Environmental and Social Risks and Solution Criteria in Offshore Aquaculture Systems

Birol BAKİ. Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application www.ijera.com
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 7, Issue 5, ( Part -3) May 2017, pp.114-118
www.ijera.com DOI: 10.9790/9622-070503114118 114 | P a g e
Environmental and Social Risks and Solution Criteria in Offshore
Aquaculture Systems
Birol BAKİ *
, Dilara Kaya ÖZTÜRK**
*
Sinop University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Aquaculture, Sinop,
bbaki@sinop.edu.tr
**
Sinop University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Aquaculture, Sinop,
dilara.kaya55@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Aquaculture is a sector that involves agricultural activities aiming to meet the increasing animal food demand,
contribute to balanced and healthy diet and reduce the hunting pressure on natural fish stocks. In aquaculture
activities in sea, producers who are aware of the major role of obtaining an ecological balance in production
regard coast utilization and environmental management as a part of production. Therefore, determination of
environmental factors in production activities is highly important for sustainable aquaculture. The present
study aims to determine the environmental risks and solution criteria in offshore aquaculture systems in
Turkish seas. Environmental and social risks in production are collected under the main headings comprising
nutrient and waste load in water, feeding, overuse of antibiotics and chemicals, fish escape, diseases, working
conditions and common areas; solution criteria are collected under the main headings comprising ecosystem,
water management, feed properties, legal procedure, chemical use, field management and occupational health
and safety.
Keywords: Offshore, Aquaculture, Environmental Risks, Social Risks, Solution Criteria
I. INTRODUCTION
The disproportionately slow increase in
food sources, in spite of the rapidly increasing world
population is predicted to become a problem. The
factors such as decreasing farm lands, changes in
climate and water conditions and the decreasing
productivity hinder agricultural production. Water
products, as protein sources of animal origin, has an
absolute importance in human nutrition and food
supply. Aquaculture is one of the sectors of
agricultural activities that aims to meet the
increasing animal food demand, contribute to
balanced and healthy diet and reduce the hunting
pressure on natural fish stocks.
In recent years, Turkey has become a
prominent country in Europe with its high yield in
the aquaculture sector, which started in the mid-
1980s and grew very rapidly. Approximately 18% of
the Turkish aquaculture enterprises are made up of
marine enterprises, and sea bream (Sparus aurata)
and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) production
constitute most of the production made in the seas
(91.5%) [1]. Approximately 18.5% of enterprises
(enterprises up to 1000 ton-capacity) and 63.9% of
the total production capacity have to prepare
production impact reports during project preparation
and carry out monitoring activities during the
production period in accordance with Annex-1 of
the Regulation on Environmental Impact
Assessment of the Ministry of Environment and
Urbanization [2].
In aquaculture activities in sea, producers
who are aware of the major role of obtaining an
ecological balance in production regard coast
utilization and environmental management as a part
of production. Therefore, determination of the
natural properties of production areas and their
environmental impacts are highly important for
sustainable aquaculture.
The present study aims to determine the
environmental risks and solution criteria in offshore
aquaculture systems in Turkish seas. Environmental
and social risks in production are collected under the
main headings comprising nutrient and waste load in
water, feeding, overuse of antibiotics and chemicals,
fish escape, diseases, working conditions and
common areas; solution criteria are collected under
the main headings comprising ecosystem, water
management, feed properties, legal procedure,
chemical use, field management and occupational
health and safety.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL and SOCIAL
RISKS
Nutrient and Waste Load in Water
The aquaculture sector faces criticism from
environmentalist groups because of the nutrient and
waste load it releases into the environment.
However, the clean water concept in the sector is not
only necessary for production but also required for
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

its release into the environment and for protection of
the cultured environment. Incorrect feeding
methods, intensive stocking, excessive nitrogen and
phosphorus in the environment cause excessively
increased algae production, decreasing oxygen
amounts and eutrophication [3]. This, in turn,
reduces the oxygen amount required in the
production area and threatens the life in waters.
Phosphorus, nitrogen, organic substances
and suspended solid matters in water are among the
factors causing pollution in fish farms [4]. It was
reported that the eutrophication due to aquaculture
caused certain changes in the water quality of closed
basins and usually caused decrease in light
transmittance and increase in nutrients, electrical
conductivity and chlorophyll-a amounts [5].
