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Essentials of Cloud Computing 1st Edition K.
Chandrasekaran Digital Instant Download
Author(s): K. Chandrasekaran
ISBN(s): 9781482205435, 1482205432
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.67 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english

Essentials of CLOUD
COMPUTING
K. CHANDRASEKARAN

Essentials of CLOUD
COMPUTING
K. Chandrasekaran

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2015 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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v
Contents
Foreword..............................................................................................................xvii
Preface.................................................................................................................... xix
1. Computing Paradigms....................................................................................1
Learning Objectives..........................................................................................1
Preamble.............................................................................................................1
1.1 High-Performance Computing............................................................1
1.2 Parallel Computing................................................................................2
1.3 Distributed Computing.........................................................................3
1.4 Cluster Computing................................................................................3
1.5 Grid Computing.....................................................................................4
1.6 Cloud Computing..................................................................................5
1.7 Biocomputing.........................................................................................5
1.8 Mobile Computing.................................................................................6
1.9 Quantum Computing............................................................................6
1.10 Optical Computing................................................................................7
1.11 Nanocomputing.....................................................................................7
1.12 Network Computing.............................................................................7
1.13 Summary.................................................................................................8
Key Points..........................................................................................................8
Review Questions.............................................................................................8
Further Reading................................................................................................8
2. Cloud Computing Fundamentals.................................................................9
Learning Objectives..........................................................................................9
Preamble.............................................................................................................9
2.1 Motivation for Cloud Computing...................................................... 10
2.1.1 The Need for Cloud Computing.................................................11
2.2 Defining Cloud Computing................................................................12
2.2.1 NIST Definition of Cloud Computing.................................12
2.2.2 Cloud Computing Is a Service..............................................13
2.2.3 Cloud Computing Is a Platform............................................13
2.3 5-4-3 Principles of Cloud computing................................................ 14
2.3.1 Five Essential Characteristics................................................ 14
2.3.2 Four Cloud Deployment Models..........................................15
2.3.3 Three Service Offering Models............................................. 16
2.4 Cloud Ecosystem..................................................................................17
2.5 Requirements for Cloud Services......................................................19
2.6 Cloud Application................................................................................21
2.7 Benefits and Drawbacks......................................................................22

vi Contents
2.8 Summary...............................................................................................24
Review Points..................................................................................................24
Review Questions...........................................................................................25
Reference..........................................................................................................25
Further Reading..............................................................................................26
3. Cloud Computing Architecture and Management.................................27
Learning Objectives........................................................................................27
Preamble...........................................................................................................27
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................28
3.2 Cloud Architecture..............................................................................28
3.2.1 Layer 1 (User/Client Layer)...................................................28
3.2.2 Layer 2 (Network Layer)........................................................29
3.2.3 Layer 3 (Cloud Management Layer).....................................30
3.2.4 Layer 4 (Hardware Resource Layer).....................................30
3.3 Anatomy of the Cloud.........................................................................30
3.4 Network Connectivity in Cloud Computing...................................32
3.4.1 Public Cloud Access Networking.........................................32
3.4.2 Private Cloud Access Networking.......................................32
3.4.3 Intracloud Networking for Public Cloud Services.............32
3.4.4 Private Intracloud Networking.............................................33
3.4.5 New Facets in Private Networks..........................................33
3.4.6 Path for Internet Traffic..........................................................34
3.5 Applications on the Cloud..................................................................34
3.6 Managing the Cloud............................................................................37
3.6.1 Managing the Cloud Infrastructure....................................37
3.6.2 Managing the Cloud Application.........................................39
3.7 Migrating Application to Cloud........................................................40
3.7.1 Phases of Cloud Migration....................................................40
3.7.2 Approaches for Cloud Migration.........................................41
3.8 Summary...............................................................................................41
Review Points..................................................................................................42
References........................................................................................................43
Further Reading..............................................................................................43
4. Cloud Deployment Models.........................................................................45
Preamble...........................................................................................................45
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................46
4.2 Private Cloud........................................................................................47
4.2.1 Characteristics.........................................................................47
4.2.2 Suitability.................................................................................48
4.2.3 On-Premise Private Cloud.....................................................49
4.2.3.1 Issues.........................................................................49

vii
Contents
4.2.4 Outsourced Private Cloud.....................................................51
4.2.4.1 Issues.........................................................................51
4.2.5 Advantages..............................................................................52
4.2.6 Disadvantages.........................................................................52
4.3 Public Cloud..........................................................................................53
4.3.2 Suitability.................................................................................54
4.3.3 Issues........................................................................................54
4.3.4 Advantages..............................................................................56
4.3.5 Disadvantages.........................................................................56
4.4 Community Cloud...............................................................................56
4.4.2 Suitability.................................................................................58
4.4.3 On-Premise Community Cloud............................................58
4.4.3.1 Issues.........................................................................58
4.4.4 Outsourced Community Cloud............................................59
4.4.4.1 Issues.........................................................................60
4.4.5 Advantages..............................................................................60
4.4.6 Disadvantages......................................................................... 61
4.5 Hybrid Cloud........................................................................................ 61
4.5.2 Suitability.................................................................................62
4.5.3 Issues........................................................................................62
4.5.4 Advantages..............................................................................63
4.5.5 Disadvantages.........................................................................64
4.6 Summary...............................................................................................64
Review Points..................................................................................................64
References........................................................................................................65
5. Cloud Service Models...................................................................................67
Preamble...........................................................................................................67
5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................68
5.2 Infrastructure as a Service..................................................................71
5.2.1 Characteristics of IaaS............................................................72
5.2.2 Suitability of IaaS....................................................................73
5.2.3 Pros and Cons of IaaS............................................................. 74
5.2.4 Summary of IaaS Providers...................................................75
5.3 Platform as a Service...........................................................................77
5.3.1 Characteristics of PaaS...........................................................79
5.3.2 Suitability of PaaS...................................................................80
5.3.3 Pros and Cons of PaaS............................................................81
5.3.4 Summary of PaaS Providers..................................................83

