Dental management of renal disease

DENTAL MANAGEMENT OF RENAL DISEASE INTRODUCTION Diseases of the kidney are a major cause of morbidity & mortality. Kidneys are vital organ for maintaining homeostasis. Diseases of the kidneys can be classified into the following diseases or stages. Disorders of hydrogen ion concentration & electrolytes. Acute renal failure. Chronic renal failure. End stage renal failure or uremic syndrome. ORAL MANIFESTATIONS. With impaired renal function, a decreased GFR, and the accumulation & retention of various products of renal failure, the oral cavity may show a variety of changes as the body progress through an azotemic to a uremic state. Some of the presenting signs were ammonia like taste & smell, stomatitis, gingivitis, decreased salivary flow, xerostomia & parotitis. As renal failure develops, one of the early symptoms may be a bad taste and odor in the mouth, particularly in the morning. This uremic fetor, an ammoniac odor, is typical of any uremic patient & is caused by the high concentration of urea in the saliva & its subsequent breakdown to ammonia. Salivary urea levels correlate well with the BUN levels, but no fixed linear relationship exists. Acute rise in BUN level may result in uremic stomatitis, which may appear as an erythemopultaceous form characterized by red mucosa covered with a thick exudates and a pseudo membrane or as an ulcerative form characterized by frank ulcerations with redness & a pultaceous coat. In all cases, intra oral changes appear when BUN levels > 150 mg/dl & disappear spontaneously when medical treatment results in lowers BUN level. White plaques called “uremic frost “ & occasionally found on the skin can be found intra orally, although rarely.(thus uremic frost results from residual urea crystals left on the epithelial surfaces after perspiration evaporates or as a result of decreased salivary flow. Xerostomia is a common finding. Caused by a combination of direct involvement of the salivary glands, chemical inflammation, dehydration & mouth breathing (kussmauls respiration). Increased salivary urea nitrogen, particularly in children is a low cares activity. Other manifestations are related to RO or secondary HPTH. The classic signs of RO in the mandible & maxilla are bone demineralization, loss of trabeculation, ground-glass appearance, total or partial loss of lamina dura, giant cell lesions or brown tumors, and metastatic calcifications. These changes appear most frequently in the mandibular molar region superior to mandibular canal. The rarefaction in the mandible and maxilla is secondary to generalized osteoporosis. The fine trabeculae disappear later, leaving a coarser pattern. Small lytic lesions that histologically prove to be giant cell or brown tumors may occur. The compact bone of the jaws may become thinned & eventually disappear. This may be evident as loss of the lower border of the mandible, the cortical margins of the inferior dental canal & floor of the antrum, & laminadura. Spontaneous & pathologic fractures may occur with the thinning of these areas of compact bone & may complicate dental extractions. Although the skeleton may undergo decalcification, fully developed teeth are not directly affected; however in the presence of significant skeletal decalcification, the teeth will appear more radioopaque.The loss of lamina dura is neither pathognomonic for nor a consistent sign of HPTH. The radiolucent lesions of HPTH are called “brown tumors” because they contain areas of old hemorrhage and appear brown on clinical, inspection. As these tumors increase in size, the resultant expansion may involve the cortex. Although the tumor rarely breaks through the periosteum, gingival swelling may occur. The brown tumor lesion contains an abundance of multinucleated giant cells, fibroblasts and haemosiderin. This histologic appearance is also consistence with giant cell tumor & giant cell reparative granuloma. Associated bone changes consist of generalized osteitis fibrosa, with patches of osteoclastic resorption on all bone surfaces. This is replaced by a vascular connective tissue that represents an abortive formation of coarse-fibered woven bone. Other clinical manifestations of RO: tooth mobility, malocclusion, & metastatic soft tissue calcifications. Increasing mobility & drifting of teeth with no apparent pathologic periodontal pocket formation may be seen. Periapical radiolucencies & root resorption also may be associated with this gradual loosening of dention. The teeth may be painful to percussion & mastication, and positive thermal & electric pulp test responses often will be elicited. Splinting is a useful adjunct to prevent pain & further drifting, & the splint should be maintained until adequate treatment of the HPTH results in bone demineralization & collapse of the temporomandibular & paratemporomandibular bones may also produce a malocclusion. Metastatic calcification can occur particularly when the calcium –phosphate multiplication sign (ca x p) is >70.normal (ca x p) is 35. A rise in the ca x p ion product