Double pointer (pointer to pointer)
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This document discusses double pointers or pointer-to-pointers in C. A double pointer is a pointer that holds the address of another pointer variable. The first pointer stores the address of a variable, while the second pointer stores the address of the first pointer. To declare a double pointer in C, an additional asterisk is placed before the pointer variable name, such as int **ptr, which declares a pointer that points to a pointer of type int.
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IO hardwaresangrampatil81 This document provides an overview of IO hardware and how operating systems manage communication with input/output devices. It discusses how device drivers act as interfaces between the OS and different types of hardware. It also describes various techniques for communicating with devices, including using registers, memory-mapped IO, polling, interrupts, DMA, and the roles of controllers. Interrupts allow asynchronous notification to the CPU when devices need attention. DMA offloads data transfers from the CPU. Effective management of IO is important for system performance.
File system structure
File system structuresangrampatil81 The document discusses the structure of file systems. It explains that a file system provides mechanisms for storing and accessing files and data. It uses a layered approach, with each layer responsible for specific tasks related to file management. The logical file system contains metadata and verifies permissions and paths. It maps logical file blocks to physical disk blocks using a file organization module, which also manages free space. The basic file system then issues I/O commands to access those physical blocks via device drivers, with I/O controls handling interrupts.
File management
File managementsangrampatil81 This document discusses file management concepts including files, file attributes, file operations, file types, file structure, and access methods. Key points include:
- Files represent named collections of related information stored on secondary storage.
- File attributes include name, identifier, type, location, size, protection, and time/date information.
- Basic file operations are creating, writing, reading, repositioning, deleting, and truncating files.
- File types include ordinary files, directory files, and special files which represent devices.
- File structure and access methods like sequential, direct, and indexed access determine how information is organized and retrieved from files.
Disk structure
Disk structuresangrampatil81 The document discusses secondary storage and magnetic disk structure. It provides details on:
- Secondary storage devices like disks, tapes, and drives have non-volatile memory and are slower but cheaper than primary storage like RAM.
- Magnetic disks are divided into platters, tracks, cylinders, and sectors. Read/write heads access data locations specified by head, sector, cylinder addresses.
- Various disk scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, C-SCAN, and LOOK are described which improve disk bandwidth and access time by processing requests in different orders.
Directory structure
Directory structuresangrampatil81 - Directory structures organize files in a storage system and contain metadata about each file's name, location, size, and type. They allow operations like creating, searching, deleting, listing, and renaming files.
- Early systems used single-level directories with one list of all files, but this does not allow multiple files with the same name or grouping of files.
- Modern systems commonly use tree-structured directories that allow nesting files into subdirectories, making searching more efficient and allowing grouping of similar files. Directories can also be connected in acyclic graphs to enable sharing of files between directories through links.
Directory implementation and allocation methods
Directory implementation and allocation methodssangrampatil81 This document discusses directory implementation and file allocation methods in file systems. It describes two common directory implementation algorithms: linear lists and hash tables. It also outlines three file allocation methods: contiguous allocation, linked allocation, and indexed allocation. Each method is explained along with its advantages and disadvantages.
Page replacement algorithms
Page replacement algorithmssangrampatil81 This document discusses different page replacement algorithms used in operating systems. It begins by explaining the basic concept of page replacement that occurs when memory is full and a page fault happens. It then describes several common page replacement algorithms: FIFO, Optimal, LRU, LRU approximations using reference bits, and Second Chance. The key aspects of each algorithm are summarized, such as FIFO replacing the oldest page, Optimal replacing the page not used for longest time, and LRU approximating this by tracking recently used pages. The document provides an overview of page replacement techniques in computer systems.
Methods for handling deadlock
Methods for handling deadlocksangrampatil81 1. There are three methods to handle deadlocks: prevention, avoidance, and detection with recovery.
2. Deadlock prevention ensures that at least one of the necessary conditions for deadlock cannot occur. Deadlock avoidance requires processes to declare maximum resource needs upfront.