viii Contents
5.4 Software as a Service...........................................................................83
5.4.1 Characteristics of SaaS...........................................................86
5.4.2 Suitability of SaaS...................................................................87
5.4.3 Pros and Cons of SaaS............................................................88
5.4.4 Summary of SaaS Providers..................................................90
5.5 Other Cloud Service Models..............................................................90
5.6 Summary...............................................................................................93
Review Points..................................................................................................94
Further Reading..............................................................................................95
6. Technological Drivers for Cloud Computing..........................................97
Preamble...........................................................................................................97
6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................98
6.2 SOA and Cloud.....................................................................................98
6.2.1 SOA and SOC..........................................................................99
6.2.2 Benefits of SOA......................................................................100
6.2.3 Technologies Used by SOA.................................................. 101
6.2.4 Similarities and Differences between SOA and
Cloud Computing................................................................. 101
6.2.4.1 Similarities............................................................. 102
6.2.4.2 Differences............................................................. 102
6.2.5 How SOA Meets Cloud Computing................................... 103
6.2.6 CCOA......................................................................................104
6.3 Virtualization.....................................................................................105
6.3.1 Approaches in Virtualization............................................. 106
6.3.1.1 Full Virtualization................................................. 106
6.3.1.2 Paravirtualization................................................. 106
6.3.1.3 Hardware-Assisted Virtualization..................... 107
6.3.2 Hypervisor and Its Role....................................................... 107
6.3.3 Types of Virtualization........................................................108
6.3.3.1 OS Virtualization.................................................. 108
6.3.3.2 Server Virtualization............................................108
6.3.3.3 Memory Virtualization........................................108
6.3.3.4 Storage Virtualization...........................................108
6.3.3.5 Network Virtualization........................................ 109
6.3.3.6 Application Virtualization................................... 109
6.4 Multicore Technology........................................................................ 109
6.4.1 Multicore Processors and VM Scalability......................... 110
6.4.2 Multicore Technology and the Parallelism in Cloud....... 110
6.4.3 Case Study............................................................................. 110
6.5 Memory and Storage Technologies................................................. 111
6.5.1 Cloud Storage Requirements............................................... 111

ix
Contents
6.5.2 Virtualization Support......................................................... 111
6.5.3 Storage as a Service (STaaS)................................................. 112
6.5.4 Emerging Trends and Technologies in Cloud Storage.......112
6.6 Networking Technologies................................................................. 113
6.6.1 Network Requirements for Cloud...................................... 113
6.6.2 Virtualization Support......................................................... 114
6.6.3 Usage of Virtual Networks.................................................. 115
6.6.4 DCs and VPLS....................................................................... 115
6.6.5 SDN......................................................................................... 115
6.6.6 MPLS....................................................................................... 116
6.6.7 Other Emerging Networking Trends and
Technologies in Cloud.......................................................... 116
6.7 Web 2.0................................................................................................. 117
6.7.1 Characteristics of Web 2.0.................................................... 118
6.7.2 Difference between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0.........................120
6.7.3 Applications of Web 2.0.......................................................120
6.7.3.1 Social Media...........................................................120
6.7.3.2 Marketing...............................................................120
6.7.3.3 Education................................................................ 121
6.7.4 Web 2.0 and Cloud Computing.......................................... 121
6.8 Web 3.0.................................................................................................122
6.8.1 Components of Web 3.0........................................................123
6.8.1.1 Semantic Web.........................................................123
6.8.1.2 Web Services..........................................................124
6.8.2 Characteristics of Web 3.0....................................................124
6.8.3 Convergence of Cloud and Web 3.0...................................125
6.8.4 Case Studies in Cloud and Web 3.0....................................126
6.8.4.1 Connecting Information: Facebook....................126
6.8.4.2 Search Optimization and Web Commerce:
Best Buy..................................................................126
6.8.4.3 Understanding Text: Millward Brown...............127
6.9 Software Process Models for Cloud................................................127
6.9.1 Types of Software Models...................................................127
6.9.1.1 Waterfall Model.....................................................127
6.9.1.2 V Model..................................................................128
6.9.1.3 Incremental Model................................................128
6.9.1.4 RAD Model............................................................128
6.9.1.5 Agile Model............................................................128
6.9.1.6 Iterative Model.......................................................128
6.9.1.7 Spiral Model...........................................................129
6.9.2 Agile SDLC for Cloud Computing.....................................129
6.9.2.1 Features of Cloud SDLC.......................................130
6.9.3 Agile Software Development Process................................130
6.9.4 Advantages of Agile Model................................................. 131

