Edible Oil and Fat Consumption Patterns Among Turkish Consumers-A Case Study of Manisa city_Crimson Publishers

Edible Oil and Fat Consumption Patterns Among
Turkish Consumers-A Case Study of Manisa city
Zeynep Aksoylu Özbek, Kıvılcım Çelik, Pelin Günç Ergönül*
Manisa Celal Bayar University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Food Engineering,
Yunusemre, Manisa, Turkey
Introduction
Proteins, carbohydrates and fats play important roles in a balanced diet. Among these
three essential nutrients, the highest energy is provided by fats. Today, especially in developed
countries, consumers willing to pay attention to their health also change their eating habits. In
this context, edible OİL and fat choices have been influenced by healthy diet trend. However,
this change highly depends on cultural habits of consumers.
Fats and oils are among our indispensable food sources in terms of their ability to carry fat-
soluble vitamins. Moreover, they contain some essential molecules that cannot be synthesized
in the human body [1,2]. Fats have great importance in human nutrition as an energy source.
As a comparison, 9.3 calorie are produced as a result of 1 gram of fat, whereas 1 gram of
protein gives 4 calories, and 1 gram of carbohydrate give 4.5 calories to human body [2-4].
In addition to meeting the energy needs, fats contribute to many physiological and
biological functions in the body [5]. Fat-soluble vitamins are responsible for many biological
functions in the body as well as they act as structural material of all cells and organs [2].
Fats and oils are essential components of foods. It creates the desired texture and flavor in
addition to the fullness of the products [6,7]. Additionally, they create the feeling of satiety in
humans [8]. They serve as insulators in maintaining body temperature [6]. Oils are located
among the protein layers in cell membrane and act as filter for the substances to be taken by
a cell [8]. Furthermore, they and/or their products are used for non-food applications [2,4].
They are essential to transfer heat in food processes [2].
In a regular diet, 25-30% of the total daily energy requirement should be provided by
fats [4,9]. However, energy obtained from oils should not exceed 35% of the total energy,
while it should not be less than 20%. Excess fat is stored in the human body and might cause
cardiovascular diseases. Another issue to be considered in daily oil consumption is the
saturation degree of the oil. The American Heart Association [10] recommends that 1/3 of
your daily need be made from saturated (i.e. butter, margarine), 1/3 of unsaturated (i.e. olive
oil), 1/3 of polyunsaturated (i.e. sunflower, corn, soybean oil) fatty acids.
A person who weighs an average of 70kg needs at least 1700kcal every day. When it is
accepted that 35% of the daily energy need, which is 1700kcal according to healthy nutrition
conditions, 595kcal should be provided by oils and fats [4]. According to regular nutrition
Crimson Publishers
Wings to the Research
Research Article
*Corresponding author: Pelin Günç
Ergönül, Department of Food Engineering,
Turkey
Submission: June 24, 2020
Published: September 16 2020
Volume 5 - Issue 1
How to cite this article: Zeynep Aksoylu
Özbek, Kıvılcım Çelik, Pelin Günç Ergönül.
Edible Oil and Fat Consumption Patterns
Among Turkish Consumers-A Case Study
of Manisa city. Nov Tech Nutri Food Sci.
5(1). NTNF. 000605. 2020.
DOI: 10.31031/NTNF.2020.05.000605
Copyright@ Pelin Günç Ergönül. This
article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License, which permits
unrestricted use and redistribution
provided that the original author and
source are credited.
ISSN: 2640-9208
Novel Techniques in Nutrition and Food Science
Abstract
The aim of this study is to identify the edible oils and fat consumption habits of Turkish consumers. A
questionnaire to evaluate the attitude of consumers toward various edible oils and fats was administered
to 300 individuals in Manisa central districts. Olive and sunflower oils were reported to be consumed
daily, while hazelnut and corn oils were not preferred. “Brand” (35%) was the primary influencer of
edible oil purchasing decision of Turkish consumers. On the other hand, the most important criterion in
the oil consumption of the respondents was “flavor” (41%). The present study also showed that Turkish
consumers have positive attitudes towards olive oil and other vegetable oils.
