
1. There are a large number of independent sellers (and buyers) in the market.
2. The relative (proportionate) market shares of all sellers are insignificant and more or less
equal. That is, seller concentration in the market is almost non existent.
3. There are neither any legal nor any economic barriers against the entry of new firms into
the market. New firms are free to enter the market and existing firms are free to leave the
market.
In other words, product differentiation is the only characteristic that distinguishes monopolistic
competition from perfect competition.
Firms selling slightly differentiated products under different brand names compete not only
through variations in price but also through variations in product quality (product variation)
and changes in advertising or selling costs. Thus, under monopolistic competition, an individual
firm has to maximise profits in relation to variations in three policy variables, namely, price,
product quality, and selling costs. (In contrast, under perfect competition there is competition
only through price variation).
Assumptions in Analysing Firm Behaviour
We analyse the conditions and process of long run equilibrium under monopolistic competition
with the assumption that competing firms keep their selling costs and product quality constant
and compete only through price variation. We then assume that
1. The demand curve of each individual firm has the same shape (elasticity) and position
(distance from the y-axis). That is, we assume the demand curves of all firms to be
symmetrical. This assumption implies that market share of every firm is the same and
equal to a constant proportion of total market demand. That is, if total market demand is
Q and an individual firm's demand is q then q=KQ, where K is a constant fraction for all
firms.
2. The cost curves, both average and marginal, are symmetrical for each firm.
These two assumptions are 'heroic' or unrealistic but we need to make them for logical
convenience in order to analyse the long run equilibrium of a typical firm under monopolistic
competition.

Notes
Caselet Market Entry and the Vanilla Syndrome
I
n most categories of consumer products, there is one dominant segment; glucose in
biscuits, cola in soft drinks, vanilla in ice creams. These are good categories, but the
same thing can be extended to other product categories.
Now the tendency is that when a new player wants to enter an established product category,
he automatically looks at the dominant segment first. The MD and CEO, Ashok Jain,
Cadbury Schweppes Beverages India Private Limited, calls it a Vanilla trap. He explains
this as follows:
“A trap because you, as the new entrant, can never come close to challenging the dominance
of the biggest player in that vanilla segment. So what you get into is a syndrome: Can I
get two-to-three per cent market share in that segment?” The segment spells sheer volume,
so this share would be larger than 15 per cent of some other segment in the category.
That's where the trap is. The segment's Goliath is so big, you'll get routed, like it or not.
So what do you do instead? I suggest the blackcurrant route. A route where you take
something else and make yourself dominant there, while getting a foot into the dominant
segment as well (you can't afford not to).
And what'll happen? While people will come for your blackcurrant, they will buy your
vanilla. Your volumes will still come from your vanilla. But for top-of-mind consumer,
the trademark blackcurrant is what will identify you. This is theory. It's happened. I'll
give you three examples.
When Cadbury India decided to extend to biscuits, it started off by challenging Parle in
glucose, a segment where Parle's strength is unmatched. Cadbury didn't succeed. By the
time it launched chocolate biscuits, it was too late.
There was a lesson here, which was extended to ice creams, the next category Cadbury
entered. The brand, Dollops, harped on its blackcurrant ice cream, didn't talk vanilla at all,
but the volumes came from vanilla anyway.
Then take Britannia. For years, it tried to break Parle's dominance in glucose biscuits, with
little success. It then went in for a number of branded products that gave it an aura and
gained it respect and attention. Little Hearts was so different, it gave Britannia distinction.
And then, the company launched Tiger, a glucose biscuit. Tiger is now a very large brand
in the glucose segment.
You've got to have something that's very specially your own. Otherwise, the consumer
won't pay you much attention and the trade won't want to stock your products – why
should it? The retailer looks Cadbury Schweppes' way because of Crush and Canada Dry.
Our largest volumes come from Sport Cola. The brand sells much more than Crush.
Proves my point, doesn't it?
I say again: you can't fight the dominant guy in the dominant segment. Get into his
segment's volumes indirectly, instead.”

Notes 11.2 Price and Output Decisions
Long Run Equilibrium through New Entry Competition
Under monopolistic competition, the number of independent firms selling differentiated products
or brands of a given commodity is large and the relative market share of every firm is
insignificant. Therefore, the entry of a new firm into the market will not have any noticeable
adverse effect on the sales (or demand) of any of the established firms. Established firms will
have no reason to react to new entry by adopting practices to discourage this. Moreover, there
are no legal or non-legal (economic) barriers against new entry. Hence, when high profits of the
existing firms attract new entry, new firms will in fact enter the market.
Short-Run Equilibrium Under the Monopolistic Competition
Firms under monopolistic competition attain equilibrium when (1) MC = MR and (2) slope of
MC slope of MR. The firm's equilibrium is defined at the point E in the following figure. At
this price OP, AR AC, the firm earns a profits of PQRS. The firm may earn a profit or incurs loss
or be at a no loss no profit position depending upon the demand condition and the position of
the cost-curves;
Figure 11.1: Firm’s Equilibrium under Monopolistic Competition
Long-Run Equilibrium Under the Monopolistic Competition
In the long-run, price cutting, expansion and contraction of output and new entry are possible,
i.e., firms may compete with one another through price or non-price competition. The abnormal
profit earned in the short-run will attract new entries, therefore the amount sold at any given
price will fall resulting in the shift of demand curve until the abnormal profits are wiped out.
There is no profit no loss situation since the total cost and the total revenue are equal.

Notes
Figure 11.2: Long-run Firm’s Equilibrium under Monopolistic Competition
!
Caution When there is competition only from new entry, the long run equilibrium of the
firm under monopolistic competition is reached under the following conditions:
1. Price = AR = LAC = OP2
(Figure 11.2)
2. MR = LMC = EQ2
(Figure 11.2)
3. Maximum Profit = Normal Profits
However, because the firm's demand or average revenue curve is falling, the price is higher
than marginal revenue. Hence, under monopolistic competition, even though the long run
equilibrium price is = LAC, it is greater than LMC. This is because, at equilibrium, MR = LMC
but price is greater than MR. (Under perfect competition, price = minimum LAC = LMC).
Moreover, since the firm's demand or average revenue AR2
is falling on account of product
differentiation, it can be a tangent to the U-shaped LAC curve only when LAC is also falling. As
shown in Figure 11.2, the long run equilibrium position E will be at a point which is to the left
of the minimum LAC. Thus, the long run equilibrium output Q is less than optimum output, Qm
(where LAC is at its minimum). The difference between E and Q = (F – OQ) shows the extent of
excess or under utilised capacity. Equilibrium with excess capacity is therefore the necessary
consequence of product differentiation and monopolistic competition.
Task Analyse the “market entry and the vanilla syndrome” in the case of health
and retirement plans of insurance companies.
11.3 Application of Monopolistic Competition
We find many examples of monopolistic competition in real world. The best examples can be
found in retail trade. As we know the main characteristics for this type of market situation is that
there are many producers and many customers for the services/products, yet no company has
control over the market price, consumers perceive that there are non-price differences among
the competitors' products, and there are very few barriers to entry to and exit from the market.
Those markets which have these characteristics, the differentiation of products is often achieved
by altering the physical composition of products, or through advertising to claim the superiority
of the product. This can easily be seen in markets for toothpastes or soaps etc. Under monopolistic

Notes market we have many sellers, as under perfect competition). However, they don't sell identical
products. Instead, they sell differentiated products-products that differ somewhat, or are
perceived to differ, even though they serve a similar purpose. Products can be differentiated.
Sometimes, it's simply geographical; you probably buy gasoline at the station closest to your
home regardless of the brand. At other times, perceived differences between products are
promoted by advertising designed to convince consumers that one product is different from
another, and better than it. Regardless of customer loyalty to a product, however, if its price
goes too high, the seller will lose business to a competitor. Under monopolistic competition,
therefore, companies have only limited control over price.
If we take a closer look we find that in some industries they have it many differentiated brands
and create an illusion of competition and providing a barrier to entry. For example so many
brands of soaps are there, but the most of these brands are owned by 2 companies, Unilever and
Proctor and Gamble. Such type of brand proliferation put barriers for new entry in the market.
There is less chance of getting a good market share with so many brands. Therefore, the new
firm would have an incentive to keep different brands in order to deter competitors. Another
aspect of this is, merging many different brands there may be economies of scale.
Government policies often act as entry barriers in several industries. Besides, the growth of
entrepreneurship is also a council element in the Indian context. Until a decade or so ago, even
products like soaps and toothpastes were characterised by oligopolies. For some reason, new
firms just did not enter into several product lines despite favourable government policy. It is
only since the 80s that one finds competition hotting up in the country's markets. Product
variations, aggressive promotional campaigns and easy entry of new firms are now commonly
encountered in several consumer goods industries.
Case Study Maruti Facing Tough Competition
T
he key issue for Maruti today is to sell at least the number of cars it sold last year
(1998-99). Insiders in the company admit that it can't. The reason: Hyundai, Daewoo
and Telco all plan to hawk 60,000 cars by end of next April. And all of them are
targeting the Zen or the Maruti 800, the two monopolists, and not the crowded luxury
segment. And with the market expected to stagnate, by simple logic the newcomers will
be grabbing a share only from Maruti.
The threat from the new car makers is not an empty one. For instance, Hyundai plans to
follow the policy of enrichment of the Zen. It intends to price its air conditioned model
slightly lower than the Zen VX and top it by pricing the higher end model with power
steering and windows just 10,000-15,000 more than the Zen VX.
Similarly, Daewoo plans to woo buyers of the Maruti 800 air conditioned and the Zen by
pricing its car under 3 lakh. And Telco is all set to take on the 800 by offering a model at
a slightly higher price.
The scenario might worsen in 1999-2000 when Maruti would have added to capacity. By
next year the three other car rivals will have the capacity to put 3.6 lakh cars a year on the
road. Of course, they might not reach full capacity but even at a conservative estimate they
would be selling over 1 lakh cars in 1999-2000. Assuming the market grows by 10 per cent,
as some optimists predict, there will be more capacity chasing the 40,000 extra car consumers.
Contd...

Notes
Competition has already begun to put pressure on the company's financials. For example,
when Maruti launched the upgraded version of the Zen recently, it decided not to increase
the cost of the car even though it had been hit both by the customs and excise duty hikes
and the extra cost of the upgradation. That is a sharp reversal of its earlier practice of
increasing Maruti 800 prices after it launched an upgrade.
In fact, Maruti is not passing on the customs and excise increases for any model on to its
customers. The cost increase on the Zen alone is 28,000 per car. As a result, Maruti has had
to absorb 120 crore on this account plus 80 crore for upgradation.
Worse, with the depreciation of the rupee, imported components will cost more leading
to an extra outflow of over 40 crore. So the total extra tab that will immediately affect the
bottomline will be 240 crore.
On the other hand, cost savings for 1998-99 will account for over 100 crore – which means
that more than a fifth of Maruti's net profits last year will be wiped out.
This year Maruti will save around 30 crore more – from 50 crore to 80 crore through
improvements in techniques and another 50-60 crore through further indigenisation.
And while negotiations are on with vendors to cut costs, insiders say this would
probably be neutralised by Suzuki deciding to hike the price of components it supplies
to its joint venture.
Why India's Largest Car Maker will be under threat from this fiscal
OUTGO
SAVINGS
Contd...