x Contents
6.9.5 How Cloud Meets Agile Process?...................................... 132
6.9.5.1 Six Ways the Cloud Enhances Agile
Software Development......................................... 132
6.9.5.2 Case Study of Agile Development......................133
6.10 Programming Models.......................................................................134
6.10.1 Programming Models in Cloud..........................................135
6.10.1.1 BSP Model..............................................................135
6.10.1.2 MapReduce Model................................................136
6.10.1.3 SAGA....................................................................... 137
6.10.1.4 Transformer............................................................ 137
6.10.1.5 Grid Batch Framework......................................... 139
6.11 Pervasive Computing........................................................................ 139
6.11.1 How Pervasive Computing Works?................................... 140
6.11.2 How Pervasive Computing Helps Cloud
Computing?......................................................................141
6.12 Operating System............................................................................... 142
6.12.1 Types of Operating Systems................................................ 143
6.12.2 Role of OS in Cloud Computing......................................... 144
6.12.3 Features of Cloud OS............................................................ 146
6.12.3.1 Well-Defined and Abstracted Interfaces............ 146
6.12.3.2 Support for Security at the Core......................... 146
6.12.3.3 Managing Virtualized Workloads...................... 147
6.12.3.4 Management of Workloads.................................. 147
6.12.4 Cloud OS Requirements...................................................... 147
6.12.5 Cloud-Based OS.................................................................... 148
6.13 Application Environment................................................................. 149
6.13.1 Need for Effective ADE........................................................ 149
6.13.2 Application Development Methodologies........................150
6.13.2.1 Distributed Development.....................................150
6.13.2.2 Agile Development...............................................150
6.13.3 Power of Cloud Computing in Application
Development..........................................................................150
6.13.3.1 Disadvantages of Desktop Development........... 151
6.13.3.2 Advantages of Application Development
in the Cloud............................................................ 152
6.13.4 Cloud Application Development Platforms...................... 152
6.13.4.1 Windows Azure.....................................................153
6.13.4.2 Google App Engine...............................................153
6.13.4.3 Force.com................................................................153
6.13.4.4 Manjrasoft Aneka..................................................154
6.13.5 Cloud Computing APIs........................................................154
6.13.5.1 Rackspace...............................................................154
6.13.5.2 IBM..........................................................................154
6.13.5.3 Intel..........................................................................154

xi
Contents
6.14 Summary.............................................................................................155
Review Points................................................................................................155
Review Questions.........................................................................................156
References...................................................................................................... 157
Further Reading............................................................................................ 160
7. Virtualization............................................................................................... 161
Learning Objectives...................................................................................... 161
Preamble......................................................................................................... 161
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 162
7.2 Virtualization Opportunities........................................................... 164
7.2.1 Processor Virtualization......................................................164
7.2.2 Memory Virtualization........................................................ 165
7.2.3 Storage Virtualization.......................................................... 165
7.2.4 Network Virtualization........................................................ 166
7.2.5 Data Virtualization............................................................... 167
7.2.6 Application Virtualization................................................... 169
7.3 Approaches to Virtualization........................................................... 169
7.3.1 Full Virtualization................................................................ 170
7.3.2 Paravirtualization.................................................................172
7.3.3 Hardware-Assisted Virtualization.....................................173
7.4 Hypervisors........................................................................................ 174
7.4.1 Types of Hypervisors...........................................................175
7.4.2 Security Issues and Recommendations.............................177
7.5 From Virtualization to Cloud Computing..................................... 179
7.5.1 IaaS.......................................................................................... 180
7.5.2 PaaS......................................................................................... 182
7.5.3 SaaS......................................................................................... 182
7.6 Summary.............................................................................................184
Review Points................................................................................................185
Review Questions......................................................................................... 186
Further Reading............................................................................................ 187
8. Programming Models for Cloud Computing........................................ 189
Preamble......................................................................................................... 189
8.1 Introduction........................................................................................190
8.2 Extended Programming Models for Cloud................................... 191
8.2.1 MapReduce............................................................................ 191
8.2.1.1 Map Function......................................................... 192
8.2.1.2 Reduce Function.................................................... 192
8.2.2 CGL-MapReduce................................................................... 193