Although the amount and quality of the waste waters
of the sector changes depending on the location and
the type of the system, in intensive productions,
30% of the waste water is released into the
environment as unconsumed feed and 30% of the
waste water is released into the environment as feces
[6].
Feeding
Feeds consist of organic and inorganic
substances and water. Aquaculture feeds usually
contain 0.9-1.5% phosphorus and 7-8% nitrogen.
Although nitrogen intake through feeds depends on
the species, it usually is around 20-30% and the
remaining 70-80% is released back into the water.
In fish production, the pollution due to
feeds depends on the physical and chemical
properties of the feeds and the feeding method. The
feeds produced with the extruder technology have
more water resistance and these feeds are more
resistant to disintegration-induced breaking. Thanks
to the technologies used in feed production, feeds at
desired densities can be produced and feed losses
are prevented by controlling the sinking rate of the
feeds. Applying the vacuum lubrication method
instead of the impregnation method during the
external lubrication process in feed production
reduces oil leakage into the water environments.
Selecting raw materials with higher
digestibility and lower cellulose content in feed
production reduces feces release by increasing feed
digestion. For the feeds used in feed nutrition to
cause less pollution, the required nitrogen-
phosphorus balance must be provided depending on
the fish species and age. In aquaculture, by meeting
the optimum protein and energy requirements of
fish, waste feeds and nutrient losses can be
prevented [7]. Furthermore, eutrophication can be
prevented with polyculture applications (sea fish and
crustaceans) [4].
Overuse of Antibiotics and Chemicals
Most of the chemicals used in aquaculture
are used to control fish diseases, improve the water
quality criteria and decrease biological pollution.
Antifouling chemicals, disinfectants, algicides,
herbicides, pesticides, parasiticides and bactericides
are the main chemicals used in aquaculture. In their
study carried out with antibiotics, Ferreirea et al.
(2007) [8] reported that high oxytetracycline and
florfenicol concentrations inhibited the growth of
Tetraselmic chuii.
In open cage systems, pesticides are used to
avoid sea lice. In some pesticide applications, the
resistance of lice to the drugs increased and their
uses had dropped [9]. Deltamethrin, which is used as
an active agent in drugs used in the control of sea
lice, can remain suspended in the sea column for
weeks. Moreover, these applications are reported to
also cause deaths in non-target species (Pandalus
plantyceros) [10].
Biological pollution is a challenging and
expensive production problem for the aquaculture
sector. Antifoulings are chemicals used to reduce the
biological pollution in aquaculture equipment.
Copper is used as an active agent for most
antifouling chemicals and as well as being highly
harmful to the environment, it is reported to have
toxic effects on non-target species. It was reported
that antifouling substances had negative effects on
oyster growth and reproduction [11]; they damaged
fish gills [12]; they inhibited phytoplankton growth
[13,14]. Moreover, it should also be considered that
antifouling substances accumulate at the sea bottom.
For example, copper was determined in a sediment
collected from a location that was 300 m away from
a salmon farm in Scotland [15].
Fish Escape
Fish can escape from production areas
because of the factors such as human error,
mechanical failures or predator animals. When
cultured species genetic properties of which is
different from the natural stock are bred, as a result
of high growth and low hunting activities, may have
low adaptation to the natural life or, on the contrary,
can become dominant in the natural environment
and hybridize with the natural stock and cause the
emergence of new stocks that have low adaptation to
the ecosystem. The escape of cultured species has
the potential to cause problems such as settling in
the natural environments as invasive species,
commensalism and disease spreading and especially
the deterioration of the gene pool. Kastanevakis et
al. (2013) [16], reported that aquaculture was
responsible for 16.4% of all the invasive sea species
in Europe.

Diseases
The cage systems used in aquaculture
harbor a series of conditions that lead to disease
emergence and development. It is known that the
antibiotics used in the open cage systems for the
prevention of these diseases are released into the
environment through fish feces and remain in water
columns as sediments for long periods. The drugs
used in disease treatment are fed to fish with feeds
but only 1% of these drugs are absorbed by fish. In
their study carried out in Greece, Rigos et al. (2004)
[17] reported that 60-73% of an oxytetracycline-
originated antibiotic fed to seabass was released into
the environment through feces.