in the extracellular fluid may cause metastatic calcifications because of the precipitation of calcium-phosphate crystals into the soft tissues, skeletal & cardiac muscle, & blood vessels. This also may occur in the oral & associated perioral soft tissues. These calcifications are often visible radiographically. Abnormal bone repair after extraction, termed “socket sclerosis” & radiographically characterized by a lack of lamina dura resorption & by the resorption of sclerotic bone in the confines of the lamina dura, has been reported in patients with renal failure, although it is not unique to them. Enamel hypoplasia is frequently seen in patients whose renal disease started at a young age. The location of hypoplastic enamel on the permanent teeth corresponds to the age of onset of advanced renal failure. Prolonged corticosteroid administration also may contribute to this deficiency. Another frequent dental finding is pulpal narrowing and calcifications. In some patients who are on dialysis severe tooth erosion as a result of the nausea and extensive vomiting as a result of the nausea& vomiting that often follows dialysis treatment may be seen. Because of the platelet changes with renal disease itself & with dialysis therapy, gingival bleeding may be a common patient complaint. MANAGEMENT Excessive bleeding & anemia are the two major hematological conditions that most commonly affect patients with uremia & renal failure. Bleeding tendencies in these patients are attributed to a combination of qualitative and quantitative platelet defects, increased prostacyclin activity, intrinsic coagulation defects, & capillary fragility. This hemorrhagic tendency can be magnified in the presence of uremia. Ulcerations & purpural or petechial lesions may be noted throughout the oral mucosa. Bruising after trauma is common, & hematoma formation should be expected after alveolectomy or periodontal surgery. Adjunctive haemostatic measures should be considered for patients who are at risk. DDAVP(1-deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin), the synthetic analogue of vasopressin has been used for short term management. The effects of conjugated estrogen, used for longer – term homeostasis, commonly last up to 2 weeks, compared with few hours of DDAVP. Tranexamics acid (an antifibrinolytic agent) administered in the form of a mouth rinse or soaked gauze significantly reduces operative & post operative bleeding. Meticulous surgical technique, primary closure & local haemostatic aids such as microfibrillar collagen & oxidized regenerated cellulose should be used as the standards of care. Timing of dental care for the patients who is undergoing dialysis is important. Since dialysis will return hydration serum electrolytes, urea nitrogen & creatinine towards normal levels, arguments have been made for treatment in a dental setting on the day of dialysis treatment. Ideally elective dental procedures, as well as extractions & other surgery, should be done on nondialysis days as early as possible from the next dialysis treatment. At this point the blood is free of uremic toxins & the patient is far enough removed from dialysis to allow sufficient time after surgery for clotting before the next cycle & reheparinization. A platelet count & complete blood count are important guides for the management of bleeding tendencies & anemic conditions. however , since patients are physically & emotionally exhausted & do not feel well following dialysis treatments, elective dental procedures should be scheduled on non dialysis days, when patients are more likely to tolerate care. Apart from serving as a potential site for infection, the AV site should never be jeopardized. The arm with the vascular access should be identified and noted on the patients chart with instructions to avoid both intramuscular and IV injection of medication into this arm, & the access sites should not be used as an injection site. The blood flow through the arm should not be impeded by requiring the patient to assume a cramped position or by using that arm to blood pressure. When the access site is located in the leg, the patient should avoid sitting for long periods. Obstructing venous drainage by compression at the groin or behind the knee, must be avoided, especially because it tends to occur normally when the patient tends is in the sitting position. Such patients should be permitted to walk about a few minutes every hour during a dental procedure. Oral diseases and dental manipulation create bacteremias that may lead to significant morbidity & potential mortality in patients with renal failure who are undergoing hemodialysis. A majority of septicemia infections have been attributed to the vascular access site, but oral diseases such as periodontal disease, pulpal infections & oral ulcerations, along with dental treatment may, provide microorganisms with a convenient portal of entry into the circulatory system. Therefore, every effort should be made to eliminate potential sources of infection. Meticulous oral hygiene, including good