xii Contents
8.2.3 Cloud Haskell: Functional Programming......................... 195
8.2.4 MultiMLton: Functional Programming............................ 197
8.2.5 Erlang: Functional Programming...................................... 197
8.2.5.1 CloudI..................................................................... 198
8.2.6 SORCER: Object-Oriented Programming.........................199
8.2.7 Programming Models in Aneka.........................................202
8.2.7.1 Task Execution Model...........................................202
8.2.7.2 Thread Execution Model......................................203
8.2.7.3 Map Reduce Model...............................................203
8.3 New Programming Models Proposed for Cloud..........................203
8.3.1 Orleans...................................................................................204
8.3.2 BOOM and Bloom.................................................................206
8.3.3 GridBatch...............................................................................207
8.3.4 Simple API for Grid Applications.......................................207
8.4 Summary............................................................................................. 210
Review Points................................................................................................ 210
Review Questions......................................................................................... 211
References...................................................................................................... 212
Further Reading............................................................................................ 213
9. Software Development in Cloud.............................................................. 215
Preamble......................................................................................................... 215
9.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 216
9.1.1 SaaS Is Different from Traditional Software..................... 217
9.1.2 SaaS Benefits.......................................................................... 217
9.1.3 Suitability of SaaS................................................................. 218
9.2 Different Perspectives on SaaS Development................................ 219
9.2.1 SaaS from Managed Infrastructure and Platform........... 219
9.2.2 SaaS from IaaS and Managed Platform.............................220
9.2.3 SaaS from Managed Infrastructure and PaaS..................221
9.2.4 SaaS from IaaS and PaaS......................................................222
9.3 New Challenges.................................................................................224
9.3.1 Multitenancy..........................................................................224
9.3.2 Security...................................................................................224
9.3.3 Scalability...............................................................................225
9.3.4 Availability............................................................................225
9.3.5 Usability.................................................................................225
9.3.6 Self-Service Sign-Up.............................................................226
9.3.7 Automated Billing.................................................................226
9.3.8 Nondisruptive Updates........................................................226
9.3.9 Service Integration................................................................226
9.3.10 Vendor Lock-In......................................................................227

xiii
Contents
9.4 Cloud-Aware Software Development Using PaaS Technology....... 227
9.4.1 Requirements Analysis........................................................230
9.4.2 Multitenant Architecture.....................................................230
9.4.3 Highly Scalable and Available Architecture....................231
9.4.4 Database Design....................................................................233
9.4.5 SaaS Development................................................................234
9.4.6 Monitoring and SLA Maintenance.....................................235
9.5 Summary.............................................................................................236
Review Points................................................................................................236
Further Reading............................................................................................238
10. Networking for Cloud Computing.......................................................... 241
Preamble......................................................................................................... 241
10.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 241
10.2 Overview of Data Center Environment..........................................243
10.2.1 Architecture of Classical Data Centers..............................244
10.2.2 CEDCs....................................................................................245
10.2.3 Physical Organization..........................................................245
10.2.4 Storage and Networking Infrastructure............................246
10.2.5 Cooling Infrastructure......................................................... 247
10.2.6 Nature of Traffic in Data Centers.......................................248
10.3 Networking Issues in Data Centers.................................................249
10.3.1 Availability............................................................................249
10.3.2 Poor Network Performance.................................................250
10.3.3 Security...................................................................................250
10.4 Transport Layer Issues in DCNs......................................................250
10.4.1 TCP Impairments in DCNs.................................................250
10.4.1.1 TCP Incast...............................................................251
10.4.1.2 TCP Outcast...........................................................252
10.4.1.3 Queue Buildup.......................................................254
10.4.1.4 Buffer Pressure......................................................254
10.4.1.5 Pseudocongestion Effect......................................254
10.4.2 Summary: TCP Impairments and Causes.........................255
10.5 TCP Enhancements for DCNs..........................................................255
10.5.1 TCP with Fine-Grained RTO (FG-RTO).............................256
10.5.2 TCP with FG-RTO + Delayed ACKs Disabled..................256
10.5.3 DCTCP....................................................................................257
10.5.3.1 ECN.........................................................................257
10.5.4 ICTCP...................................................................................... 261
10.5.5 IA-TCP....................................................................................262
10.5.6 D2TCP.....................................................................................263
10.5.7 TCP-FITDC.............................................................................263

xiv Contents
10.5.8 TDCTCP.................................................................................264
10.5.9 TCP with Guarantee Important Packets (GIP).................265
10.5.10 PVTCP....................................................................................266
10.5.11 Summary: TCP Enhancements for DCNs.........................266
10.6 Summary.............................................................................................268
Review Points................................................................................................269
References......................................................................................................269
11. Cloud Service Providers.............................................................................273
Learning Objectives......................................................................................273
Preamble.........................................................................................................273
11.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 274
11.2 EMC...................................................................................................... 274
11.2.1 EMC IT.................................................................................... 274
11.2.2 Captiva Cloud Toolkit.......................................................... 276
11.3 Google..................................................................................................277
11.3.1 Cloud Platform......................................................................277
11.3.2 Cloud Storage........................................................................278
11.3.3 Google Cloud Connect.........................................................278
11.3.4 Google Cloud Print...............................................................278
11.3.5 Google App Engine..............................................................279
11.4 Amazon Web Services.......................................................................280
11.4.1 Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud........................................281
11.4.2 Amazon Simple Storage Service.........................................283
11.4.3 Amazon Simple Queue Service..........................................283
11.5 Microsoft.............................................................................................284
11.5.1 Windows Azure....................................................................284
11.5.2 Microsoft Assessment and Planning Toolkit....................285
11.5.3 SharePoint..............................................................................285
11.6 IBM.......................................................................................................285
11.6.1 Cloud Models........................................................................286
11.6.2 IBM SmartCloud...................................................................287
11.7 SAP Labs..............................................................................................289
11.7.1 SAP HANA Cloud Platform................................................289
11.7.2 Virtualization Services Provided by SAP.........................289
11.8 Salesforce.............................................................................................290
11.8.1 Sales Cloud............................................................................290
11.8.2 Service Cloud: Knowledge as a Service.............................290
11.9 Rackspace............................................................................................ 291
11.10 VMware...............................................................................................292
11.11 Manjrasoft...........................................................................................294
11.11.1 Aneka Platform.....................................................................294
11.12 Summary.............................................................................................296
Review Points................................................................................................297