Notes Provisional Results for 1997-98 in Crore
But whatever the future market, it is clear that Maruti will have a large unutilised capacity.
Even assuming that the company can grab as much as 30,000 more cars, its total sales in
1999-2000 will be below 4 lakh cars per year.
But while the company builds up idle capacity with no new models it has to consider
the depreciation costs of the new plant. This will dent the bottomline even more.
According to Maruti, depreciation cost will go up 150 crore in 1999-2000.
The options for Maruti are limited: it has to get its new cars on the roads as early as
possible. One option that the board will consider is to import completely knocked down
(CKD) kits of the new cars which will be available in Japan from October. But the cost of
the CKDs will be prohibitive and Maruti will have to subsidise them, which would hit
margins and profits. The alternative is for the Maruti board to convince the Japanese
parent to subsidise the CKDs for a year before the model is indigenised. Either way,
Maruti's future is troubled (Business Standard, August 98).
Question
Discuss Maruti's situation in the light of monopolistic competition.
11.4 Summary
Monopolistic competition is a form of market structure in which a large number of
independent firms are supplying products that are slightly differentiated.
When firms are competing only through price changes, there are three cases of long run
equilibrium of a typical firm under monopolistic competition.
The long run equilibrium can be seen under three situations: when competition takes
place only through the entry of new firms, when competition takes place only through
price variations and when competition arises through price variation and new entry.
11.5 Keywords
Actual demand: The actual changes in demand arising from simultaneous reduction in price.
output.
Product differentiation: Differences among competing products.
Profit: Difference between total revenue and total cost.
1

Notes
(a) In a monopolistic market, the demand for the product of one producer depends
upon the price and the nature of the products of his rivals.
(b) A firm in the long-run under monopolistic competition earns high profits like that
in perfect competition but only the price is higher and output lower.
(c) A firm under monopolistic competition does not enjoy monopoly profits in the
long run even though it charges monopoly price.
(d) Selling costs cannot change, and create demand curves.
(e) Monopolistic competition is identified by a few firms producing a slightly
differentiated product.
(f) Under monopolistic competition the firm has not the ability to collude with respect
to price.
(g) If a large number of firms are competing, the market could be monopolistic
competition or monopoly.
(h) Both monopolistic competition and perfect competition have firms that are price
takers.
(i) Because of the number of firms in monopolistic competition no one firm can dominate
the market.
(j) Identical product is a characteristic of monopolistic competition.
(k) Product differentiation involves making a product that is completely different from
the products of competing firms.
(a) In monopolistic competition the relative market share of all sellers are .....................
(b) Under monopolistic competition, the demand or AR curve of an individual firm is
a gradually ....................... curve.
(c) As the firm's AR curve is falling, the price is ......................... than marginal revenue.
(d) In the long run equilibrium output of the individual firm is ......................... than
optimum output.
(e) The assumed demand curve is ......................... than the actual demand curve.
1. Which of the following are examples of product differentiation in monopolistic competition
and why?
(a) New and improved packaging
(b) Lower price
(c) Acceptance of more credit cards than the competition
(d) Location of the retail store
2. What will happen as a result of the increase in the degree of product differentiation among
the products sold in a monopolistically competitive industry?

Notes 3. What would happen as a result in a case where a monopolistically competitive seller can
convince buyers that his/her product is of better quality and value than products sold by
rival firms?
4. What single circumstance in monopolistic competition best explains the nature of the
industry's relatively elastic demand curve in the market?
5. Think and answer – does the insurance industry have monopolistic competition – why/
why not?
6. If all firms in a monopolistic competitive industry were to merge would that firm produce
as many different brands or just one brand?
7. In the long run, there is no difference between monopolistic competition and perfect
competition. – true, false, or ambiguous. Discuss this statement with respect to the
following:
(a) The price charged to consumers - true
(b) The average total cost of production - false
(c) The efficiency of the market outcome - ambiguous
(d) The typical firm's profit in the long run hide problem- true
8. Do airlines fit into the concept of monopolistic competition? Why or why not?
9. Why or why should not be the monopolistic competition regulated?
10. If the market became competitive, what would happen to output and price?
11. Discuss the main features of monopolistic competition. Complement your answer with
real world example.
12. Suppose a monopolistic firm has average revenue functions in three markets as follows:
P1
= 63 - 4Q1
where Q1
, Q2
and Q3
are quantities sold
P2
= 105 - 5Q2
in three markets.
P3
= 75 - 6Q3
The total cost function is C = 20 + 5 Q, where Q = Q1
+ Q2
+ Q3
.
Find out the profit maximising output and price in the three markets. Also estimate
demand elasticities.
13. If all the brand names of essential drugs are abandoned, what will be the impact on the
society?
14. Discuss whether you find the monopolistic competition in the following industry:
Hotels and restaurants, Health Spas, Hair dressing.
15. How is equilibrium of a firm under monopolistic competition affected, when firms are
competing only through price changes? Discuss with example.
(e) False (f) False (g) False (h) True
(i) True (j) False (k) False

Notes
2. (a) insignificant (b) falling (c) higher
(d) less (e) More
Online links http://ingrimayne.com/econ/International/MonoComp.html
http://www.peoi.org/Courses/mic/mic6.html
http://faculty.lebow.drexel.edu/mccainr/top/prin/txt/Imch/MC1.html
http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpdc=dspk
=monopolistic+competition

Notes Unit 12: Oligopoly
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
12.1 Characteristics of Oligopoly
12.2 Collusive Oligopoly Models
12.2.1 Cartel
12.2.2 Price Leadership
12.3 Kinked Demand Curve Model of Oligopoly
12.4 Market Structure and Barriers to Entry
12.5 Strategic Behaviour
12.6 Application of Oligopoly
12.7 Summary
12.8 Keywords
Objectives
 State the characteristics of oligopoly
 Explain the concept cartels collusion
 Discuss the kinked demand curve concept
Introduction
Oligopoly is a situation in which only a few firms (sellers) are competing in the market for a
particular commodity. The distinguishing characteristics of oligopoly are such that neither the
theory of monopolistic competition nor the theory of monopoly can explain the behaviour of an
oligopolistic firm.
12.1 Characteristics of Oligopoly
The characteristics of oligopoly are briefly explained below:
1. Under oligopoly the number of competing firms being small, each firm controls an
important proportion of the total (industry) supply. Consequently, the effect of a change
in the price or output of one firm upon the sales of its rival firms is noticeable and not

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
insignificant. When any firm takes an action its rivals will in all probability react to it (i.e.
retaliate). The behaviour of oligopolistic firms is interdependent and not independent or
atomistic as is the case under perfect or monopolistic competition.
2. The demand curve of an individual firm under oligopoly is not known and is indeterminate
because it depends upon the reaction of its rivals which is uncertain. Each theory of
oligopoly therefore makes a specific assumption about how rivals will (or will not) react
to an individual firm's action.
3. In view of the uncertainty about the reaction of rivals and interdependence of behaviour,
oligopolistic firms find it advantageous to coordinate their behaviour through explicit
agreement (cartel) or implicit, hidden, understanding (collusion). Also because the number
of firms is small, it is feasible for oligopolists to establish a cartel or collusive arrangement.
However, it is difficult as well as expensive to monitor and enforce an agreement or
understanding. Very few cartels last long, particularly when oligopolistic firms
significantly differ in their cost conditions.
4. Under oligopoly, new entry is difficult. It is neither free nor barred. Hence the condition
of entry becomes an important factor determining the price or output decisions of
oligopolistic firms, and preventing or limiting entry an important objective.
5. Given the indeterminacy of the individual firm's demand and, therefore, the marginal
revenue curve, oligopolistic firms may not aim at maximization of profits. Modern theories
of oligopoly take into account the following alternative objectives of the firm:
(a) Sales maximization with profit constraint.
(b) Target or fair rate of profit and long-run stability.
(c) Maximization of the managerial utility function.
(d) Limiting (preventing) new entry.
(e) Achieving satisfactory profits, sales, etc. That is, the firm is a satisficer and not
maximizer.
(f) Maximization of joint (industry) profits rather than individual (firm) profits.
In view of the fact that the characteristics of oligopoly renders collusion (explicit or implicit
cartel) advantageous and feasible, theories of oligopoly are divided into three broad groups,
namely, models of non-collusive oligopoly, models of collusive oligopoly, and managerial
theories.
The important models of non-collusive oligopoly are: (a) Cournot model, (b) Kinked demand
curve models.
The two major theories of collusive oligopoly are: (a) Joint profit maximization, and (b) Price
leadership.
Emphasizing the distinguishing characteristics of joint stock enterprises are the three models of
managerial theory, namely, (a) Sales maximization with profit constraint, (b) Maximization of
managerial utility function, and (c) Firm as a satisficer (behaviourist theory).
12.2 Collusive Oligopoly Models
There can be two types of collusion (a) Cartels where firms jointly fix a price and output policy
through agreement, and (b) Price Leadership where one firm sets the price and others follow it.

Notes 12.2.1 Cartel
A cartel is a formal collusive organisation of the oligopoly firms in an industry. There may
either be an open or secret collusion. A perfect cartel is an extreme form of collusion in which
member firms agree to abide by the instructions from a central agency in order to maximise
joint profits. The profits are distributed among the member firms in a way jointly decided by the
firms in advance and may not be in proportion to its share in total output or the costs it incurs.
Figure 12.1: Equilibrium under Obligopoly: Cartel
If A and B are two firms which join together to form a cartel, the cartel's marginal cost curve can
be shown as a lateral summation of MC1
(marginal cost of firm A) and MC2
(marginal cost of
firm B), as in Figure 12.1. The cartel is in equilibrium at point E when MC=MR. P is the cartel
equilibrium price. Each firm will be in equilibrium when it produces output corresponding to
the MC of the cartel equilibrium, i.e., at points E1
and E2
respectively. Each firm takes price as
given i.e., P. The shaded areas represent the shares of profits contributed to the aggregate cartel
profit. The division of this profit between the firms depends upon their relative bargaining
strengths.

Caselet Cartel on the Wings
W
hile the Competition Commission of India is yet to progress on one alleged
case of airline cartelisation - code sharing deal - by Kingfisher and Jet Airlines,
our national carrier, Air India, barely escaped being prosecuted by the Korean
Fair Trade Commission in a recent case of cartelisation in cargo freight. In May, 2010 the
KFTC levied a record fine of more than $98 million on 19 airlines in the biggest cartel case
that it has handled.
Fuel Surcharge Rates
It was found that the airlines had conspired to raise fuel surcharge rates for air cargo to-
and-from Korea between 1999 and 2007 in a concerted manner. The case included
summoning 54 airline executives from all over the world for investigation and conducting
a joint investigation with foreign competition authorities for the first time. The regulator
found that the conspiracies took place on outbound shipments from Korea and inbound
shipments to Korea from Hong Kong, Europe and Japan.
Contd...

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
The case showed that the airlines overcharged by $5.71 billion in the local market by
imposing or increasing fuel surcharges during the eight-year period.
The uncovering of airline cartels on fuel surcharge actually began in 2006, when European
and US authorities investigated few airlines including British Airways. The investigation
came at a time when the airlines were facing high fuel costs and competition from low-
cost carriers.
The situation deteriorated further in 2007, as more airlines were inspected and charged for
various anti-competitive practices. European Commission charged several airlines for
fixing freight service prices. British Airways had to pay billions of dollars in fines as the
UK and the US competition authorities denounced it for price fixing during the period
2006-07.
Difficult to Detect
Cartelisation is very difficult to detect and investigate for its inherently secretive nature.
The task is more difficult in aviation industry because it operates across borders. As a
consequence of liberalisation, many large airlines such as British Airways and Lufthansa
are now privately owned. These are being increasingly scrutinised as they engage
themselves in collusive agreements.
In all the reported cartel cases, there was always one partner who spilled the beans with
the hope of getting away with lesser penalty or what is called as leniency. In the case of
British Airways, which was prosecuted in 2007, it was Virgin Airlines which cooperated
with the authorities.
Even in the Korean case, it was the Korean Airlines which applied for leniency by becoming
the prosecuting agency's 'friend'. Such a provision for leniency now exists in all competition
laws, including the one in India. In fact, leniency can be sought by more than one perpetrator
as the enquiry moves on thus buttressing the prosecution's case.
The Australian Competition Consumer Commission has to date named 15 airlines in its
investigation and has already collected $38 million as fines while some of the cases are yet
to be decided.
The damage that airline cargo cartels cause by raising the surcharge rates is huge as
evident from the figures published by competition agencies. Consequently, the prices of
goods transported also get overburdened from artificial hikes thus affecting consumer
welfare adversely.
12.2.2 Price Leadership
This is an example of imperfect collusion among duopoly firms. It may result through tacit or
formal agreement as one firm sets the price and others follow it. Price leadership has two forms.
Price Leadership by a Low Cost Firm
Say, two firms A and B face identical demand curves (i.e., AR) and MR. If firm A has lower MC
and AC curves then MC1
MC2
and AC1
AC2
, as shown in Figure 12.2, firm A will maximise
its profit by equating MR to MC1
at point E1
and selling Q1
units at price P1
. Firm B will maximise
its profits by equating MR to MC2
at point E2
and selling Q2
units at price P2
. But firm B will not
be able to charge P2
price as firm A is charging P1
which is lower than P2
. The high cost firm will
then accept the leadership of the low cost firm and sell Q2
units at price P1
. The high cost firm
shall earn less profit than low cost firm.