3. The Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance technique that dynamically checks the resource allocation state to ensure it remains safe and no circular wait can occur.
Semaphore
Semaphoresangrampatil81 Semaphores provide a solution for mutual exclusion among concurrent processes by using integer variables and operations like wait() and signal(). There are two main types: counting semaphores, which have an unrestricted value domain and are used to coordinate shared resources; and binary semaphores, which are restricted to values of 0 and 1. Semaphores use queues to block processes when resources are unavailable and wakeup processes when resources become available.
Monitors
Monitorssangrampatil81 Monitors provide mutual exclusion and condition synchronization within a defined structure. A monitor contains shared variable declarations and procedures that operate on those variables. Only one process can execute code within a monitor at a time. Condition variables allow additional synchronization, where a process can wait on a condition and another process can signal that condition. This allows processes to synchronize execution without risking problems like deadlocks that can occur with improper use of semaphores.
Classical problems of process synchronization
Classical problems of process synchronizationsangrampatil81 The document discusses three classical problems of process synchronization:
1) The Producer-Consumer problem which is solved using semaphores to control access to a shared buffer between a producer and consumer.
2) The Readers-Writers problem where multiple processes can read a file but only one can write to prevent inconsistencies, solved using semaphores.
3) The Dining Philosophers problem where philosophers share chopsticks, which must be solved to prevent deadlock situations when all philosophers try to eat at once.
System programs
System programssangrampatil81 A virtual machine is a software implementation of a computer that runs programs like an actual physical machine. It shares the physical hardware of the host machine but isolates the guest operating system and applications to avoid impacting other users. Using CPU scheduling and virtual memory techniques, the host operating system can create the illusion for each virtual machine that it has its own dedicated CPU and memory. This allows a single physical machine to run multiple operating systems concurrently while maintaining isolation between them.
System programs
System programssangrampatil81 System programs, also known as system utilities, provide convenient tools for program development and execution. They are categorized into file management, status information, file modification, programming language support, program loading and execution, communication, and application programs. System programs perform functions like creating, deleting and modifying files, displaying system status, supporting programming languages, loading and executing other programs, enabling communication, and providing applications to solve common problems.
Services and system calls
Services and system callssangrampatil81 The open system call opens a file and returns a file descriptor. It takes a file path, access flags, and optional mode as arguments. The library function open() wraps the system call. It returns the file descriptor on success or -1 on error and sets errno. The program then uses the descriptor for read, write, or other file operations.
Operating system structure
Operating system structuresangrampatil81 The document discusses different structures used in operating system design, including simple, layered, microkernel, and modular structures. A simple structure has limited separation of interfaces and layers and is constrained by hardware. A layered structure divides an OS into logical layers with lower layers invoking higher layers, providing modularity but potential inefficiency. A microkernel structure moves most functions to user space with message passing between programs and services, allowing for easier extension and portability but more overhead. A modular structure uses loadable modules like device drivers or file systems to create a flexible, object-oriented kernel.
Operating system deign and implementation
Operating system deign and implementationsangrampatil81 The document discusses operating system design and implementation. It outlines design goals for an operating system including user goals like ease of use and reliability, and system goals which depend on the environment. Implementation is discussed, noting traditionally assembly was used but modern operating systems often use high-level languages like C and C++ due to advantages in development speed, portability and understandability, though assembly is still sometimes used for performance critical routines. Memory management and CPU scheduling are highlighted as important parts of implementation.
Pointer to array and structure
Pointer to array and structuresangrampatil81 Pointer to array and pointer to structure . how to access elements of array and structure using pointer
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- 2. Double Pointer pointer holds the address of another variable of same type. When a pointer holds the address of another pointer then such type of pointer is known as pointer-to-pointer or double pointer. The first pointer is used to store the address of the variable. And the second pointer is used to store the address of the first pointer. That is why they are also known as double pointers.
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