xv
Contents
References......................................................................................................298
Further Reading............................................................................................298
12. Open Source Support for Cloud...............................................................299
Preamble.........................................................................................................299
12.1 Introduction........................................................................................300
12.1.1 Open Source in Cloud Computing: An Overview..........300
12.1.2 Difference between Open Source and Closed Source.....300
12.1.3 Advantages of Having an Open Source............................301
12.2 Open Source Tools for IaaS...............................................................301
12.2.1 OpenNebula..........................................................................302
12.2.2 Eucalyptus.............................................................................303
12.2.3 OpenStack..............................................................................304
12.2.4 Apache CloudStack...............................................................306
12.2.5 Nimbus...................................................................................306
12.2.6 GoGrid Cloud........................................................................307
12.3 Open Source Tools for PaaS..............................................................308
12.3.1 Paasmaker..............................................................................308
12.3.2 Red Hat OpenShift Origin..................................................308
12.3.3 Xen Cloud Platform..............................................................309
12.3.4 Cloudify.................................................................................309
12.4 Open Source Tools for SaaS.............................................................. 310
12.4.1 Apache VCL........................................................................... 310
12.4.2 Google Drive.......................................................................... 311
12.4.3 Google Docs........................................................................... 312
12.4.4 Dropbox.................................................................................. 313
12.5 Open Source Tools for Research...................................................... 314
12.5.1 CloudSim................................................................................ 314
12.5.2 SimMapReduce..................................................................... 314
12.5.3 Cloud Analyst........................................................................ 315
12.5.4 GreenCloud............................................................................ 316
12.6 Distributed Computing Tools for Management of
Distributed Systems........................................................................... 318
12.6.1 Cassandra............................................................................... 318
12.6.2 Hadoop................................................................................... 318
12.6.3 MongoDB...............................................................................320
12.6.4 NGrid......................................................................................320
12.6.5 Ganglia................................................................................... 321
12.7 Summary............................................................................................. 321
Review Points................................................................................................322
References......................................................................................................323
Further Reading............................................................................................ 324

xvi Contents
13. Security in Cloud Computing...................................................................325
Preamble.........................................................................................................325
13.1 Introduction........................................................................................325
13.1.1 Cloud in Information Technology......................................326
13.1.2 Cloud General Challenges...................................................327
13.2 Security Aspects.................................................................................328
13.2.1 Data Security.........................................................................329
13.2.1.1 Data Center Security.............................................330
13.2.1.2 Access Control.......................................................333
13.2.1.3 Encryption and Decryption.................................333
13.2.2 Virtualization Security........................................................334
13.2.3 Network Security..................................................................336
13.3 Platform-Related Security.................................................................337
13.3.1 Security Issues in Cloud Service Models..........................337
13.3.2 Software-as-a-Service Security Issues...............................338
13.3.3 Platform-as-a-Service Security Issues................................340
13.3.4 Infrastructure-as-a-Service Security Issues......................340
13.4 Audit and Compliance......................................................................341
13.4.1 Disaster Recovery.................................................................342
13.4.2 Privacy and Integrity............................................................343
13.5 Summary.............................................................................................344
Review Points................................................................................................344
Further Reading............................................................................................345
14. Advanced Concepts in Cloud Computing..............................................347
Preamble.........................................................................................................347
14.1 Intercloud............................................................................................348
14.2 Cloud Management...........................................................................351
14.3 Mobile Cloud......................................................................................353
14.4 Media Cloud.......................................................................................355
14.5 Interoperability and Standards........................................................357
14.6 Cloud Governance.............................................................................358
14.7 Computational Intelligence in Cloud..............................................360
14.8 Green Cloud........................................................................................ 361
14.9 Cloud Analytics..................................................................................364
14.10 Summary.............................................................................................366
Review Points................................................................................................366
References......................................................................................................368
Further Reading............................................................................................369