Notes Figure 12.2: Price Leadership by a Low Cost Firm under Oligopoly
Example: Assume that the market demand is
P = 105–2.5X = 105–2.5(X1
+X2
)
The cost functions of the two firms are
C1
= 5X1
C2
= 15X2
The leader will be the low cost firm A: he will set a price which will maximise his own profit on
the assumption that the rival firm will adopt the same price and will produce an equal amount
of output. Thus the demand function relevant to the leader's decision is
1
= 105–2.5(2X1
) = 105–5X1
and his profit function is
1
= R1
–C1
= PX1
= (105–5X1
)X1
–5X1
or
1
= 100X1
–5X1
2
from the first order condition we have
1
1
1
=100 10 X = 0
X
¶P
-
¶
which yields
X1
= 10
Substituting in the price equation, we find
P = 105–5X1
= 55
The follower will adopt the same price (55) and will produce an equal level of output (X2
= 10).
Note that the profit maximising output of firm B would be X*2
= 9 units, and he would sell it at
P* = 60. This solution is found by maximising from B's profit function
P2
= R2
–C2
= (105–5X2
)X2
–15X2

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
Task Two duopolist manufacture identical radio sets. The total cost of an output
x sets per month in ` 2
1
x 3x 100
25
é ù
+ +
ê ú
ë û
for each duopolist. When the price is ` p per set, the
market demand is x = 75 – 3p per month. What is the total equilibrium output per month.
Notes Price Leadership by Dominant Firm
This is more common and happens when a dominant firm shares a larger part of the
market along with few small firms. It may become monopolist but compromises with the
small rival firms which in turn accept the dominant firm as the price setter and behave as
if they are firms under perfect competition i.e., price takers.
It is assumed that the dominant firm knows the aggregate market demand. It finds its own
demand curve by setting a price and deducts from the market demand the quantity supplied
jointly by the small firms. It also knows the supply curve of the small firms through a
knowledge of their individual MC curves. The part of the market demand not supplied by
the small firms will be its own share. Given a price, the market share of the dominant firm
equals the market demand less the share of small firms. Figure below shows the aggregate
market demand curve (AR) and the supply curve of the small firm (a) and dominant firm (b).
The gap between D and SS
of small firm determines the AR curve (DL
) of the dominant firm.
The dominant firm maximises its profit when MR=MC at point E. It sells Q units at price P.
The demand curve for small firm becomes the horizontal line PB which is AR as well as MR
curve for them. SS
is their MC or supply curve. They supply Q1
units at price P.
Price Leadership by a Dominant Firm under Oligopoly
12.3 Kinked Demand Curve Model of Oligopoly
There are two versions of the kinked demand curve model. One is called the Sweezy version and
the other is called the Hall and Hitch version. Both models were conceived independently in
1939. The essential difference between these two versions is that Sweezy's model is based on the
marginalist approach, with the hypothesis that even an oligopolistic firm aims at profit
maximisation. In contrast, the Hall and Hitch version rejects the marginalist approach of profit
maximisation. It argues that, under oligopoly, firms aim at 'fair' profit and follow the full cost
principle in determining the price.

Notes Sweezy's Model of Kinked Demand Curve
According to Sweezy, the most distinguishing feature of oligopoly is that an individual firm
does not know (and cannot determine) the exact nature (functional form) of its actual demand
curve because of the uncertainty and indeterminacy of rivals' reactions to its own actions. An
oligopolistic firm is therefore guided in its decisions by the 'imagined' demand curve which is
based on what it expects to be the most likely (probable) reaction of its rivals.
Under oligopoly, a firm expects that when it raises its price, it is most likely that rival firms will
not follow suit by raising their prices. Instead, the rivals will keep their prices constant in order
to increase their sales at the expense of the firm that raises the price. Hence, when a firm
increases its price, its demand is expected to fall much more than it would if its rivals were not
to keep their prices constant. That is, for upward changes in price, a firm's demand is expected to
be highly elastic.
In contrast, when the firm lowers its product price, it is most likely that its rivals will follow suit
because if they did not do so they would lose sales to the firm that lowered the price. Hence,
when a firm reduces its price, its demand is expected to increase much less than would otherwise
have been the case (because its rivals will also reduce their prices). That is, for downward
changes in the price, a firm's demand curve is expected to be less elastic than it would have been
had the firm's rivals not followed suit by reducing their prices.
Consequently, for an oligopolistic firm, the demand curve is highly elastic and gradually falling
for prices above the current or existing price, and for prices below the current price the demand
curve is less elastic and steeply falling.
!
Caution Because of the differences in elasticity (and slope) at prices above and below the
current price, the demand curve of the firm has a corner or a kink at the current or existing
price.
In Figure 12.3 the firm's demand curve is APB, which has a kink or corner at current price P and
output ON. The upward segment AP is relatively more elastic than the downward segment PB.
That is, if e1
shows the elasticity of AP and e2
shows the elasticity of PB1
then e1
is e2
. The
3 dotted line PB1
shows the decrease in the firm's demand that would have occurred if the rivals
were not expected to keep their prices constant when the firm raised price above P. Dotted line
PA1
shows the rise in demand if rivals were expected not to follow any fall in price below P.
Figure 12.3

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
Since the elasticity for a change in price above P is more than, and different from, elasticity for
a change in price below P, there are two values of marginal revenue for current price, P. Thus the
marginal revenue curve has a discontinuity or gap at price P. For the upper AP portion of the
demand curve the marginal revenue (MR1
) curve is QC and for the lower portion PB, the marginal
revenue (MR2
) curve is DE.
The marginal revenue curve corresponding to APB is shown by QCDE with discontinuity or gap
CD. Note that both e1
and e2
have to be greater than 0 for MR1
and MR2
to be positive at P.
The magnitude (or length) of this gap is given by P(1/e2
- 1/e1
). This follows from the fact that
MR = P(1–1/e). We find the MR1
= P(e1
–1
)/e2
and MR2
= P(e2
–1)/e2
.
Hence, MR1
–MR2
= P(e1
e2
–e2
–e1
e2
+e1
)/e1
e2
= P(e1
–e2
)/e1
e2
= P(1/ e2
–1/e1
). Since e1
is e2
, the gap
MR1
–MR2
is positive.
The marginal cost curve, MC, of the firm passes through the discontinuous gap CD in the
marginal revenue curve QCDE. Though the current existing price, P, is not precisely equal to the
profit maximising equilibrium price (as there is no unique MR at price P), this price P is consistent
with profit maximising, marginalist equilibrium. For output less than ON we find MC is below
marginal revenue and for output more than ON we find MC is above marginal revenue. That is,
MC cuts the discontinuous MR curve from below.
Since, under oligopoly, demand curve is kinked at the existing price (P) and marginal revenue
curve has discontinuity CD at the existing price, any upward or downward shift in the MC curve
will not bring about any change in the current or existing price so long as the new MC curve
passes through the gap (CD) in the marginal revenue curve (QCDE).
In Figure 12.3 the new higher marginal cost curves MC1
and MC2
are passing through the gap
CD with the result that the current price P continues to be consistent with profit maximisation
even while remaining constant at the existing level.
Thus the most important conclusion of Sweezy's kinked demand curve model of oligopoly is
that price remains unchanged and rigid or ‘sticky’ at the existing level P when, in the short run,
the marginal cost increases due to a rise in raw material prices or hike in wages through trade
union pressure.
Thus Sweezy's Kinked demand curve model explains the rigidity or stickness of oligopolistic
prices in the face of short-term increases or decreases in variable input costs. When costs of raw
materials or labour rise, profits will get squeezed and when these costs fall, the benefit of lower
input costs will not be passed on to the consumers.
Thus the Sweezy model of Kinked demand curve under oligopoly explains why prices of
oligopolistic firms are inflexible and fail to reflect short run changes in variable costs of raw
materials and wages.
The principal shortcoming of the Sweezy model is that it does not explain how the existing or
current price is determined, and this is a criticism that Sweezy accepts.
Task Analyse Coke-Pepsi non-price competition and its effect on their market.
12.4 Market Structure and Barriers to Entry
Many factors can contribute to the existence of a particular market structure. However, in the
long run, conditions of entry may be the most important determinant. Difficulties encountered

Notes in entering an industry are often referred to as barriers to entry. It has been defined in two
alternate way.
1. JS Bain (1956) argues that entry barriers should be defined in terms of any advantage that
existing firms hold over potential competitors.
2. GJ Stigler (1968) contends that for any given rate of output, only those costs that must be
borne by new entrants but that are not borne by firms already in the industry should be
considered in assessing entry barriers.
If a firm has control over all iron ore deposits in a country, new entrants in the steel industry
could get ore only by transporting it from another foreign supplier. This will increase cost of
producing steel as compared to those of the existing firm and prevent the new firm from
successful entry. Both Bain and Stigler criteria for a barrier to entry are satisfied in this example.
But if iron ore deposits are equally available to the established firm and new entrants and the
existing firm is large enough to take advantage of highly efficient production technologies, then
the new entrants require to build large plants which are able to take advantage of economies of
scale. Small plants of new entrants will increase costs such that they cannot sell steel at a price
competitive with the established firm. Bain would consider this as a barrier to entry because of
difficulty in coordinating and raising capital for large scale entry. However, Stigler's definition
would not recognise scale economies as an entry barrier because the old and new firms both face
same cost conditions. That is, for any given rate of output produced, the cost per unit would be
same for the new and existing firm. Stigler's position has appeal but Bain's definition is more
useful as it includes all factors that impede entry and provides a better framework for
understanding the determination of market structure.
Four important sources of barriers to entry are:
1. Product differentiation: A firm may have convinced consumers that its product is
significantly better than the product of new entrants. The new firm may be forced to sell
at lower price and reduce profit though the existing product may not essentially be superior.
(e.g., Bayer's Aspirin despite presence of chemically identical brands).
2. Control of inputs by existing suppliers:Examples are scarcity of natural resources, locational
advantages and managerial talent.
3. Legal restrictions: Examples are patents, licenses, exclusive franchises granted by
government.
4. Scale economies: A new firm entering the industry on a small scale will have higher
average cost of production. On the other hand, large scale entry may require gouge,
capital organisation, etc. Thus the ability of existing firms to expand gradually as compared
to the need for new entrants to start out with considerable production capacity can be a
substantial advantage for existing firms (automobile industry).
12.5 Strategic Behaviour
The above discussion gives a passive view of barriers to entry. Business is run by managers and
they will react aggressively if they believe that entry could significantly affect profitability of
their firms. Some of their strategic behaviour are given below:
1. Limit Pricing: JS Bain pointed out that when an existing firm — be it a monopolist or
oligopolist — is making positive economic profit, it may decide to set the price below the
profit maximising level in order to reduce the possibility of entry of new firms into the
market.
The low price level over a long period of time will deter entry of new firms producing at
an output rate higher than that of existing firms and thus cannot earn a normal profit. The
size requirement makes entry more difficult and thus less likely.