Although accurate and adequate use of
medicines for the control of fish diseases has been
reported to have minimal environmental impact, the
number of the studies on the impact of antibiotic use
on marine environment is not sufficient, albeit
studies up to now have reported ecological risks.
Another important issue in fish diseases is that
bacterial diseases are increasing and as well as
causing drug resistance, the resultant drug resistance
also affects human health. Although the studies on
this issue are insufficient, its indirect threat to
human health should not be ignored.
Working Conditions
In the aquaculture sector, poor living and
working conditions of the employees, unfair salary,
gender discrimination, child employment, limited
access to health and education, occupational health
and safety policies negatively affect production.
Most aquaculture farms are micro-
enterprises and mainly employ individuals between
the ages of 16 and 44. Most of the employers are
men, and women are more actively working in
inner-coast enterprises. In addition to occupational
experience, the employees in this sector are
expected to be literate and have computer skills
[18]. Furthermore, Carneiro (2011) [19] reported
that poor people have been alienated in the
aquaculture sector because of their inability to invest
in the sector.
Burbridge (2001) [20] reported that the
aquaculture sector constituted 25% and 15% of the
local employment in Spain and Finland,
respectively, and their location at rural areas created
their primary employment sources; they also
reported that the biggest negative effect of
aquaculture in these areas was that certain people
had invested the biggest capital during the
establishment of these farms and this may have the
potential to cause inequality in income distribution
and increase.
Common Areas
Aquaculture in seas has sea as a common
denominator, which has many common uses. The
shareholders of seas are tourism, environment,
municipalities, nongovernmental organizations,
fishers, local communities, etc. In the use of this
common denominator, conflicts may rise among
sea-coast-environment users. It is known that there
is a particular conflict with the tourism sector, which
is among the sectors that provide income and
employment, and the aquaculture sector is, together
with local communities and nongovernmental
organizations, fighting against pollution and disease
sources. It is also stated that managers of coastal
settlements are acting in a similar manner and do not
want these production areas in their regions.
III. SOLUTION CRITERIA
Briefly, when the solution recommendations for the
environmental and social risks in offshore
aquaculture are evaluated:
Ecosystem: Cage systems should be installed in
areas determined within the framework of the law.
Marine biodiversity, natural life and ecosystems
functions must be preserved.
Water Management: In water management, the
source must be fully utilized and by considering
production requirements, human use, environmental
requirements and impacts, public health and
regional ecology should be taken into consideration.
Feeds: Producers must provide raw material
traceability/sustainability, and especially all the
effects of raw materials that are alternatives to
fishmeal and fish oil must be known.
Legal Procedure: Fish must be produced in
accordance with national and international laws, and
the enterprise must have all legal rights to the area in
which it operates.
Chemical Use: Antibiotics, pesticides and other
therapeutic drugs should be given and monitored by
acknowledged experts in the field. All drugs must be
used in a way that prevents their adverse effects on
fish, human and environmental health. Alternative
approaches to disease control should be developed.
Field Management: During their period of activity,
the producers should inform the institutions and
organizations about the production activities to
improve transparency and coordination and to
develop the area-based management plans. They
must respect the rights of the local communities and
encourage the contribution of the local communities
and nongovernmental organizations to the area
utilization and take their contribution into
consideration.
Occupational Health and Safety: Public institutions,
nongovernmental organizations and company
employees should keep track of occupational health
and safety protocols. Management must comply

with local labor legislation and fundamental labor
standards of the International Labor Office (ILO).
IV. RESULTS
Sustainable use of water sources in
aquaculture can only be achieved through rational
planning and proper management strategies. For all
sustainable aquaculture products, water at sufficient
amounts and with high quality is needed, regardless
of the differences in aquaculture systems. Nitrogen
and phosphorus fractions, which are the main
potential pollutants specific to aquaculture systems,
enter into the environment either in dissolved form
or particle form. In intensive aquaculture, feed and
feces wastes have some adverse effects on
sediments, whereas particle and dissolved elements
have some adverse effects on water column. The
main changes in water quality are characterized by
the changes in nitrogen and phosphorus
concentrations; the changes in sediment quality
involve the variations in total nitrogen, total
phosphorus, total carbon, organic matters and redox
potential.