xvii
Foreword
Cloud computing is sprawling the IT landscape. Driven by several converg-
ing and complementary factors, cloud computing is advancing as a viable
IT service delivery model at an incredible pace. It has caused a paradigm
shift in how we deliver, use, and harness the variety of IT services it offers.
It also offers several benefits compared to traditional on-premise comput-
ing models, including reduced costs and increased agility and flexibility. Its
transformational potential is huge and impressive, and consequently cloud
computing is being adopted by individual users, businesses, educational
institutions, governments, and community organizations. It helps close the
digital (information) divide. It might even help save our planet by providing
an overall greener computing environment.
Hence, corporations are eagerly investing in promising cloud comput-
ing technologies and services not only in developed economies but also
increasingly in emerging economies—including India, China, Taiwan, the
Philippines, and South Africa—to address a region’s specific needs. Cloud
computing is receiving considerable interest among several
stakeholders—
businesses, the IT industry, application developers, IT administrators
and managers, researchers, and students who aspire to be successful IT
professionals.
To successfully embrace this new computing paradigm, however, they
need to acquire new cloud computing knowledge and skills. In answer to this,
universities have begun to offer new courses on cloud computing. Though
there are several books on cloud computing—from basic books intended for
general readers to advanced compendium for researchers—there are few
books that comprehensively cover a range of cloud computing topics and
are particularly intended as an entry-level textbook for university students.
This book, Essentials of Cloud Computing, fills this void and is a timely and
valuable addition by Professor K. Chandrasekaran, a well-recognized aca-
demic and researcher in cloud computing.
The book, beginning with a brief overview on different computing par-
adigms and potentials of those paradigms, outlines the fundamentals of
cloud computing. Then, it deals with cloud services types, cloud deploy-
ment models, technologies supporting and driving the cloud, software
process models and programming models for cloud, and development of
software application that runs the cloud. It also gives an overview of ser-
vices available from major cloud providers, highlights currently available
open source software and tools for cloud deployment, and discusses secu-
rity concerns and issues in cloud computing. Finally, it outlines advances
in cloud computing such as mobile cloud and green cloud. The book’s
presentation style supports ease of reading and comprehension. Further,

xviii Foreword
each chapter is supplemented with review questions that help the readers
to check their understanding of topics and issues explored in the chapter.
Cloud computing is here to stay, and its adoption will be widespread.
It will transform not only the IT industry but also every sector of society.
A wide range of people—application developers, enterprise IT architects
and administrators, and future IT professionals and managers—will need
to learn about cloud computing and how it can be deployed for a variety of
applications. This concise and comprehensive book will help readers under-
stand several key aspects of cloud computing—technologies, models, cloud
services currently available, applications that are better suited for cloud, and
more. It will also help them examine the issues and challenges and develop
and deploy applications in clouds.
I believe you will find the book informative, concise, comprehensive, and
helpful to gain cloud knowledge.
San Murugesan
Adjunct Professor
University of Western Sydney
Richmond, New South Wales, Australia
Editor in Chief
IEEE IT Professional
Editor
IEEE Computer
Director
BRITE Professional Services
Australia

xix
Preface
Cloud computing is one of the most popular technologies that has become an
integral part of the computing world nowadays. The usage and popularity of
cloud computing is increasing every day and is expected to increase further.
Many frequent Internet users are heavily dependent on cloud-based applica-
tions for their day-to-day activities in both professional and personal life.
Cloud computing has emerged as a technology to realize the utility model of
computing while using Internet for accessing applications.
The past decades have witnessed the success of centralized comput-
ing infrastructures in many application domains. Then, the emergence of
the Internet brought numerous users of remote applications based on the
technologies of distributed computing. Research in distributed computing
gave birth to the development of grid computing. Though grid is based on
distributed computing, the conceptual basis for grid is somewhat different.
Computing with grid enabled researchers to do computationally intensive
tasks by using limited infrastructure that was available with them and with
the support of high processing power that could be provided by any third
party, and thus allowing the researchers to use grid computing, which was
one of the first attempts to provide computing resources to users on payment
basis. This technology indeed became popular and is being used even now.
An associated problem with grid technology was that it could only be used
by a certain group of people and it was not open to the public. Cloud com-
puting in simple terms is further extension and variation of grid computing,
in which a market-oriented aspect is added. Though there are several other
important technical differences, this is one of the major differences between
grid and cloud. Thus came cloud computing, which is now being used as a
public utility computing software and is accessible by almost every person
through the Internet. Apart from this, there are several other properties that
make cloud popular and unique. In cloud, the resources are metered, and
a user pays according to the usage. Cloud can also support a continuously
varying user demands without affecting the performance, and it is always
available for use without any restrictions. The users can access cloud from
any device, thus reaching a wider range of people.
There are several applications of cloud computing already being witnessed
and experienced. As cloud is elastic, it can be used in places where varying
load is one of the main characteristics. It can also be used where on-demand
access is required. Similarly, because of its property of multitenancy, it can
be used in places where several applications are to be operated. Cloud com-
puting can also be used for data-intensive applications for data analytics and
several data-related tasks.

xx Preface
As this is considered a promising technology, several companies such as
Google, Microsoft, Amazon, HP, and IBM have invested their time and other
resources for further development of cloud computing–related technologies.
In return, the companies make profit as cloud applications become more
popular and easier to use.
The main objective of this book is to present the readers with the intro-
ductory details, technologies, applications development, security, and
some advanced topics in cloud computing. It is expected that the book will
serve as a reference for a larger audience base, including students of under-
graduate and postgraduate programs, practitioners, developers, and new
researchers.
This book will be a timely contribution to cloud computing, a field that
is gaining momentum in all dimensions such as academia, research, and
business. As cloud computing is recognized as one of the top five emerg-
ing technologies that will have a major impact on the quality of science and
society over the next 20 years, its knowledge will help position our readers at
the forefront of the field.
This book discusses in detail the essentials of cloud computing in a way
suitable for beginners as well as practitioners who are in need to know or
learn more about cloud computing. It can also be used as a handbook for
cloud. It contains 14 chapters that follow a standard format for easy and use-
ful reading: Learning Objectives, Preamble, Introduction, and details related
to the chapter title with several subsections, supported by a suitable num-
ber of diagrams, tables, figures, etc., followed by Summary, Review Points,
Review Questions, and References for further reading.
To start with, Chapter 1 aims to give a brief description about available
paradigms of computing. This provides the required basic knowledge about
computing paradigms to start with cloud technology. It includes several com-
puting paradigms such as high-performance computing, cluster
computing,
grid computing, and distributed computing.
Chapter 2 gives a basic introduction and discusses the fundamental con-
cepts of cloud. The topics include cloud computing definition, the need for
cloud, cloud principles, cloud applications, and several other topics.
Chapter 3 gives an introduction to cloud computing technologies. This
includes the basic concepts in cloud such as cloud architecture, cloud anat-
omy, network connectivity in cloud, cloud management, applications in
cloud, and migrating applications to cloud.
Chapter 4 discusses in detail the deployment models such as private,
public, community, and hybrid. Their applications, use, and design are also
discussed, thereby giving a clear picture and facilitating a proper choice of
deployment models.
Chapter 5 discusses in detail the cloud service models such as Software
as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a
Service (IaaS) with several other service models that have emerged recently.