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
2. Price Retaliation: Firms may retaliate by reducing prices when entry actually occurs or if
it appears imminent. When the danger has diminished, prices can be increased to
appropriate level. If a firm establishes a consistent pattern of reacting to entry by drastically
reducing prices, then potential rivals may become convinced that they will face the same
response and decide not to compete. Thus, by firmly establishing a reputation for dealing
harshly with all new entrants, the firm may create an effective barrier to entry.
3. Capacity Expansion: The threat of price retaliation may not be credible if existing firms
are unable to produce enough output to meet extra demand resulting from lower prices.
In a rapidly growing market, a new entrant may be able to survive by serving new
customers that the existing firms cannot supply with their present production capacity. A
strategic response by established firms to prevent this from occurring would be to invest
in additional capacity. Once this investment has been made, it becomes a sunk cost and
places existing firms in a position to expand their production at a relatively low cost. The
existence of excess capacity provides a strong signal that the established firms can reduce
prices as a strategic response to entry in their market.
Investment in excess capacity reduces the profits earned by an existing firm. Hence, this
investment will be undertaken only if management believes that the certain and immediate
loss of profit from making the investment is less than the expected future profit/loss
resulting from entry.
4. Market Saturation: The geographic location of the productive capacity can also cause
barriers to entry. When costs of transporting a good are high relative to its value, consumers
who are not close to a production facility may be required to pay substantially higher
prices to have the good delivered to their location. Thus, firms that locate closer to those
consumers will have a cost advantage and should be able to attract those customers.
12.6 Application of Oligopoly
An oligopoly market structure is characterized by a small number of large firms that dominate
the market, selling either identical or differentiated products, with significant barriers to entry
into the industry. This is one of four basic market structures. Oligopoly finds a major share in the
modern economic scene. Oligopolistic industries are quite diverse and widespread, covers almost
all production areas.
Oligopoly is a market structure characterized by a small number of relatively large firms that
dominate an industry. The market can be dominated by as few as two firms or as many as twenty,
and still be considered oligopoly. With fewer than two firms, the industry is monopoly. As the
number of firms increase (but with no exact number) oligopoly becomes monopolistic
competition.
Under oligopoly, firm is relatively large compared to the overall market, it has a substantial
degree of market control. It does not have the total control over the supply side as it happens in
the case of monopoly. There is an interdependence among firms in an industry, which is a key
feature of oligopoly. The actions of one firm depend on and influence the actions of another. The
interdependence of firms creates a number of economic issues. One is the tendency for competing
oligopolistic firms to turn into cooperating oligopolistic firms.
The cigarette industry was an example of this practice. Over time R.J. Reynolds emerged as the
price leader, and the other two major firms never changed prices until Reynolds did. There is not
as much evidence of such leadership today, but there was little price competition among cigarette
producers until 1993, when strong price competition from discount brands led to a period of
price cutting.
Oligopoly structure has both good and bad effects.

Notes Monopoly Power
Monopoly is relatively uncommon. While there are lots of situations where a few firms are the
principal suppliers of a particular good or service, cases where only a single supplier exists are
the exception far more often than the rule. But even if a firm is not the only supplier of a
particular good or service, it may have a certain amount of monopoly power, in the sense that,
unlike a perfectly competitive firm, it will find it profitable to raise its price above marginal
cost.
To measure the amount of monopoly power possessed by a firm, economists often use the
Lerner index, which equals
P MC
L
P
-
=
Where P is the firm's price and MC is its marginal cost. This index varies between 0 and I. For a
perfectly competitive firm, price equals marginal cost, so L=0. Seller’s monopoly power =
0
P
= 0.
The higher the L is, the higher the degree of monopoly power is.
Another way to calculate L is to obtain the reciprocal of the price elasticity of demand for the
firm's product. This is not the same as the reciprocal of the price elasticity of demand for the
industry's product. It is the (negatives) reciprocal of the percentage increase in the quantity
demanded by the firm's product if it cuts price by 1 per cent.

P P
1 1
MR AR 1 P 1
e e
æ ö æ ö
= + = +
ç ÷ ç ÷
è ø è ø
If the firm maximises profit
MR = MC
 MC =
P
1
P 1
e
æ ö
× +
ç ÷
è ø
This means that,
MC/P =
P
1
1
e
æ ö
+
ç ÷
è ø
And –
P
1
e
= 1 – MC/P =
(P MC)
P
-
What factors influence the price elasticity of demand for a firm's product and hence influence
this firm's degree of monopoly power, as measured by the Lerner index?
1. The higher the price elasticity of demand for any individual firm's product, lower is the
degree of monopoly power.
2. The larger the number of firms in the industry and the more strongly they compete, the
higher the price elasticity of demand is likely to be for any individual firm's product (and
the lower the degree of monopoly power).

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes

Case Study Paint Industry — From Pure Competition to Oligopoly
E
ven as the paints industry is poised for further large-scale consolidation, the last
three years have already resulted in some reshuffling of companies. In the struggle
for the survival of the fittest, while some of the weaklings have faded away, the
stronger ones have gained more strength. The curious result — which, incidentally, is
taking place in other industries too — is that from the days when the industry operated
under pure competition, competition is slowly turning mesoeconomic (oligopolistic). In
other words, it is just a handful of companies which literally control the entire paints
industry now.
As these companies extend their mesoeconomic power, they may impose unequal
conditions of competition in the market. In contrast with the traditional view of a firm,
big companies would be multiproduct, multisectoral, multiregional and multinational.
What implications can this change in the market structure have on the functioning of
companies? What will be the impact on profitability?
Decorative paints
Asian Paints
37%
Goodlass
Nerolac
11%
Berger Paints
11%
ICI India
8%
Jenson
Nichoison
6%
Others
27%
Industrial paints
Asian Paints
15%
Goodlass
Nerolac
45%
Berger Paints
11%
ICI India
8%
Jenson
Nichoison
8%
Others
13%
The emerging mesoeconomic industry structures, apart from indicating the relatively
small number of players, may cover even the differentiated product manufacturers such
as the paints. The existence of mesoeconomic structures could be seen from the concentration
ratios (market shares) of the dominant companies.
The top five companies — Asian Paints, Goodlass Nerolac, Berger Paints, ICI India and
Jenson and Nicholson — together control around 73 per cent of the total market for
decoratives.
The industry is even more concentrated in industrial paints, where the same top five
companies control around 87 per cent of the total market. These five would form the
mesoeconomic barrier which would be tough even for any new strong entrant to penetrate.
Contd...

Notes But how did the paints industry acquire such a mesoeconomic structure? The existence of
economies of scale usually leads to its establishment. Where economies of scale exist,
profitable expansion to larger plant sizes will necessarily come at the expense of rival
companies. Realisation of economies of scale by some companies means the number of
rival firms are simultaneously reduced through failure or merger. However, no such
economies of scale exist in the paints industry. Paint manufacture essentially being a batch
process, economies of scale do not automatically flow from larger plant sizes. On the
other hand, there are other factors which contributed to the emergence of the industry
structure. The basic infrastructure in terms of distribution network, the consumer hold
through strong brand awareness, power of innovation and the introduction of a large
variety of products are some of the aspects responsible for the creation of strong entry
barriers and, consequently, dominant firms.
Regardless of how such structures have started emerging, one important phenomenon
which may develop in the future is the mutual interdependence of companies. What it
means in reality is that no company in the mesoeconomic industry may dare to alter its
price policies without attempting to calculate the most likely reaction of its rivals. It is like
playing a chess or a poker game. There is no way to know beforehand the best way to play
your cards in a poker or a chess game because it depends on the way the other players play
theirs. Players should pattern their actions according to the expected reactions of their
rivals.
What emerges out of the difficulty in assessing rival reaction is the rigidity in prices.
Prices are expected to change less frequently in mesoeconomic structures than under pure
or monopolistic competition. On the other extreme, a price change by one producer may
spark off a price war as other producers come out with more drastic price changes. As an
intermediate position, producers may collide with each other to bring about organised
price changes. However, non-collusive mesoeconomies may seek to lead a quiet life and
may adopt a live-and-let live policy.
At the same time, collusive behaviour, though difficult, cannot be ruled out. To reduce the
uncertainties of price wars, producers may collide with each other and charge the maximum
profit making price. For society, it would be more like a monopolist kind of market under
the garb of competition. Yet another way to deal with uncertainties with respect to rival
reactions would be collusion. Adopting a follow the leader policy may result in tacit
collusion. This has often been witnessed in the paints industry — when one company
comes out with a price change, it is followed by the other players. What all this indicates
is that mesoeconomic companies shun price competition.
But often such collusive behaviour is accompanied by non-price competition. This
phenomenon has also been witnessed in the paints industry. The emphasis on non-price
competition has its roots in two facts. One, price cuts can be quickly and easily met by a
firm's rivals who may promptly react to cancel out any potential gains in sales through
matching price cuts. There is also the risk of price war. On the other hand, non-price
competition is harmless and can be safely carried out without any side effects through
product innovation, improvement in productive techniques and advertising gimmicks
which may be difficult to replicate.
This is exactly what the paints industry has been following for the last three years with the
introduction of consumer-interactive marketing methods for advertising paints – 'Insta
Colour' by Jenson Nicholson, Colour Solutions by ICI India, Colour Bank' by Berger
Paints and Colour World' by Asian Paints. ICI India's generous offer to paint the Ananthpur
Sahib could also be fitted into the category of non-price competition. And, second,
mesoeconomic firms generally have the financial strength to support such advertising.
Contd...

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
But are such mesoeconomic structures economically efficient? Traditional view holds that
being characterised by barriers to entry, mesoeconomic entitles can be expected to result
in a restriction of output short of the point of lowest unit costs and a corresponding market
price which yields substantial, if not maximum, economic profits. But Kenneth Galbraith,
in his book American Capitalism, challenged this view by arguing that mesoeconomic
firms, because of their inherent strengths, are necessary to ensure rapid technological
growth. They have the necessary financial muscle to undertake innovations and research.
Empirical research on this aspect has been ambiguous. Though consensus opinion has it
that big mesoeconomic industries are not big contributors to technological progress,
there are quite a few exceptions. The paints industry has been one.
The industry, recognising the need to differentiate itself from others, has been frequently
introducing technologically innovative products. The introduction of interactive paints
solutions, anti-bacterial exterior paints and washable plastic emulsion paints are just
some of the innovations. It is of interest that some leading researchers in this field have
tentatively concluded that technological progress in an industry may be determined more
by the industry's scientific character and technological opportunities rather than by its
market structures.
Question
Identifying the factors contributing to the paint industry for becoming oligopoly.
12.7 Summary
 Oligopoly is a situation in which only a few firms (sellers) are competing in the market for
a particular commodity.
 Under oligopoly, each firm controls an important proportion of the total supply. The
demand curve of an individual firm under oligopoly is not known and is indeterminate.
 Oligopolistic firm may form cartel or enter into collusion. There may be barrier to new
entrants.
 Theories of oligopoly are divided into three broad groups, namely, models of non-collusive
oligopoly, models of collusive oligopoly, and managerial theories.
 The collusive oligopoly models have cartel, and price leadership.
 There are four important sources of barriers to entry, such as product differentiation,
control of inputs by existing suppliers, legal restrictions and scale economies.
12.8 Keywords
Cartel: A formal collusive organisation of the oligopoly firms in an industry.
Monopoly: A market situation with a single supplier of a particular good or service.
Oligopoly: A situation in which few firms are competing in the market for a particular commodity.
(a) Sweezy's model is based on the ....................... list approach.
(b) An oligopolistic firm is guided in its decisions by the ....................... demand curve.

Notes (c) Under oligopoly, a firm expects that when it raises its price, it is most likely that
rival firms will also ....................... the price.
(d) For an oligopolistic firm, the demand curve is highly ....................... and gradually
falling for prices above the current or existing price.
(e) Sweezy's kinked demand curve model explains the rigidity or stickiness in
oligopolistic prices in the face of short-term increases or decreases in .......................
input costs.
(f) The Hall and Hitch model of the Kinked demand curve is based on an empirical
survey of a sample of 38 well managed firms in ....................... .
(a) Locational advantages and managerial talents have nothing to do with entry barriers.
(b) Price leadership can be seen as collusive oligopoly.
(c) Under oligopoly, new entry is easy.
(d) The demand curve of an oligopolist is indeterminate.
(e) Under Hall and Hitch version the demand curve has a kink at the price which is
above full cost price.
(f) Oligopoly firm may form cartel.
(g) Price leadership is, where firms jointly fix a price and output through agreement.
1. In what form does rivalry occur in an oligopoly? Why does competition among rivals
occur most often in oliogopolies?
2. Why is there so much advertising in oligopoly? How does such advertising help consumers
and promote efficiency? Why might it be expensive at times?
3. ‘Oligopoly is the most prevalent form of market structure in the manufacturing sector’.
Describe this statement with the help of an example.
4. Go through the figure below and answer the questions that follow:
F G H J Quantity (Q)
(a) Which point determines the equilibrium output in the figure above?
(b) Which point determines the equilibrium price in the figure above?