Keywords: Consumer; Consumption; Turkey; Fat; Manisa; Oil; Questionnaire
413

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Nov Tech Nutri Food Sci Copyright © Pelin Günç Ergönül
NTNF.000605. 5(1).2020
rules, liquid foods contribute to 1/3 of the daily fat intake, while
solid fat consumed at breakfast contribute to 1/3, and other foods
including cheese, milk, and nuts contribute to 1/3 of the daily
fat intake [3]. An adult need to consume 24kg of fat per year for
balanced nutrition [11]. According to 2016 data, including olive
oil, in Turkey 966 thousand tons of vegetable oil are produced.
The amount of vegetable oil per person was determined as 21.9kg
[3,12]. However, per capita vegetable oil consumption is 19kg in
Turkey [11]. On the other hand, vegetable oil consumption per
person is 15kg in India, 26kg in China, 57kg in the USA and 60kg
in EU countries [3]. Compared to developed countries, per capita
consumption of vegetable oil in Turkey seems to be lower.
Fats used in human nutrition are classified in various ways.
Edible oils are divided into two main classes, animal and vegetable
oils. Of these, oils of animal origin, fats obtained from bovine and
ovine animals and their milk and various fish. Vegetable oils are
obtained from seeds and fruits of plants. Vegetable oils are divided
into two groups as fats and oils. Solid vegetable oils are generally
grown in tropical regions and are obtained from the fruits of cocoa,
coconut and palm plants. These vegetable oils are solid at room
temperature and rich in saturated fatty acids. Fats produced by
hydrogenation of vegetable oils and margarines containing water
or milk in emulsion are also included in this group [4,13]. On the
other hand, liquid vegetable oils are mostly obtained from seeds
such as sunflower, soybean, canola and cotton, and 97-99% of the
compositions of these vegetable oils consist of triglycerides [14].
Products rich in olive oil in the Mediterranean region, rapeseed
in Europe, sesame oil in India and soybean oil in China have been
extensively used. Today, 80% of the world’s edible oils and fat
production is made from vegetable oils, and soybean oil is the most
widely used oil [6]. In Turkey, sunflower, corn, peanut, soybean,
cotton, canola and palm oil as well as butter, margarine and olive oil
are frequently consumed [4,5,11].
So far, many studies have been conducted on the determination
of the consumption habits of edible vegetable oil, olive oil and
animal fats, and their effects on health and purchasing attitudes
[11,15-36]. However, no study has been carried out to determine
consumption patterns of edible oils and fats among individuals
living in Manisa. Therefore, it was aimed
(a) to reveal the edible oil and fat buying behaviors of
consumers with different income groups living in Manisa
province,
(b) to determine the main factors that dominate the edible oil
preferences.
Material and Method
In this study, the questionnaire was applied to randomly
selected 300 volunteer individuals, 150 of whom were women
and 150 men, in the central districts of Manisa in 2014. Manisa is
the one of the major cities of Aegean Region and Turkey with its
booming economy and growing population. Manisa has two central
districts, namely Şehzadeler and Yunusemre. Their populations
were 166,443 and 204,436, respectively in 2014 [37]. The size of
sample was estimated using population proportion through simple
random sampling as follows:
Here,
N = the actual size of the target population (total of 370.879)
P = estimated proportion of the population (0.5)
σp = desired varience of the population (confidence interval
of the 95% and error margin of 0.075, 1.96 σp = 0.0075, σp =
0.038265) (Newbold et al., 2013)
A sample of 171 observations is needed. However, the
questionnaire was administered to 300 participants to ensure the
reliability of the study. The questionnaire was conducted using
face-to-face interview technique. The questionnaire was divided
into two parts. In the first part, 6 questions about demographic
characteristics and the second part 18 questions about fat
and oil consumption habits were asked to the consumers. The
questionnaire took approximately 15 minutes to complete. Data
were evaluated using simple statistical methods in Excel.