care, frequent oral health maintenance, & routine use of antifungal & antimicrobial oral rinses, may reduce the risk of dentally induced infections. Infective endocarditis is a serious concern in hemodialysis patients. Sepsis & bacterial endarteritis occur from the infections at the access site by organisms seeded through punctures. Streptococcus viridians, staphylococcus epidermis, aureus account for majority of the cases. Endocarditis infection is more likely to affect previously abnormal cardiac valves, yet there is a high incidence of endocarditis in hemodialysis patients with no previously demonstrated valvulopathy. A possible explanation may lie in the theory that changes in the fluid volume with uremia & hemodialysis may affect blood flow through the heart & cardiac function, creating mechanical stress on the valves that play a role in the development of infective endocarditis. Prevention of endocarditis, premedication should be routinely used prior to appropriate dental procedures in those patients with a risk of developing endocarditis or a prior history & those with a patent & active vascular access site for dialysis. The choice of antibiotic depends on many variables but is primarily based on the type of microorganisms that have been cultured at the site of manipulation. In patients who were reported to have acquired infective endocarditis after dental treatment, either viridians streptococci or enterococcus species were the causative agents. This indicates a prophylactic regimen of either (1) amoxicillin or clidamycin or (2) a broad spectrum antibiotic such as oral clarithromycin or IV vancomycin given at the time of dialysis in patients with hypersensitivity to penicillin/clidamycin. Because these patients are exposed to a large no of blood transfusions & exchanges & also because of their renal failure related immune dysfunction, they are at a greater risk of hepatotropic viral infections (hepatitis B & C), HIV infection & TB. Many patients with renal disease have viral hepatitis without clinical manifestations. In these patients, the disease tends to run a chronic & persistently active course. Patients undergoing dialysis should be encouraged to undergo periodic testing for hepatitis infectivity. Often, hypertension, post dialysis hypotension, congestive heart failure, & pulmonary hypertension can be seen. The dental practioneers should obtain blood pressures readings at every visit, prior to & during procedures. Avoiding excessive stress in the dental chair is important to minimize intra operative elevations of systolic pressure. The use of sedative premedication should be considered for patients who are to undergo stressful procedures. Hypotension resulting from fluid depletion is a common complication of hemodialysis & occurs in up to 30 % of dialysis sessions. Pharmacotherapeutics are a serious concern for dentists treating patients who have renal disease. Certain drugs are themselves nephrotoxic & should be avoided. Particular medications may be metabolized to acid & nitrogenous waste or may stimulate tissue catabolism. NSAIDS may induce sodium retention, impair the action of diuretics, prevent aldosterone production, affect renal artery perfusion, and cause acidosis. Summary of dental considerations & management of the patient with renal diseases. Before treatment. Determine dialysis schedule & treat on the day after dialysis. Consult with the patients nephrologist for recent lab tests & discussion of antibiotic prophylaxis. Identify arm with vascular access & type; notate in chart & avoid taking blood pressure measurement/injection of medication on this arm. Evaluate patient for hypertention/hypotension. Institute preoperative hemostatic aids (DDAVP, conjugated estrogen) when appropriate Determine underlying cause of renal failure (underlying disease may affect provision of care) Obtain routine annual dental radiograph to establish presence & follow manifestations of renal osteodystrophy. Consider routine serology for HBV, HCV, & HIV antibody. Consider antibiotic prophylaxis when appropriate. Consider sedative premedication for patients with hypertension. During treatment. Perform a thorough history & physical examination for the presence of oral manifestations. Aggressively eliminate potential sources of infection/bacteremia. Use adjunctive haemostatic aids during oral/periodontal surgical procedures. Maintain the patient in the comfortable uncramped position in the dental chair. Allow the patient to walk or stand intermittently during long procedures. After treatment Use post surgical hemostatic agents. Encourage meticulous home care. Institute therapy for xerostomia when appropriate . Consider use of post operative antibiotics for traumatic procedures. Avoid use of respiratorary depressants drugs in the presence of severe anemia. Adjust dosages of post operative medications according to the extent of renal failure. Ensure routine recall maintenance.

Dental management of renal disease

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Dental management of renal disease