Unit 12: Oligopoly
Notes
5. There is an oligopoly consisting of 4 firms. Assume that the marginal cost of production is
Rs10 per unit of the good. Demand at price X is given as:
P Q
60 0
50 100
40 200
30 300
20 400
10 500
0 600
What are the price and output levels in an oligopoly Nash Equilibrium?
6. Assume that firms in the short-run are earning above normal profits. Explain what will
happen to these profits in the long-run for the following markets:
(a) Pure Monopoly
(b) Oligopoly
(c) Monopolistic Competition
(d) Perfect Competition
7. The following list is a number of well-known companies and their products. Which of the
four types of markets (perfect competition, monopoly, monopolistic competition and
oligopoly) best characterize the markets in which they compete? Explain why.
(a) Mcdonald's-hamburgers.
(b) exxon-gasoline.
(c) IBB-personal computers
(d) Heinz
8. Comment on the following statements with logical reasoning and appropriate diagrams.
(a) In oligopoly, there is no one single determinate solution, but a number of determinate
solutions depending upon different assumptions.
(b) The success of price leadership of a firm depends upon the correctness of his estimates
about the reactions of his followers.
(c) The kinked demand curve theory explains why a price once determined would
remain sticky but does not determine that price level.
9. Why might oligopolists be more likely to match a price cut than a price increase by a
competitor?
10. What is price leadership? Explain price leadership with the help of real world examples.
11. As a manager, what might be the different types of barriers to entry an oligopoly? How
will you react and what will be your different ways of strategic behaviour for entry?
12. ‘Globalisation and high level of competition have resulted in oligopolies emerging in
many market sectors’. Discuss with examples.

Notes Answers: Self Assessment
1. (a) Marginal (b) Imagined (c) raise (d) elastic
(e) Variable (f) England
2. (a) False (b) True (c) False (d) True
(e) False (f) True (g) False
Dr. Atmanand, Managerial Economics, Excel Books, New Delhi.
R.S. Bhardwaj, Mathematics for Economics and Business, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Online links http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/monopoly/oligopoly_notes.htm
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/encyclopedia/Oli-Per/Oligopoly.html
http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpdc=dspk=oligopoly

Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 Concept of National Income
13.1.1 Gross and Net Concept
13.1.2 National and Domestic Concepts
13.1.3 Market Prices and Factor Costs
13.1.4 Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product
13.1.5 Net National Product
13.1.6 Personal Income
13.1.7 Disposable Income
13.2 Some Important Identities
13.3 Summary
13.4 Keywords
Objectives
Explain the concept of national income
Discuss important identities related to national income
Introduction
Macroeconomics is concerned with the determination of the economy's total output, the price
level, the level of employment, interest rates and other variables. A necessary step in
understanding how these variables are determined is national income accounting. The national
income accounts give us regular estimates of GNP — the basic measure of the economy's
performance in producing goods and services. National income is the most comprehensive
measure of the level of the aggregate economic activity in an economy. It is the total income of
a nation as against the income of an individual but the term national income is not as simple and
self-explanatory as the concept of individual income maybe.

Notes 13.1 Concept of National Income
We may define national income as the aggregate of money value of the annual flow of final
goods and services in the national economy during a given period.
The well-known writer, Paul Studenski, writes: National income is both a flow of goods and
services and a flow of money incomes. It is therefore called national product as often as national
income. The flow of national income begins when production units combine capital and labour
and turn out goods and services. We call this Gross National Product (GNP), it is the value of all
final goods and services produced by domestically owned factors of production within a given
period. It includes the value of goods produced such as houses and food grains and the value of
services such as broker's services and economist's lectures. The output of each of these is valued
at its market price and the values are added together to give GNP. At the same time, the
production units which produce goods and services distribute money incomes to all who help in
production in the form of wages, rent, interest and profit — we call this as Gross National
Income.
GNI is the sum of the money incomes derived from activities involving current production in an
economy in a given time period.
It may be noted from above that
1. National income is an aggregative value concept: It makes use of the value determined by
the money as the common denominator.
2. National income is a flow concept: It represents a given amount of aggregate production
per unit of time, conventionally represented by one year and relates to a particular year.
3. National income represents the aggregate value of final products rather than the total
value of all kinds of products produced in the economy.
We would not want to include the full price of an automobile producer to put on the car.
The components of the car that are sold to the manufacturers are intermediate goods and
their value is not included in GNP.
In practice, double counting is avoided by working with the value-added.
!
Caution At each stage of manufacture of goods only the value added to the good at that
stage of manufacture is counted as part of GNP.
It should be noted that the sum of the value added at each stage of processing will be equal to the
final value of the bread sold. The flour that is directly purchased by households for baking in the
home is counted as the contribution towards GNP since it represents a final sale. It indicates that
national income is an unduplicated total that does not involve any double counting. Obviously
there are three different stages or phases in the flow of output and income in the national
economy.
1. There is production of goods and services by all production units by the use of labour,
capital and enterprise,
2. There is distribution of incomes to all the factors who are suppliers of labour, capital, etc.
this distribution takes the form of wages, interest, rent and profit,
3. There is spending of incomes on the goods and services produced by the economy;
this expenditure is classified into consumption goods (c) and expenditure on investment
goods (I).

Notes
So, we have three kinds of national income estimates:
1. National income as net aggregate output
2. National income as sum of distributive shares
3. National income as aggregate value of final products
13.1.1 Gross and Net Concept
Gross emphasises that no allowance for capital consumption has been made or that depreciation
has yet to be deducted.
Net indicates that provision for capital consumption has already been made or that depreciation
has already been deducted.
Thus the difference between the gross aggregate and the net aggregate is depreciation.
i.e.,
GNP at market price/factor cost = NNP at market price/factor + Depreciation cost.
13.1.2 National and Domestic Concepts
The term national denotes that the aggregate under consideration represents the total income
which accrues to the normal residents of a country due to their participation in world production
during the current year. Thus, the term 'national' is used to emphasise that the aggregate under
consideration covers all types of factor incomes accruing to normal residents of a country
irrespective of whether the factors of production supplied by them are located at home or
abroad.
As against this, it is also possible to measure the value of the total output or income originating
within the specified geographical boundary of a country known as domestic territory. The
resulting measure is called domestic product.
In other words, the distinction between national and domestic aggregates lies in the frame of
reference — the former takes the normal residents of a country, the latter takes a given
geographical area. Here, national produce differs from domestic product by the amount of net
factor income from abroad.
GNP at market price/factor cost = GDP at market price/factor cost + Net factor income from
abroad
NNP at market price/factor cost = NDP at market price/factor cost + Net factor income from
abroad
Net factor income from abroad = Factor income received from abroad — Factor income paid
abroad.
13.1.3 Market Prices and Factor Costs
The valuation of the national product at market prices indicates the total amount actually paid
by the final buyers while the valuation of national product at factor cost is a measure of the total
amount earned by the factors of production for their contribution to the final output.
GNP at market price = GNP at factor cost + Indirect taxes – Subsidies.
NNP at market price = NNP at factor cost + Indirect taxes – Subsidies.

Notes And vice versa.
Category A Category B
Type 1 GNP at market price GOP at market price
NNP at market price NDP at market price
Type 2 GNP at factor cost GDP at factor cost
NNP at factor cost HDP at factor cost
1. Difference between the aggregates in category A and aggregates in category B is net factor
income from abroad.
2. Difference between the aggregates of type 1 and aggregates of type 2 is indirect taxes less
subsidies.
3. The difference between the two aggregates of each type in each category is depreciation.
13.1.4 Gross National Product and Gross Domestic Product
For some purposes we need to find the total income generated from production within the
territorial boundaries of an economy, irrespective of whether it belongs to the inhabitants of
that nation or not. Such an income is known as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and found as:
GDP = GNP – Net factor income from abroad
Net factor income from abroad = Factor income received from abroad – Factor income paid
abroad.
Example: If in 1986 the GNP is 8,00,000 million, the income (including tax on such
incomes) received and paid 60,000 million, and 70,000 million respectively, then, the GDP in
1986 would be:
( 8,00,000 – 70,000 + 60,000) million = 7,90,000 million
GNP as a Sum of Expenditures on Final Products
Expenditure on final products in an economy can be classified into the following categories:
1. Personal consumption expenditure (c): The sum of expenditure on both the durable and
non-durable goods as well as services for consumption purposes,
2. Gross Private Investment (Ig
) is the total expenditure incurred for the replacement of
capital goods and for additional investment,
3. Government expenditure (G) is the sum of expenditure on consumption and capital goods
by the government, and
4. Net Exports (Exports - Imports) (X - M) constitute the difference between the expenditure
or rest of the world on output of the national economy and the expenditure of the national
economy on output of the rest of the world.
GNP is the aggregate of the above mentioned four categories of consumption expenditure.
That is,
GNP = C + Ig
+ G + (X – M)

Notes
GNP as the Total of Factor Incomes
As mentioned above, national product gives a measure of a nation's productive activity,
irrespective of the fact whether this activity takes place at home or abroad. When national
income is calculated after excluding indirect taxes like excise duty, sales tax, etc. and including
subsidies we get GNP at factor cost as this is the amount received by all the factors of production
(indirect taxes being the amount claimed by the government and subsidies becoming a part of
factor income).
GNP at factor cost = GNP at market prices – Indirect taxes + Subsidies
13.1.5 Net National Product
The NNP is an alternative and closely related measure of the national income. It differs from
GNP in only one respect. GNP is the sum of final products. It includes consumption goods plus
gross investment plus government expenditures on goods and services plus net exports. Here
gross investment (GI) is the increase in investment plus fixed assets like buildings and equipment
and thus exceeds net investment (NI) by depreciation.
GNP = NNP + Depreciation
NNP includes net private investment while GNP includes gross private domestic investment.
We know that during the process of production, assets get consumed or depreciated. So, during
a year the net contribution to output is the production of goods and services minus the depreciation
during the year. This is known as NNP at market prices because it is the net money value of final
goods and services produced at current prices during the year after depreciation.
Gross National Product 585.00
Less:
Capital consumption allowances 51.6
Equals:
Net National Product 533.4
Less:
Indirect business taxes 56.6
Other adjustments -1.6
Equals:
National Income 478.4
Equation
NNP = GNP – Depreciation
= C + Ig
+ G + (X – M) – Depreciation
= C + G + (X – M) + (Ig
– Depreciation), where Ig
= Government investment
= C + G + (X – M) + In
, where In
= Net investment, C = Consumption expenditure,
G = Government Expenditure, X = Export, M = Import
= C + G + In
+ (X – M)
Where In
represents net investment which equals gross investment minus depreciation
(Ig
- Depreciation).

Notes NNP at Factor Cost (or National Income)
Goods and services are produced with the help of factors of production. National income or
NNP at factor cost is the sum of all the income payments received by these factors of production.
NI = GNP – Depreciation – Indirect taxes + Subsidies
Since factors receive subsidies, they are added while indirect taxes are subtracted as these do not
form part of the factor income.
NNP at factor cost = NNP at market prices – Indirect taxes + Subsidies
Did u know? What does Genuine Progress Indicator — GPI Mean?
A metric used to measure the economic growth of a country. It is often considered as a
replacement to the more well known gross domestic product (GDP) economic indicator.
The GPI indicator takes everything the GDP uses into account, but also adds other figures
that represent the cost of the negative effects related to economic activity (such as the cost
of crime, cost of ozone depletion and cost of resource depletion, among others). The GPI
nets the positive and negative results of economic growth to examine whether or not it
has benefited people overall.
13.1.6 Personal Income
National income is the total income accruing to the factors of production for their contribution
to current production. It does not represent the total income that individuals actually receive.
Two types of factors account for the difference between national income and personal income.
On the one hand a part of the total income which accrues to the factors of production is not
actually paid out to the individuals who own the factors of production. The obvious instances
are corporate taxes and undistributed or retained profits. On the other hand, the total income
that individuals actually receive generally includes some part that comes to be regarded as
payment for the factor services rendered in the current year, for example, gifts, pensions, relief
payments and other welfare payments. Such payments are known as transfer payments because
they do not represent the payments made for any direct contribution to current production.
Thus, personal income is calculated by subtracting from national income those types of incomes
which are earned but not received and adding those types which are received but not currently
earned. So
Personal Income = NNP at factor cost – Undistributed profits – Corporate taxes +
Transfer payments
13.1.7 Disposable Income
Disposable income is the total income that actually remains with individuals to dispose off as
they wish. It differs from personal income by the amount of direct taxes paid by individuals.
Disposable Income = Personal Income – Personal taxes
DI = PI – T
So, PI = DI + T
Usually, people divide their disposable income between consumption spending and personal
saving.