Results and Discussion
Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants
The sociodemographic characteristics of 300 people living in
Manisa city center are given in Table 1. Individuals from different
age groups, education levels, income levels and occupational
status were included in the survey. The number of male and female
participants were chosen equally (50% female and 50% male).
Age distribution ratios of the participants were very similar. It was
found that 57% of the respondents were married and 51% of them
were the consumers who have university and college education.
Table 1: Separated in two pages. Please combine in one page
Characteristic n Frequency (%)
Gender
Female 150 50
Male 150 50
Age (Years)
18-30 102 34
30-45 99 33
45-60 99 33

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NTNF.000605. 5(1).2020
Education
Elementary School 63 21
High School 66 22
Undergraduate 153 51
Graduate 18 6
Marital Status
Single 99 33
Married 171 57
Divorced or widowed 30 10
Occupation
Full-time labourer and employee 111 37
Student 108 36
Unemployed 36 12
Retiree 21 7
Housewife 21 7
Part-time labourer 3 1
Monthly household income (Turkish Lira)
<500 3 1
500-1000 48 16
1000-1500 21 7
1500-2000 48 16
2000-2500 51 17
2500-3000 45 15
>3000 84 28
Consumption patterns of edible oils and fats among Turkish consumers
Figure 1: Most important criteria for edible oils and fats purchasing decisions of the participants.
Important criteria which influenced the edible oil or fat
purchasing decision of consumers are illustrated in Figure 1.
“Brand” was the most significant factor for Turkish consumers
(35%,n=105).Similarresultswerepreviouslyreportedfordifferent
cities of Turkey. According to the findings of a survey carried out
in Samsun city (in Black Sea region), health was reported as the
most important factor in oil consumption for the participants and
followed by brand and taste [11]. Another study revealed that the
most important reason for the oil preference of the individuals
living in Ordu city (in Black Sea region) was health [33]. On the

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other hand, the participants from Dikili district of Izmir reported
that the least important criterion in oil consumption was packaging
[15]. Similarly, as a result of a study performed in Dehradun city,
consumersreportedthatthecriticalcriterioninoilconsumptionwas
brand [28]. In a survey dealing with edible oil consumption habits
and perception of Ghana individuals, consumers selected the type
of meal as the most influential decision driver for unrefined oil and
nutritional value for refined oil [24]. Contrary to our results, survey
studies carried out in Spain, USA, Italy and Northern California
showed that price was the most important factor affecting the olive
oil purchasing decision of the consumers [18,21,31,32]. The most
surprising output of this question in our survey is oil prices (20%,
n=60) which was considered more important than nutritiousness
(8%, n=24) by the consumers living in Manisa.
Table 2 summarized the frequent use of surveyed oils and fats
in soups and vegetables (Question 1), fries (Question 2), pastry &
pastries (Question 3) and salads (Question 4). As can be seen in
Table 2, sunflower and olive oils were the most commonly used
oils in vegetables and soups, while sunflower and corn oils were
generallyusedforfrying.Besides,margarineandbutterweremostly
chosen for pastry and pastry products, whereas Turkish consumers
preferred to use sunflower and olive oils in salads. Our results are
in accordance with the findings of [19], who reported that olive oil
was generally used for cooking (59%, n=236) and salads (39%,
n=156) in Gölbaşı district of Ankara (capital of Turkey). In another
study conducted with 650 female participants in Gölbaşı district of
Ankara,margarine(83.70%,n=544),sunfloweroil(80.30%,n=522)
and butter (58%, n=377) were found to be used mainly for cooking
[38]. Consumers living in another Aegean region city, namely Aydın,
stated that olive oil was consumed in hot meals (60.75%, n=113),
breakfast (17.74%, n=33) and salads (4.84%, n=9) [34].
Table 2: Frequency and purposes of using edible oils and
fats.