xxi
Preface
This chapter gives an idea on the properties, architecture, and application
of these cloud service models.
Chapter 6 discusses the technological drivers for cloud. The topics covered
in these chapters are service-oriented architecture and cloud, virtualization,
multicore technology, software models for cloud, pervasive computing, and
several other related concepts. This chapter gives an elaborate view on how
these technological drivers are related to cloud and promote it further in the
context of application development and research.
Chapter 7 gives a detailed description about virtualization. Virtualization
is considered to be the basis of cloud computing. Here, opportunities and
approaches related to virtualization are discussed. Hypervisors are dis-
cussed in detail. This chapter also gives a description on how virtualization
is used in cloud computing.
Chapter 8 discusses the programming models that are available for cloud.
Here, both existing programming models useful to migrate to cloud and
new programming models specific to cloud are discussed in detail.
Chapter 9 describes cloud from a software development perspective, the
different perspectives of SaaS development and its challenges, and cloud-
aware software development in PaaS.
Chapter 10 deals with the networking aspects in the cloud computing envi-
ronment. This chapter also presents an overview and issues related to the
data center environment. Transport layer issues and Transmission Control
Protocol enhancements in data center networks are also discussed.
Chapter 11 gives a brief description of major service providers known in
the cloud arena and discusses in detail about the services they offer.
Chapter 12 is especially for open-source users. This chapter gives a list and
description of several open-source support and tools available for cloud com-
puting. These are divided according to the service models, that is, SaaS, PaaS,
and IaaS. There is also a separate note on open-source tools for research,
which describes the tools that can be worked upon in from a research-ori-
ented perspective. It also has an additional note on distributed computing
tools that are used for managing distributed systems.
Chapter 13 discusses the security issues in cloud, an important issue in
cloud. It discusses about security aspects in general, platform-related secu-
rity, audit, and compliance in cloud.
The final chapter, Chapter 14, discusses advanced concepts in cloud, such
as intercloud, cloud management, mobile cloud, media cloud, cloud gover-
nance, green cloud, cloud analytics, and several other allied topics.
The contents of this book reflect the author’s lectures on this topic.
The author wishes to acknowledge the following for their valuable time
and contributions in developing, improving, and formatting the chap-
ters: Mohit P. Tahiliani, Marimuthu C., Raghavan S., Manoj V. Thomas,
Rohit P. Tahiliani, Alaka A., Usha D., Anithakumari S., and Christina
Terese Joseph.

xxii Preface
Finally, the author would like to thank Aastha Sharma, commissioning
editor at CRC Press, for her constant communication and follow-up and sup-
port throughout the process of getting the book into print.
Readers are requested to visit the website http:/
/www.cloudrose.org/ for
further updates and e-mail interactions with the author.
K. Chandrasekaran

1
1
Computing Paradigms
Learning Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to
• Give a brief description of major of computing
• Examine at the potential of these paradigms
Preamble
The term paradigm conveys that there is a set of practices to be followed to
accomplish a task. In the domain of computing, there are many different
standard practices being followed based on inventions and technological
advancements. In this chapter, we look into the various computing para-
digms: namely high performance computing, cluster computing, grid com-
puting, cloud computing, bio-computing, mobile computing, quantum
computing, optical computing, nanocomputing, and network computing. As
computing systems become faster and more capable, it is required to note the
features of modern computing in order to relate ourselves to the title of this
book on cloud computing, and therefore it becomes essential to know little on
various computing paradigms.
1.1 High-Performance Computing
In high-performance computing systems, a pool of processors (processor
machines or central processing units [CPUs]) connected (networked) with other
resources like memory, storage, and input and output devices, and the deployed
software is enabled to run in the entire system of connected components.