Notes
We, therefore, have the following identities
PI = DI + T
DI = C + S
It follows
PI = C + S + T
Notes The concept of value added is a useful device to find out the exact amount that
is added at each stage of production to the value of the final product. Value added can be
defined as the difference between the value of output produced by that firm and the total
expenditure incurred by it on the materials and intermediate products purchased from
other business firms. Thus, value added is obtained by deducting the value of material
inputs or intermediate products from the corresponding value of output.
Value added = Total sales + Closing stock of finished and semi-finished goods – Total
expenditure on raw materials and intermediate products – Opening stock of finished and
semi-finished goods
Caselet Smoking Costs over 6.5% of National Income to
Nations
L
ove for nicotine is weighing heavily on developing nations with top ten smoker
countries losing more than $30 billion annually which is more than 6.5 per cent of
their gross national income (GNI).
The top ten smokers countries, identified by Forbes magazine include Kenya, Turkey,
Namibia, Yemen, Guinea, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, Mongolia,
Nauru and Sao Tome and Principe.
Thanks to celebrity activism and widespread media attention, the magazine notes, HIV,
malaria and starvation are well-known diseases of the third world. But there's another
resource-draining plague afflicting these countries - smoking.
While the smoking population is half what it was a generation ago in the US and other
industrialised nations, with only one in five using tobacco, it's different in Africa and East
Asia, where time stands still when it comes to cigarettes, it says.
Smoking rates of 40 per cent or more of the population are common in these regions and
medical services are limited.
In Turkey, for example, 44 per cent of its 71.5 million population smokes, draining USD
22.4 billion annually which accounts for 5.8 per cent of its GNI of 384.3 billion dollars.
Around 45 per cent of Yemen's population smokes costing $1 billion to its economy
annually and accounts for 6.2 per cent of GNI.
Societal costs in those countries, Forbes says, can't be calculated the same way they would
be in the US, where most studies measure how much smokers burden taxpayers with extra
medicare and medicaid payments.
For poor countries, there is no medicare-like programme to fund. Nor is there enough
data about the economic impact of other diseases to make real comparisons. Contd...

Notes Tom Glynn, Director of International Care Control for the American Cancer Society has
been quoted as saying. In Africa, these health care systems don't exist, at least not in the
form we're used to, Only Kenya, he says of Africa's low income nations, has a medical
care system that reasonably resembles that of the western world.
Most studies conclude a cigarette costs 10 minutes of life, so a pack-a-day smoker
(20 cigarettes a day) loses 13.9 per cent of a year to the habit over the long haul, the
magazine notes.
Source: www.articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com
13.2 Some Important Identities
We denote the value of output by 'Y' under the assumption that the simple economy does not
consist of either a government or foreign trade. Consumption is denoted by 'C' and investment
spending by 'I'. The key identity is between output produced and output sold.
Output sold can be written in terms of consumption and investment spending, so identity of
output produced and output sold is
Y C + I (1)
Output produced is identically equal to output sold.
Now, a part of the whole, Y, will be spent on consumption and a part will be saved. So
Y S + C (2)
This tells us that the whole of income is allocated either to consumption or to saving.
Identity (1) and (2) can be combined to read
C + I Y C + S (3)
The left hand side of identity (3) shows the components of demand and the right hand side shows
the allocation of income. The identity emphasises that output produced is equal to output sold.
The value of output produced is equal to income received and income received, in turn, is spent
on goods or saved.
Identity (3) can be rewritten as the relation between saving (S) and investment (I). Subtracting
consumption (C) from each part of identity (3), we have
I Y – C S (4)
Identity (4) is very important. It shows us that in this simple economy, saving is identically
equal to income less consumption and investment is identically equal to saving.
The identity is really only a reflection of our definitions - output less consumption is investment,
output is income and income less consumption is saving.
Reintroducing the Government and Foreign Trade
We now reintroduce government sector and the external sector, G. All taxes denote the purchase
of goods and services by government by I. Transfer to the private sector (including interest) are
denoted by TR. Net exports (X - M) are denoted by X.
We return to the easier identity between output produced and sold, taking into account additional
components of demand G and X. So
Y C + I + G + X (5)

Notes
Now we have to recognise that part of income is spent on taxes and that the private sector
receives net transfers (TR) in addition to national income.
Disposable income (YD) is thus equal to income plus transfers less taxes
YD Y + TR – T (6)
Disposable income is allocated to consumption and saving
YD C + S (7)
Combining identity (6) and (7) allows us to write consumption as the difference between income
plus transfers minus taxes and saving.
C + S YD Y + TR – T (8)
Or C YD – S Y + TR – T – S (8a)
Identity (8) states that consumption is disposable income less saving or that consumption is
equal to income plus transfers less taxes and saving. Now we use the right hand side equation
(8a) to substitute for C in identity (5).
Y Y + TR – T – S + I + G +X
Or Y - Y + S – I (G + TR – T) + X
Or S – I (G + TR – T) + X (9)
The term (G + TR - T) in equation (9) is the government budget deficit. (G + TR) equals government
purchases of goods and services (G) and government transfer payments (TR) which is total
government spending. T is the amount of taxes received by the government, the difference
(G + TR – T) is the excess of government. Spending over its receipts or its budget deficit. The
second term on the right hand side is the excess of exports over imports or the net export of
goods and services.
Thus, identity (9) states that the excess of saving over investment (S – I) of the business sector is
equal to the government budget deficit plus the trade surplus.
Task From the following data, find (a) National Income, (b) NNP, (c) GNP, (d)
personal disposable income, (e) personal income, (f) personal saving.
Rupees (crores)
Capital consumption allowance 356.4
Wages and compensation of employees 1866.3
Interest paid by business 264.9
Indirect business of persons 34.1
Corporate profits 164.8
Income of self employed 120.3
Corporate dividends 66.4
P.F. contributions 253.0
Personal taxes 402.1
Interest paid by consumers 64.4
Interest paid by government 105.1
Government and business transfer 374.5
Personal consumption expenditure 1991.9

Notes
Case Study Marking a Significant Shift
O
n May 31, 2010, when the government announced GDP numbers for 2009-10, for
the first time, factories contributed more to the national income than the country's
farmers, marking a significant shift in the structure of the India economy.
That does not, however, diminish the importance of the farm, fisheries and the forest
sector because of the disproportionately high percentage of people still engaged in these
activities. Neither does it take away the fact that the share of manufacturing is still below
desired levels.
As per the advance estimates of GDP growth in 2009-10 released by the Central Statistical
Organisation in February, the manufacturing sector was expected to contribute Rs 7,07,512
crore to the economy, overtaking the 6,49,370 crore from agriculture, forestry, and
fishing.
That would make manufacturing the second biggest contributor to the GDP among the
major sub-sector, but its relative share is well below that of many of India's peers. For
instance, in China, value add by industry has a near 48% share in the national income.
However, a recent CII-BCG report says that India, the 13th largest manufacturing economy
in the world, could emerge as the fourth largest manufacturer if the sector grows by 11%
in the next 15 years. The share of manufacturing in the GDP has stuck at about 18%. It
should grow up to 30% in the next five to 10 years. Only then can the economy sustain a
growth of 9% to 10%, says Saumitra Chaudhuri, member, Planning Commission.
Experts are, however, unanimous in that the industrial sector needs to generate lot more
employment. Its (manufacturing) share in GDP is going to be higher by about 15% to that
of agriculture, but dependency is too low compared to agriculture, says P K Joshi, Director,
National Academy of Agricultural Research Management, arguing for a greater
employment generation in manufacturing.
The real structural change in the Indian economy would occur only when lesser people are
employed in agriculture, says Suresh Tendulkar, former chairman of the Prime Minister's
Economic Advisory Council. In fact, India's structural transition has been different from
many other economies, with intermediate manufacturing stage not growing as desired.
The Indian economy has jumped from an agrarian to a service centric economy. The
services sector has been unable to absorb the vast unskilled population, says Sunil Sinha,
senior economist and head of research at rating agency Crisil.
Question
Is it a real shift in the structure of the Indian economy or is it a temporary event? Give your
views.
Source: www.articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com
13.3 Summary
National income is the aggregate of money value of the annual flow of final goods and
services in the national economy during a given period.
GNP is the value of all final goods and services produced by domestically owned factors
of production within a given period. The production units, which produce goods and

Notes
services, distribute money incomes to all who help in production in the form of wages,
rent, interest and profit, is known as Gross National Income.
National produce differs from domestic product by the amount of net factor income from
abroad.
The valuation of the national product at market prices indicates the total amount actually
paid by the final buyers while the valuation of national product at factor cost is a measure
of the total amount earned by the factors of production.
Personal income is calculated by subtracting from national income those types of incomes
which are earned but not received and adding those types which are received but not
currently earned.
13.4 Keywords
Disposable income: The amount of income left to an individual after taxes have been paid,
available for spending and saving.
Gross domestic product: The money value of all final goods and a service produced by normal
residents as well as non-residents in the domestic territory of a country but does not include net
factor income earned from abroad.
Gross national product: Total market value of all finished goods services produced in a year
by a country's residents
National income: National income is a measure of the total value of the goods and services
(output) produced by an economy over a period of time (normally a year).
Nominal GDP: It is calculated by using the current prices to place value on the economy's
production of goods and services.
Personal income: Income received by persons from all sources. It includes income received from
participation in production as well as from government and business transfer payments
Real GDP: It is calculated by evaluating current production using prices that are fixed at past
levels, it shows the economy's overall production which changes over time.
(a) The growth of an economy is indicated by an:
(i) Increase in general prices
(ii) Increase in national income
(iii) Increase in savings
(iv) Increase in investment
(b) The difference between NNP and NDP is:
(i) Depreciation
(ii) Current transfers from rest of the world
(iii) Indirect tax
(iv) Net factor income from abroad

Notes (c) National income as commonly understood by every one refers to:
(i) GNP
(ii) NNP
(iii) GDP
(iv) NDP
(a) NNP = C+G+X+M.
(b) Disposable income includes personal taxes.
(c) Value added = Total sales + total expenditure on raw materials and intermediate
products - closing stock of finished and semi-finished gods.
(d) GDP = GNP+ Net factor income from abroad.
(e) NNPMP = NNPFC+ Indirect taxes- Subsidies.
(a) The NNP is an .............. measure of the national income.
(b) Government expenditure is the sum of expenditure on consumption and ..............by
the government.
(c) NNP at factor cost is the sum of all the income payments received by ................. .
(d) Gross concept does not include............... .
(e) ................ is the total income that actually remains with individuals to dispose off as
they wish.
(f) Disposable income is allocated to .............. and ............. .
(g) Disposable income equals to income plus transfers less ........... .
1. Suppose that in the country of Nemania, the real gross national product in 1987 was £1483
billion (1972 equals 100). In 1988, real gross national product is £1510 billion (1972 equals
100). By how much the real gross national product would have grown in Nemania?
2. Why is there so much attention given to the national income figures of a country?
Newspapers report the figures, government officials talk about GDP growth, and even
secondary school textbooks mention them.
3. China has overtaken the UK to be the world's fourth largest economy. What this means is
that the GDP of China is larger than UK. But do the Chinese people have a higher standard
of living than the British or the French? Why/ why not?
4. Refer to the data ( in billion dollars) below and answer the questions that follow:
Consumption of Fixed capital 25.00
Government purchases 315.00
U.S. imports 260.00
Personal payments 45.00
Transfer payments 247.00

Notes
U.S. exports 249.00
Personal consumption expenditures 475.00
Net foreign factor income earned 5.00
Gross private domestic investment 300.00
Indirect business taxes 245.00
Undistributed corporate profits 60.00
Social security contributions 240.00
Corporate income taxes 65.00
(a) What is the Personal income?
(b) What are the gross and net domestic products?
(c) Calculate the disposable income.
5. In the national income and product accounts (NIPAs), growth in real imports of services
has been slowing since 2000, and 2003 showed no growth. Yet, we know that outsourcing
has been growing dramatically. Does this imply that the NIPAs are failing to capture the
effects of outsourcing?
6. Given the following data about the economy:
Consumption 7000
Investment 5000
Proprietor’s income 2500
Corporate income taxes 2150
Govt expenditure 3000
Profits 2500
Wages 7000
Net exports 2750
Rents 250
Depreciation 250
Indirect business taxes 1000
Undistributed corporate profits 600
Net foreign factor income 30
Interest 1500
Social security contribution 0
Transfer payments 0
Personal taxes 1650
(a) Calculate GDP and GNP.
(b) Calculate NDP, NNP, NI and domestic income.
7. Suppose capital stock of an economy is worth 200 million and it depreciates at the rate of
10 per cent per annum. Indirect taxes amount to 30 million, subsidies amount to 15
million. Its GNP at market prices is 1200 million. Calculate the national income. (NNP at
factor cost is termed national income).