Type of
Edible Oils
and Fats
Number of Participants (n)
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Margarine 127 8 228 1
Butter 55 13 136 4
Sunflower
oil
196 174 84 194
Olive oil 201 52 30 256
Corn oil 41 125 14 65
Tail oil 0 0 0 0
Fish oil 0 0 0 0
Soybean oil 0 0 0 2
Hazelnut oil 2 2 4 0
In a study conducted in Samsun, sunflower oil was reported to
be consumed in meals (89.19%, n=535), while olive oil in salads
(84.62%, n=508) [11]. A recent study carried out in Muğla city (in
Aegean region) revealed that olive oil was usually used in salads
(95.40%, n=397) and cold vegetable dishes (92.50%, n=385) [29].
On the other hand, consumers living in Tekirdağ (Thrace Region)
used olive oil as cooking (44.86%, n=83) and salad oil (43.8%,
n=81) [35]. As can be understood from the findings of similar
studies explained above, edible oil preferences are generally
different in various regions of Turkey due to cultural differences.
Due to the abundance of olive oil production in Aegean region
of Turkey, the respondents living in different cities of this region
prefer to consume olive oil commonly in their diet. Similarly, to
studies in Turkey, a survey study carried out in the USA showed
that olive oil was usually used for cooking [32]. In a survey dealing
with edible oil consumption and preference of Ghana individuals,
participants reported that both refine, and unrefined oils were
used for cooking, frying, grill and in soups [24]. It is clear that the
consumers’ perceptions of oil selection can be influenced by their
habits and cultures.
Edible oil and fat storage preferences of consumers are given in
Table 3. More than half of the respondents (57%, n=171) stated that
they stored oil in a dark and cool place, while some (38%, n=114)
reported that they left it at room temperature in their kitchens. The
majority of the respondents (96%, n=288) reported that they kept
their fat in refrigerator conditions. Fats like margarine and butter
should be stored under refrigerator conditions. Oils should be
stored in dark and cool places, as pro-oxidants such as temperature,
light and oxygen accelerate the oil oxidation reactions [2,39]. The
findings of the present study showed that most of the participants
living in Manisa kept the edible oils and fat under proper storage
conditions.
Table 3: Storage conditions of edible oils and fats.
Storage Conditions Edible Oil Edible Fat
Refrigerator 5% 96%
Dark and cool place 57% 2%
In the kitchen at room
temperature
38% 2%
Reusing or reheating of frying oils is an ordinary method but is
not advisable in terms of health effects. As can be seen in Figure 2,
most of the participants (57%, n=171) agreed with the statement
“I change the frying oil after every use”. However, some of the
participants (21%, n=36) reused the frying oil until it becomes
darker. In summary, these findings indicate that Turkish consumers
are aware of the health risks related with the reusing of frying oils
multiple times. Therefore, they replace the oil very often for frying
purposes. The most important criterion for oil consumption of
Turkish consumers was flavor (41%, n=123). This was followed by
cooking (37%, n=111), health (14%, n=42) and habit (8%, n=24).
Our results are not in accordance with the findings of [11,33], who
reported being healthful as the most significant determinant for
edible oil and fat consumption for Turkish consumers living in
Samsun and Ordu cities, respectively.

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Figure 2: Reusing frequency of frying oils.
In the present study, we examined when butter and olive oil
were mainly consumed. Participants reported that they consumed
butter mostly at breakfast (66%, n=198), and olive oil mostly
for cooking (91%, n=273). Our results are in accordance with
the findings of [19], who stated that olive oil was generally used
in cooking (59%, n=236) in Gölbaşı district of Ankara. Similarly,
consumers living in cities of Aydın (60.75%, n=113) and Tekirdağ
(44.86%, n=83) preferred to use the olive oil for cooking, while it
was generally used as salad oil by consumers in Muğla city (95.4%,
n=397) [29,34,35]. Contrary to our results, according to the results
of another study conducted in Gölbaşı district of Ankara, butter
(58%, n=377) was generally used for cooking [38]. In conclusion,
surveys conducted in Turkey show that olive oil is frequently used
as salad oil and for cooking, whereas butter is generally consumed
in breakfast and used for cooking (Table 4).