There seems to be an increase in certain
problems related to the sector, which has been
developing technologically and productively in
recent years. The leading problem is the
environmental pressure that aquaculture farming can
create in the receiving environment. However,
choosing an appropriate location and determining
the business capacity based on environmental
carrying capacity during the pre-production project
phase is crucial in reducing the ecological effect and
the risk posed by aquaculture. Within the context of
aquaculture, in receiving environments and
environment interaction, the issue of feed
management is important in terms of reducing the
effect of aquaculture enterprises on the environment.
Feeding type, time and the nutrient content of feeds
are highly important. The amount of pollutants due
to enterprises and the load of nutrients can be
determined by feeding ratios, feed utilization ratios,
nitrogen and phosphorus contents of feeds or
digestibility of feeds.
In conclusion, in order to ensure sustainable
aquaculture-environment-society interaction:
•The future investments should be not only
economic but also ecological.
•Feeds should be produced by considering feed costs
of enterprises, they should be environmentally
friendly and should be produced by considering the
nutrient and energy requirements of the cultured
organism.
•The phosphorus and nitrogen release due to feeds
must be reduced.
•Nutrients with high digestibility should be
preferred in feed rations and appropriate diets
should be applied.
•In the installation of cage production systems,
locations where water course is suitable should be
chosen by considering cage sizes and depths.
•By the long-term planning of the sector,
technologies to regulate the distribution of waste
should be utilized, or attention should be paid to
choose cages that allow rotation or relocation.
•Attention should be paid to stocking intensity and
the waste amount due to stocking should be
calculated.
•Polyculture systems should be improved.
•In aquaculture units, in case of fish deaths due to
diseases, poisonings or a technical problem, these
wastes should be removed by burial after liming or
by incineration.
•By improving aquaculture methods, antibiotic use
to combat diseases should be reduced with
innovative fish health applications.
•In fish diseases, fish vaccination (preventive)
methods should be preferred instead of antibiotics.
•Drug assimilation capacities of enterprises should
be determined by using computer-based models, as
it is the case in fish feeding or the monitoring of
nutrient pollution.
•To reduce the antifouling chemical use, dirty
equipment should be exposed to open-air, they
should be washed with freshwater and the nets
should be cleaned as frequently as possible.
•Since it is almost impossible to find an antifouling
chemical that do not contain copper, the organisms
that create biological pollution should be genetically
studied and new nanotechnologies should be
implemented.
•Aquaculture regulations on fish escapes from
culture environments should be rearranged and by
prioritizing the protection of natural stocks,
environmental impact evaluations should be carried
out.
•To prevent fish escapes from enterprises,
equipment should be secured and the personnel
should receive the necessary training.
•Enterprises must report fish escapes to relevant
authorities.
•Enterprises should use triploid fish as much as
possible to reduce the risk posed to the genetic pool
by fish escapes.
•Aquaculture should be integrated with other sectors
and contribute to a larger community and to other
marine activities.
•The sector should collaborate with the local
community and provide employment.
•The aquaculture sector should provide employment
for women, especially in coastal enterprises, and
contribute to their occupational development.
•Contribution should be made both to the promotion
of the sector and to employment opportunities by
providing full-time and part-time labor opportunities

REFERENCES
[1]. TUİK, 2016. Fishery Statistics 2015. Turkish
Statistical Institute, Ankara, Turkey. tuikapp.
tuik. gov.tr/ medas/ ?kn=97 &locale=tr (Date
accessed: 10.01.2017).
[2]. Anonymous, 2014. Ministry of Environment
and Urbanization, Regulation on
Environmental Impact Assessment. Official
Gazette November 24, 2014 Issue: 29186.
[3]. Jahncke, M.L., Schwarz. H.M., 2002. Public,
Animal And Environmental Aquaculture
Health İssues İn İndustrializaed Countries
(edited by Michael L. Jahncke, E. Spencer
Garrett, Alan Reilly, Roy E. Martin, Emille
Cole) 205 pp.
[4]. Yıldırım, Ö., Korkut, A.Y., 2004. Effect of
aquafeeds on the environment. Ege Journal of
Fisheries and Aquatic Sci., 21 (1: 167-172.
[5]. Rast, W., Holland, M.M., 1988.
Eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs: A
framework for making management
decisions. Ambio, 17(2):12.
[6]. Siddiqui, A.S., 2003. Waste water treatment
technology in aquaculture. World
Aquaculture, 49-51.
[7]. Gelineau, A., Corraze, G., Boujard, T.,
Larroquet L., Kaushık, S., 2001. Relation
Between Dietary Lipid Level And Voluntary
Feed İntake, Growth, Nutrient Gain, Lipid
Deposition And Hepatic Lipogenesis İn
Rainbow Trout, Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 41:487–
503.
[8]. Ferreira, C.S.G., Nunes, B.A., Henriques-
Almeida, J.M. de M., Guilhermino, L., 2007.
Acute toxicity of oxytetracycline and
florfenicol to the microalgae Tetraselmis
chuii and to the crustacean Artemia
parthenogenetica. Ecotoxicology and
Environmental Safety, 67 (3): 452–458.
[9]. Igboeli, O.O., Fast, M. D., Heumannc, J.,
Burkaa J. F., 2012. Role of P-glycoprotein in
emamectin benzoate (SLICE®) resistance in
sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis.
Aquaculture 344–349: 40–47.
Doi:10.1016/j.aquaculture. 2012.03.026.
[10]. Veldhoen, N., Ikonomou, M.G., Buday, C.,
Jordan, J., Rehaume, V., Cabecinha, M.,
Dubetz, C., Chamberlain, J., Pittroff, S.,
Vallée, K., van Aggelen, G., Helbing, C.C.,
2012. Biological effects of the anti-parasitic
chemotherapeutant emamectin benzoate on a
non-target crustacean, the spot prawn
(Pandalus platyceros Brandt, 1851) under
laboratory conditions. Aquatic Toxicology
108: 94–105.
[11]. Munari, C., Mistri, M., 2007. Effect of copper
on the scope for growth of clams (Tapes
philippinarum) from a farming area in the
Northern Adriatic Sea. Marine Environmental
Research 64 (3): 347–357.
[12]. Mochida, K., Ito, K., Harino, H., Kakuno, A.,
Fujii, K., 2006. Acute toxicity of pyrithione
antifouling biocides and joint toxicity with
copper to red sea bream (Pagrus major) and
toy shrimp (Heptacarpus futilirostris).
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 25
(11): 3058–3064.
[13]. Cid, A., Herrero, C., Torres, E., Abalde, J.,
1995. Copper toxicity on the marine
microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum:
effects on photosynthesis and related
parameters. Aquatic Toxicology 31 (2): 165–
174.
[14]. Franklin, N.M., Stauber, J.L., Lim, R.P.,
2001. Development of flow cytometry-based
algal bioassays for assessing toxicity of
copper in natural waters. Environmental
Toxicology and Chemistry 20 (1): 160–170.
[15]. Dean, R.J., Shimmield, T.M., Black, K.D.,
2007. Copper, zinc and cadmium in marine
cage fish farm sediments: an extensive
survey. Environmental Pollution, 145 (1): 84–
95.
[16]. Katsanevakis, S., Zenetos, A., Belchior, C.,
Cardoso, A.C., 2013. Invading European
Seas: Assessing pathways of introduction of
marine aliens. Ocean & Coastal Management
76: 64–74.
[17]. Rigos, G., Nengas, I., Alexis, M., Troisi,
G.M. (2004) Potential drug (oxytetracycline
and oxolinic acid) pollution from
Mediterranean sparid fish farms. Aquatic
Toxicology 69 (3): 281–288.
[18]. Lantra, 2006. Aquaculture Industry
Occupational and Functional Map. (Available
from www.lantra.co.uk).
[19]. Carneiro, G., 2011. Marine management for
human development: a review of two decades
of scholarly evidence. Marine Policy, 35, pp:
351-362.
[20]. Burbridge, P. Hendrick, V, Roth, E. and
Rosenthal, H., 2001. Social and economic
policy issues relevant to marine aquaculture.
J. Appl. Ichthyol. 17, pp: 194-206.

Environmental and Social Risks and Solution Criteria in Offshore Aquaculture Systems

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Similar to Environmental and Social Risks and Solution Criteria in Offshore Aquaculture Systems (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Environmental and Social Risks and Solution Criteria in Offshore Aquaculture Systems