Notes 8. What is the impact (if any) on the national income of India in each of the following cases?
(a) Shyam receives 5000 as a gift from his father who is also a resident of India.
(b) Aggregate inventories in Indian companies go down by 20,000.
(c) A receives 100 dollars as dividend from a company based in the USA.
(d) A sells shares and reaps capital gains worth 1,000.
Give reasons for your answers.
9. Calculate national income from the following figures (in crores):
Consumption 200
Depreciation 20
Retained earning 12
Gross investment 30
Import 40
Provident fund contributions 25
Exports 50
Indirect business taxes 15
Government purchases 60
Personal income taxes 40
(a) If there were 10 crores people in this country.
(b) If all prices were to double overnight, what would happen to the value of real and
nominal GDP per capita?
10. Discuss the National Income identities with reference to India.
1. (a) ii (b) iv (c) iii
2. (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) False
(e) True
3. (a) alternative (b) capital goods (c) Factors of production
(d) depreciation (e) disposable income
(f) consumption, savings (g) taxes.
H.L. Ahuja, Macroeconomics Theory and Policy, S. Chand Publication.

Notes
Online links http://www.tradechakra.com/indian-economy/national-income.html
http://www.economywatch.com/world-country/national-income.html
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-circular-flow-of-income.htm
http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/macroeconomy/circular_flow.htm

Notes Unit 14: Calculation of National Income
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
14.1 Product Approach
14.2 Income Approach
14.3 Expenditure Approach
14.4 Problems in Measuring National Income
14.5 Circular Flow of Income
14.5.1 Circular Flow of Income in a 2 Sector Model
14.6 Summary
14.7 Keywords
Objectives
Discuss the methods of measuring national income
Identify problems in measuring national income
Describe the circular flow of income in 2 sector and 4 sector model
Introduction
We can measure national income either at the production stage by measuring the value of
output or at the income accrual stage by measuring the amount of factor income earned or at the
expenditure stage by measuring the size of total expenditure incurred in the economy. The
Following are the three different methods of measuring national income.
1. Product Approach
2. Income Approach
3. Expenditure Approach

Notes
14.1 Product Approach
According to this method, the sum of net value of goods and services produced at market prices
is found. Three steps are involved in calculation of national income through this method:
1. Gross product is calculated by sensing up the money value of output in the different
sectors of the economy.
2. Money value of raw material and services used and the amount of depreciation of physical
assets involved in the production process are summed up.
3. The net output or value added is found by subtracting the aggregate of the cost of raw
material, services and depreciation from the gross product found in first step.
Let us denote the amounts of each of the three different types of final outputs in a given year as
Q1
, Q2
, Q3
………… Qn
and their respective market prices as P1
, P2
, P3
………… Pn
where n stands
for the total number of final goods and service produced in the economy. Then according to the
product approach, the size of the national income (NI) will be equal to the sum of the annual
flow of final goods and services valued at their respective market prices
i.e., NI = P1
Q1
+ P2
Q2
+ P3
Q3
+ ………… + Pn
Qn
Production approach involves estimation of gross value of products, by-products and ancillary
activities of a production unit and deducting from it the value of inputs of raw materials and
other intermediates including services to obtain gross value added.
Broadly speaking the steps involved are:
1. Obtain estimates of quantities of all outputs and all inputs.
2. Obtain estimates of average price for each output and input from market sources.
3. Compute gross value of outputs and inputs using price-quantity data and subtract the
latter from the former to get gross value added.
4. Obtain estimates of value of stocks of fixed assets and apply predetermined depreciation
rates to get capital consumption.
This approach is used to estimate gross and net value added in the following sectors of the
Indian economy:
1. Agriculture and allied activities (e.g., animal husbandry)
2. Forestry and Logging
3. Fishing
4. Mining and Quarrying
5. Registered Manufacturing
For the first three of these sectors, obtaining reliable data on quantities and average prices is a
difficult task particularly for minor products and by-products as also for unorganised part of
fishing activity. CSO uses estimates obtained from a variety of sources such as union ministry of
agriculture, state statistical bureaus, directorate of market intelligence, etc. For registered
manufacturing the Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) gives data on inputs and outputs on a
census basis for larger units and sample basis for smaller units. However, ASI data are often out
of date and several adjustments are required. Corrections for non-response to ASI questionnaires
also have to be incorporated. For mining and quarrying the Indian Bureau of Mines supplies
quantity and value data for inputs and outputs which are supplemented by data from state
governments.

Notes For constant price estimation, the same procedure can be used with prices of the base year being
employed for valuation of quantities.
14.2 Income Approach
This approach is also known as the income-distributed method. According to this method, the
incomes received by all the basic factors of production used in the production process are
summed up. The basic factors for the purposes of national income are categorised as labour and
capital. We have three incomes.
1. Labour income which includes wages, salaries, bonus, social security and welfare
contributions.
2. Capital income which includes dividends, pre-tax retained earnings, interest on saving
and bonus, rent, royalties and profits of government enterprises.
3. Mixed income, i.e., earnings from professions, farming enterprises, etc.
These three components of income are added together to get national income.
Following the income approach, national income can be measured by aggregating the annual
flows of factor earnings generated by the production of the final output. Thus the value of
output, say good I (Pi
Qi
) is also reflected in the sum of the corresponding factor incomes
generated, i.e., Pi
Qi
= Ri
+ Wi
+ Ii
+ Pi
.
Where Ri
, Wi
, Ii
, Pi
denote flow of rent, wages, interest, and profits generated by the production
of good i. It follows, therefore, that national income can be measured as the sum of annual flow
of different types of factor incomes in the economy.
In this approach, payments for factor, viz. wages, salaries, rents, interest and profits are directly
aggregated together to obtain estimates of value added. Output or input valuation is not necessary.
This approach is particularly suitable for those activities whose output are difficult to value.
The prime example is services. However, reliable data on factor incomes are available only for
those units which keep proper annual accounts. For others, some indirect method has to be
followed. One such method involves estimation of number of workers employed and of value
added per worker. The product of the two gives an estimate of total value added in the relevant
activity. Number of workers is estimated by extrapolation-interpolation of decennial case figures;
per worker value added is taken from surveys conducted at various times with appropriate
adjustments to bring up the estimates to date.
The approach is used for following activities:
1. Railways
2. Electricity, gas and water supply
3. Transport, storage and communication
4. Banking, finance and insurance
5. Real estate
6. Public administration and defence
For the first three groups almost complete data are available from annual accounts. Such data
are also available for parts of latter three - the part that is in the organised sector. For the rest the
indirect approach has to be employed.

Notes
Database is the weakest for unorganised sectors of the economy such as unregistered
manufacturing, trade, hotels and restaurants and a variety of personal services. For these sectors
rough and ready estimates based sometimes on production approach, sometimes on income
approach are used. Most often estimates are obtained for a benchmark year during which a
major survey had been conducted and then these benchmark estimates are brought up to date
using a variety of indicators.
Constant price estimates using the income approach are obtained by updating the base year
estimates using some physical indices such as amount of electricity sold, tonne-kilometres of
freight transport, etc.
Did u know? What is transaction in the parallel economy?
The unaccounted flows of money give rise to black money which takes the form of push
money, hush money, hiss money, speed money and so on. Such money either circulates
very fast or gets converted into black property or assets like farm houses, gold ornaments
and benami share certificates. These are the forms in which black money is held, if not
circulated by way of black income to finance black expenditure.
14.3 Expenditure Approach
This method is known as the final product method. According to this method, the total national
expenditure is the sum of the expenditure incurred by the society in a particular year. The
expenditures are classified as personal consumption expenditure, net domestic investment,
government expenditure on goods and services and net foreign investment (imports-exports).
The flow of total expenditure can be measured by aggregating the flows of expenditure on final
goods and services incurred by the three main sectors involved, viz., the household sector, the
business sector, the government sector. Thus from the viewpoint of the expenditure approach,
national income can be measured by
NI = Eh
+ Eb
+ Eg
Where Eh
, Eb
, Eg
denote the annual flow of expenditure on final goods and services incurred by
the household sector, the business sector, and the government sector.
These three approaches to the measurement of national income yield identical results. They
provide three alternative methods of measuring essentially the same magnitude. If we follow
the product approach or the expenditure approach, we are in effect trying to measure national
income by the size of the income flow in the upper half of the circle. As against this if we follow
income approach, we are actually trying to measure the flow in the lower half of the circle.
Notes Estimates of national product can also be obtained by adding together
expenditure flows, viz., C, I, G, E and subtracting M. To obtain these, CSO uses the commodity
flow approach. For instance, in case of private consumption expenditures, over 160 goods
and services are identified and quantities of these entering private consumption are
estimated by deducting from quantities produced, quantities used up in intermediate
uses, purchased by government, etc. Market prices are then applied to the quantities to get
expenditures. For organised construction, value of output is estimated by estimating the
quantities of major construction materials, cement, steel, bricks, etc., used up in construction.
Similarly, several items of machinery and equipment are identified and market value of
their outputs are added together to estimate capital formation in the form of machinery
and equipment.

Notes
Task Given the following data about the economy, calculate national income, personal
income and disposable personal income with both the expenditure and income approach.
( crores)
Wages and salaries 7,500
Interest received 450
Rent 900
Dividends 2,100
Undistributed Profits 400
Social security contribution of business sector 600
Mixed incomes 800
Corporate profit taxes 600
Pensions paid by the government 200
Net interest paid by government 300
Personal income tax 1,500
Case Study Rich Getting Richer
Y
ear 2009 may have been a cruel year for much of the country with slow growth and
double-digit food inflation, but India’s High Net Worth Individuals (HNWIs)
prospered — just over 120,000 in number, or 0.01% of the population, their
combined worth is close to one-third of India’s Gross National Income (GNI).
HNWIs, in this context, are defined as those having investable assets of $1 million or
more, excluding primary residence, collectibles, consumables, and consumer durables.
According to the 2009 Asia-Pacific Wealth Report, brought out by financial services firms
Capgemini and Merrill Lynch Wealth Management, at the peak of the recession in 2008,
India had 84,000 HNWIs with a combined net worth of $310 billion. To put that figure in
perspective, it was just under a third of India’s market capitalization, that is, the total value
of all companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange — as of end-March 2008. The
average worth of each HNWI was 16.6 crore.
To get a fix on just how rarefied a level it puts them in, we did some simple calculations that
threw up stunning numbers. It would take an average urban Indian, 2,238 years, based on
the monthly per capita expenditure estimates in the 2007-08 National Sample Survey, to
achieve a net worth equal to that of the average HNWI. And that’s assuming that this
average urban Indian just accumulates all his income without consuming anything. A similar
calculation shows that an average rural Indian would have to wait a fair bit longer — 3,814
years!
According to the firms’ 2010 World Wealth Report, India now has 126,700 HNWIs, an
increase of more than 50% over the 2008 number. While the figure for combined net worth
is not available, it seems safe to assume that as a class not only have India’s super-rich
recouped their 2008 losses, they have even made gains over their pre-crisis (2007) positions.
In 2007, 123,000 HNWIs were worth a combined $437 million. Meanwhile, in 2009 alone,
an estimated 13.6 million more people in India became poor or remained in poverty than
would have been the case had the 2008 growth rates continued, according to the United
Contd...