Table 4: Consumption of olive oil and butter.
Time of Consumption Butter Olive Oil
Breakfast 66% 9%
Meal 34% 91%
Figure 3: Types of olive oils consumed by the participants.
Olive oil production and consumption in the Aegean region
of Turkey is very common. Most of the consumers surveyed
reported that they preferred natural virgin olive oil (48%, n=144).
In addition, some of the participants (15%, n=45) reported that
type of olive oil was not a key determinant for consumption. The
quality, flavor, smell and aroma of olive oil were not considered as
essential influencers by these consumers. Our findings agreed with
the results of [15,34], who reported that extra virgin olive oil was
the most consumed type of olive oil by consumers living in Dikili
district of Izmir city as well as consumers in Aydın city. However,
unlike consumers from Aegean region, individuals living in Ankara,
the capital found in central Anatolia of Turkey, reported that they
mostly preferred riviera olive oil [19]. Considering the findings of
all these studies, there are differences in olive oil type consumed
between consumers living in various regions of Turkey. Similarly, to
our results, Spanish and Northern California consumers reported

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NTNF.000605. 5(1).2020
that extra virgin olive was most preferred olive oil type [18,21].
Extra virgin olive oil is an essential quality parameter in olive oil for
consumers around the world (Figure 3).
In our study, the place of purchase of the edible oils and fats was
investigated. Turkish consumers living in Manisa city reported that
they bought butter from dairy (64%, n=192), markets (25%, n=75)
or directly from producers (unbranded) (11%, n=33). Additionally,
bowl package (54%, n=162) was the most preferred package for
margarines. Also, participants stated that they preferred brick
margarine (23%, n=69), olive oil added margarine (18%, n=54),
liquid margarine (4%, n=12) and tin-packed margarine (1%, n=3).
Similar results were previously reported for different cities of
Turkey. According to the findings of a survey carried out in Samsun,
consumers reported that they generally bought vegetable oils from
market (86%, n=516) [11]. Other study of [15,34,35], who reported
that the participants usually bought olive oil from market in Dikili
(30%, n=37), Aydın (32,26%, n=60) and Tekirdag (69.2%, n=128)
cities, respectively. Consumers living in Ordu city, stated that the
participants frequently bought hazelnut oil from market (89.99%,
n=245) [33]. Similar to our results and another studies, Ghanaian
consumers purchased the unrefined oils from open markets and
refined oils from supermarket [24]. Another study in Dehradun
city reported that participants bought oils from a local store [28].
Consumers in the US and Northern California indicated that they
bought oils from supermarkets or special (gurme) stores [21,32].
Comparison of edible oil types in terms of price affordability
can be seen in Figure 4. Participants reported that butter (95.33%,
n=286) was the most affordable, followed by olive oil (94%, n=282),
corn oil (96.33%, n=289), and sunflower oil (92.33%, n=277). Olive
oil was considered as more expensive than butter (90.66%, n=272),
sunflower oil (92.33%, n=277), and corn oil (89%, n=267). On the
other hand, consumers stated that butter was more expensive than
sunflower oil (71%, n=213), and corn oil (70.33%, n=211), except
olive oil. They also stated that corn oil was more expensive than
sunflower oil (61.66%, n = 185). Our study showed that margarine
was the cheapest edible oil, while olive oil was the most expensive
edible oil in Manisa city.
Figure 4: Comparison of edible oils and fats in terms of price compatibility.
The comparison of edible oils and fats in terms of taste is
illustrated in Figure 5. Olive oil was more delicious than margarine
(91.66%, n=275), butter (52.33%, n=157), sunflower oil (68%,
n=204), and corn oil (70%, n=210). Participants stated that butter
was more delicious than margarine (95.66%, n=287), sunflower oil
(92.66%, n=278), and corn oil (76.66%, n=230), except olive oil.
In conclusion, olive oil was perceived as the most delicious oil by
consumers living in Manisa.
Figure 5: Comparison of edible oils and fats in terms of taste.