Notes
million more people in India became poor or remained in poverty over 2008 and 2009
than would have been poor had the pre-crisis (2004-07) growth rates been maintained
over these two years.
The 2009 Asia-Pacific Wealth Report notes that the HNWI population in India is also expected
to be more than three times its 2008 size by the year 2018, with emergent wealth playing a
key role. Like China, relatively few among the current HNWI population (13%, compared
to 22% in Japan) have inherited their wealth and even fewer (9%) are over the age of 66.
Question
What does the case say about distribution of income in India?
Source: timesofindia.indiatimes.com
14.4 Problems in Measuring National Income
The major problems that hinder the calculation of national income using a particular method
have already been discussed before along with the methods. Now let’s discuss the problems that
occur, in general.
The difficulties in measurement of national income are:
1. National income measures domestic economic performance and not social welfare. For
real economic growth, there should be strong positive correlation between the two.
2. National Income understates social welfare-non-market transactions like home-makers
service and do-it-yourself projects are not counted.
3. National Income does not measure an increase in leisure or work satisfaction or changes
in product quality.
4. National Income does not accurately reflect changes in environment like oil spills cleanup
is measured as positive output but increased in pollution is not measured as negative.
5. Per capital income is a more meaningful measure of living standards than total national
income.
6. There is a problem of double counting. However, problem of double counting could be
avoided by utilizing the value added approach. For example, the wheat that is used to
make bread is an “intermediate good”. The value of the bread only is counted as part of
GNP and we do not count the value of wheat sold to the miller and the value of flour sold
to the baker.
7. Problems of depreciation estimation as there are different methods of calculating or
estimating depreciation.
8. Inclusion or exclusion of certain items in national income accounting can cause confusion.
(a) Imputed rent of owner occupied houses is also included in calculation of national
income.
(b) Imputed value of goods and services produced for self consumption are included.
(c) Sale and purchase of second hand goods are excluded.
(d) Imputed rent of owner occupied houses and production for self-consumption are
included.
(e) Incomes from illegal activities are not included.
(f) Direct taxes such as Income tax are paid by employees from their salaries are included.

Notes (g) Expenditure on purchase of old share is excluded.
(h) Government expenditure on all transfer payment is excluded.
9. Challenges like difficulties in getting information especially those related to underground
economy (illegal activities).
14.5 Circular Flow of Income
Circular flow of income model shows the flow of income between the producers and the
households who buy their goods or services. Income moves from households to producers as
the households purchase goods or services and income moves from producers to households in
the form of wages or profits. Let’s discuss the circular flow of income in a simple 2 sector model
and in a 4 sector model.
One of the most important insights about the aggregate economy is that it is a circular flow in
which output and input are interrelated (Figure 11.1). Household’s expenditures (consumption
and saving) and firm’s expenditures (wages, rents, etc.) are household’s income.
Figure 14.1
Source: www.medlibrary.org/medwiki/Circular_flow
The circular flow of income model is a model used to show the flow of income through an
economy. Through showing the leakages in the economy and the injections, the different factors
affecting the economic activities are apparent. Just like a leakage in a bucket leads to decrease in
the level of water, a leakage in the economy leads to a decrease in economic activity. And just
like an injection into the bucket where the water level rises, an injection in an economy leads to
an increase in economic activity.
Basic Assumptions of a Simple Circular Flow of Income Model
1. The economy consists of two sectors: households and firms.
2. Households spend all of their income (Y) on goods and services or consumption (C). There
is no saving (S).

Notes
3. All output (O) produced by firms is purchased by households through their
expenditure (E).
4. There is no financial sector.
5. There is no government sector.
6. There is no overseas sector.
In the simple two sector circular flow of income model the state of equilibrium is defined as a
situation in which there is no tendency for the levels of income (Y), expenditure (E) and output
(O) to change, that is: Y = E = O.
This means that all household income (Y) is spent (E) on the output (O) of firms, which is equal
in value to the payments for productive resources purchased by firms from households.
Example: This can be shown in an example where John earns 100.00, he doesn’t save it
and spends it all on the goods and services (O) provided by the firms.
2 Sector Model with Financial Market
Financial institutions act as intermediaries between savers and investors. All the lending and
borrowings are carried on in the financial or capital market. All that is earned by the households
is not spent on consumption; a part of it is saved. This saving is deposited in the financial market
leading to a money flow from the household to the financial market. On the other hand, the firm
saves to meet its depreciation expenses and expansion. The savings of the firm going into the
financial market and borrowings made by the firm from the financial market also create money
flows.
Figure 14.2: Circular Flow of Income in 2 Sector Model with Financial System
Therefore, we can say that the savings by households and firms are leakages and borrowings by
the firms act as injections into the circular flow of income.
In this model, we introduce the government sector as well that purchases goods from firms and
factors services from households. Between households and the government money flows from
government to the household when the government makes transfer payments. Like old age
pension, scholarship and factors payments o the households. Money flows back to the government
when it collects direct taxes from the households.
Similarly, there are flows of money between the government sector and firm sector. Money
flows from firms to government when the government realises corporate taxes from the firms.
Money flows from the government to the firms in form of subsidies and payment made for the
goods purchased.

Notes Figure 14.3: The Circular Flow of Income in a Three-sector Economy
In a 4 sector model, an economy moves from being a closed economy to an open economy. In an
open economy imports and exports are made. You must understand that one country’s exports
are other country’s imports. In case of a country imports, money flows to the rest of the world
and in case of exports, money flows in from the rest of the world. An economy experiences a
trade surplus if its exports exceed its imports. On the other hand, there is a trade deficit if imports
exceed exports. Imports act as leakages and exports as injection into the circular flow of income
in an economy.
In a 4 sector model, we have,
Y = C + I + G + (X-M)
Where,
Y = Income or Output
C = Household consumption expenditure
I = Investment expenditure
G = Government expenditure
X – M = Exports minus Imports

Notes
Figure 14.4: Circular Flow of Income in a Four Sector Model
Source: www.maeconomics.web.com
Caselet India — Seeking a Second Generation of Reform
T
en years ago the Indian government embarked upon reform, liberalizing the
economy to open it to global markets. Today, this liberalization effort is showing
mixed results.
Despite strong GDP growth (averaging 5 to 6 percent annually), a reasonably low current
account deficit (less than 2 percent of GDP), and ample foreign reserves (over $30 billion),
an analysis of India's economy shows indications of distortions in three areas: the real
economy, the financial sector, and macroeconomic policy. India is considering a second
generation of reforms to further liberalize the economy and correct these market
distortions, but if distortions remain unchecked, a financial crisis could emerge.
In the real economy, steady value destruction has been evident over the past eight years.
This value destruction has been sustained since 80 percent of available capital is directed
at non profitable sectors, a trend that is unlikely to change in the near future due to
Contd...

Notes government-directed lending regulations, high transaction costs, and depressed market
conditions. The financial sector also appears weak - as of 1998, 46 percent of financial
institutions had returns on assets (ROA) of less than 1 percent, and the banking average
ROA was 0.55 percent in 2001.
Both the real and the financial sectors are impeded by poor macroeconomic policies. The
Indian government exercises significant ownership and control over the economy, directly
owning 60 percent of assets in the real sector and 75 percent of assets in the financial sector.
In addition to a strong presence in the economy, the Indian government has been
intervening in the economy through fiscal policy and monetary measures to maintain
liquidity and the exchange rate, and to support weak institutions.
Despite weakness in these three areas, the outlook for India is not all gloom. The economy
has low foreign debt exposure and has been able to avoid a credit boom in the real sector.
But government and macroeconomic reforms are needed - more privatization and
liberalization in the real sector, a reduced presence of the government in the real and
financial sectors, fewer requirements on government-directed lending, and a greater
reliance on market decisions to allocate savings. Whether these reforms will occur in time
to prevent a crisis remains to be seen.
14.6 Summary
There are three different methods of measuring national income. These are product
approach, income approach and expenditure approach.
Under product approach, the sum of net value of goods and services produced at market
prices is found.
Income approach is also known as the income-distributed method. According to this
method, the incomes received by all the basic factors of production used in the production
process are summed up.
Expenditure method is known as the final product method. Under this method, the total
national expenditure is the sum of the expenditure incurred by the society in a particular
year.
In India, the national income estimates are prepared by the Central Statistical Organisation.
14.7 Keywords
Expenditure approach: The total national expenditure is the sum of the expenditure incurred by
the society in a particular year.
Government expenditure: The sum of expenditure on consumption and capital goods by the
government.
Income approach: The incomes received by all the basic factors of production used in the
production process.
Product approach: The sum of net value of goods and services produced at market prices.

Notes
(a) Under product approach, the factors of production used in the production of a product
are added up.
(b) The three approaches to national income will all lead to different results.
(c) Under expenditure approach net foreign investment is (exports-imports).
(d) Expenditure approach is also known as the income-distributed method.
(e) Product method is known as the final product method.
(a) In India the national income estimates are prepared by the ............................ .
(b) The three approaches to the measurement of national income yield ............................
results.
(c) According to product method, the sum of net value of goods and services produced
at ............................ is found.
(d) Expenditure approach is known as the .............. method.
(e) Personal income = NNP at factor cost - .................. - corporate taxes + transfer payments.
(f) According to product approach, the sum of net value of goods and services produced
at............ is found.
(g) The greatest difficulty in counting the national income is of .............
(h) All inventory changes whether negative or positive are included in the ................... .
(i) The government account is concerned with the.................... of the government sector.
(j) Database is the weakest for .................. sector of the economy.
1. Discuss one method of computing national income. Is this measurement precise? Why?
2. Examine all standard method of computing national income and social accounting in
India with particular reference to both conceptual statistical difficulties of measurement.
3. Find out what is a national income and product account (NIPA) benchmark or
comprehensive revision.
4. Think and enlist the problems that you might face when comparing national income with
other countries.
5. The data in the table below represent the selling price of the intermediate good. After
converting the tree to paper the paper manufacturer sells the paper to the textbook publisher
for $3.
textbook production:
tree $01
paper $03
book $ 7

Notes bookstore $75
sum of factor payments $86
How much is added to GDP?
6. Suggest how the discrepancy between output can be calculated by the expenditure approach.
7. ‘The national income over the past five decades has shown erratic growth’. Discuss the
statement.
8. The national income growth rate fluctuates with fluctuations in agriculture. Give your
opinion.
9. Discuss the three methods of national income measurement with a hypothetical example.
10. Explain the circular flow of income in two, three and four sector economy.
1. (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) False
(e) False
2. (a) Central Statistical Organisation (b) identical
(c) market prices (d) final product (e) undistributed profit
(f) market price (g) double counting (h) GDP
(i) outflow and inflow (j) unorganized
H.L. Ahuja, Macroeconomics Theory and Policy, S. Chand Publication.
Online links http://www.tradechakra.com/indian-economy/national-income.html
http://www.economywatch.com/world-country/national-income.html
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-circular-flow-of-income.htm
http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/macroeconomy/circular_flow.htm

Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road (NH-1)
Phagwara, Punjab (India)-144411
For Enquiry: +91-1824-521360
Fax.: +91-1824-506111
Email: odl@lpu.co.in
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

DECO405_MANAGERIAL_ECONOMICS_ENGLISH.pdf

More Related Content

Similar to DECO405_MANAGERIAL_ECONOMICS_ENGLISH.pdf (20)

More from Peter Banda (8)

Recently uploaded (20)

DECO405_MANAGERIAL_ECONOMICS_ENGLISH.pdf