Ranking of importance of edible oils’ properties are shown
in Figure 6. Our results showed that taste (68.33%, n=205),
nutritiousness (52%, n=156), naturalness (73.66, n=221),
boutique production (26%, 33, n=79), purity (37%, n=111),

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NTNF.000605. 5(1).2020
appearance (41.66%, n=125), having an ISO certification (46.66%,
n=140), price (44.66% , n=134), brand (47.33%, n=142), being
organic (35%, n=105), texture-consistency (47.33%, n=142),
and smell-aroma (64%, 33, n=193) were the important criteria
for consumers. Also, the participants stated that the saturation
degree of edible oils was important (35%, n=105). Similarly, being
organic was reported as an important characteristic for olive oil
by Spanish consumers [18]. Furthermore, Italians considered the
sensory characteristics as important influencers for olive oil [31].
In another study conducted in Ghana, participants revealed that the
nutritional value and quality were important properties for refined
oil. Also, consumers reported that price and nutritional value wee
significant properties of unrefined oils [24]. Important properties
in edible oils for consumers living in different regions may vary due
to personal preferences and cultural differences.
Figure 6: Ranking of importance of edible oils’ properties.
Figure 7: Frequency of Consumption of Edible Oil Types.
Figure 7 illustrates the frequency of edible oils and fats
consumption by consumers living in Manisa. According to the
findings of this survey, olive oil (38%, n=114) and sunflower
oil (68.66%, n=206) were the most frequently oils in daily diet.
Participants stated that butter (45.66%, n=137) was used several
times a week and margarine was used once a month (32%, n=96).

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NTNF.000605. 5(1).2020
Besides, hazelnut oil (57.66%, n=173) and corn oil (27.66%, n=83)
were not generally used by the participants. Our findings agreed
with the results of [36] who reported that sunflower oil (48.9%,
n=173) was the most consumed oil in Eskişehir city (in Central
Anatolia Region). Similarly, as a result of a study, consumers stated
that sunflower oil (55%, n=242) and butter (87%, n=383) were
most frequently consumed edible oil and fat, respectively [26].
Our results are not in accordance with the findings of [19,38],
who reported that participants living in Gölbaşı district in Ankara
did not consume olive oil (40%, n=160), while margarine (83.7%,
n=544) was the most frequently consumed fat. On the other
side, participants living in Ordu city generally consumed butter
(71.32%, n=194) and hazelnut oil (61.76%, n=168) [33]. A study
performed in Italy revealed that olive oil was the most consumed
edible oil [31]. In the Mediterranean culture, olive oil dominates
the daily diet. Studies summarized above showed that olive oil is
frequently consumed in the Aegean region of Turkey, where the
Mediterranean-type diet is adopted [40,41]. On the other hand,
a survey study carried out in Ghana showed that palm oil, palm
kernel oil, coconut oil and shea butter were the most consumed
edible oils [24]. Findings of similar studies prove that different
societies have different food intake patterns thanks to their cultural
variations. In addition, [16] reported that economic income was a
key determinant in consumption quantity of edible oils and fats.
This survey study has some limitations. Firstly, the sample size
is not enough to generalize the results of this study to all Aegean
region of Turkey. Secondly, the number of participants from each
sociodemographic group should be balanced to reduce variability.
Conclusion
The criteria that dominate edible oil consumption of consumers
living in Manisa city were determined. In conclusion, the majority
of the participants consumed butter at breakfast (66%, n=198) and
used olive oil for cooking (91%, n=273). Half of the participants
preferred to consume extra natural virgin olive oil. Besides,
margarine was considered as the cheapest and tasteless edible fat,
whereas olive oil was the most expensive and delicious cooking oil.
Furthermore, the majority of the consumers consumed olive oil
and sunflower oil through their regular diet and never consumed
hazelnut and corn oils. Regional differences as they reflect the
habitual and cultural differences in Turkey cause differences in
edible oil consumption habits. Further and detailed survey studies
are needed to understand the roles of cultural differences in food
consumption patterns.
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