2 Essentials of Cloud Computing
The processor machines can be of homogeneous or heterogeneous type.
The legacy meaning of high-performance computing (HPC) is the supercom-
puters; however, it is not true in present-day computing scenarios. Therefore,
HPC can also be attributed to mean the other computing paradigms that are
discussed in the forthcoming sections, as it is a common name for all these
computing systems.
Thus, examples of HPC include a small cluster of desktop computers or
personal computers (PCs) to the fastest supercomputers. HPC systems are
normally found in those applications where it is required to use or solve
scientific problems. Most of the time, the challenge in working with these
kinds of problems is to perform suitable simulation study, and this can be
accomplished by HPC without any difficulty. Scientific examples such as
protein folding in molecular biology and studies on developing models and
applications based on nuclear fusion are worth noting as potential applica-
tions for HPC.
1.2 Parallel Computing
Parallel computing is also one of the facets of HPC. Here, a set of proces-
sors work cooperatively to solve a computational problem. These processor
machines or CPUs are mostly of homogeneous type. Therefore, this defini-
tion is the same as that of HPC and is broad enough to include supercomput-
ers that have hundreds or thousands of processors interconnected with other
resources. One can distinguish between conventional (also known as serial or
sequential or Von Neumann) computers and parallel computers in the way
the applications are executed.
In serial or sequential computers, the following apply:
• It runs on a single computer/processor machine having a single
CPU.
• A problem is broken down into a discrete series of instructions.
• Instructions are executed one after another.
In parallel computing, since there is simultaneous use of multiple processor
machines, the following apply:
• It is run using multiple processors (multiple CPUs).
• A problem is broken down into discrete parts that can be solved
concurrently.
• Each part is further broken down into a series of instructions.

3
Computing Paradigms
• Instructions from each part are executed simultaneously on differ-
ent processors.
• An overall control/coordination mechanism is employed.
1.3 Distributed Computing
Distributed computing is also a computing system that consists of multiple
computers or processor machines connected through a network, which can be
homogeneous orheterogeneous,butrunasasinglesystem.Theconnectivitycan
be such that the CPUs in a distributed system can be physically close together
and connected by a local network, or they can be geographically distant and
connected by a wide area network. The heterogeneity in a distributed system
supports any number of possible configurations in the processor machines, such
as mainframes, PCs, workstations, and minicomputers. The goal of distributed
computing is to make such a network work as a single computer.
Distributed computing systems are advantageous over centralized sys-
tems, because there is a support for the following characteristic features:
1. Scalability: It is the ability of the system to be easily expanded by
adding more machines as needed, and vice versa, without affecting
the existing setup.
2. Redundancy or replication: Here, several machines can provide the
same services, so that even if one is unavailable (or failed), work does
not stop because other similar computing supports will be available.
1.4 Cluster Computing
A cluster computing system consists of a set of the same or similar type of
processor machines connected using a dedicated network infrastructure. All
processor machines share resources such as a common home directory and
have a software such as a message passing interface (MPI) implementation
installed to allow programs to be run across all nodes simultaneously. This
is also a kind of HPC category. The individual computers in a cluster can be
referred to as nodes. The reason to realize a cluster as HPC is due to the fact
that the individual nodes can work together to solve a problem larger than
any computer can easily solve. And, the nodes need to communicate with one
another in order to work cooperatively and meaningfully together to solve
the problem in hand.

If we have processor machines of heterogeneous types in a cluster, this
kind of clusters become a subtype and still mostly are in the experimental
or research stage.
1.5 Grid Computing
The computing resources in most of the organizations are underutilized but
are necessary for certain operations. The idea of grid computing is to make
use of such nonutilized computing power by the needy organizations, and
thereby the return on investment (ROI) on computing investments can be
increased.
Thus, grid computing is a network of computing or processor machines
managed with a kind of software such as middleware, in order to access and
use the resources remotely. The managing activity of grid resources through
the middleware is called grid services. Grid services provide access control,
security, access to data including digital libraries and databases, and access
to large-scale interactive and long-term storage facilities.
TABLE 1.1
Electrical Power Grid and Grid Computing
Electrical Power Grid Grid Computing
Never worry about where the electricity that
we are using comes from; that is, whether it
is from coal in Australia, from wind power
in the United States, or from a nuclear plant
in France, one can simply plug the electrical
appliance into the wall-mounted socket and
it will get the electrical power that we need
to operate the appliance.
Never worry about where the computer power
that we are using comes from; that is,
whether it is from a supercomputer in
Germany, a computer farm in India, or a
laptop in New Zealand, one can simply plug
in the computer and the Internet and it will
get the application execution done.
The infrastructure that makes this possible is
called the power grid. It links together many
different kinds of power plants with our
home, through transmission stations, power
stations, transformers, power lines, and so
forth.
The infrastructure that makes this possible is
called the computing grid. It links together
computing resources, such as PCs,
workstations, servers, and storage elements,
and provides the mechanism needed to
access them via the Internet.
The power grid is pervasive: electricity is
available essentially everywhere, and one
can simply access it through a standard
wall-mounted socket.
The grid is also pervasive in the sense that the
remote computing resources would be
accessible from different platforms,
including laptops and mobile phones, and
one can simply access the grid computing
power through the web browser.
The power grid is a utility: we ask for
electricity and we get it. We also pay for
what we get.
The grid computing is also a utility: we ask
for computing power or storage capacity
and we get it. We also pay for what we get.

5
Computing Paradigms
Grid computing is more popular due to the following reasons:
• Its ability to make use of unused computing power, and thus, it is a
cost-effective solution (reducing investments, only recurring costs)
• As a way to solve problems in line with any HPC-based application
• Enables heterogeneous resources of computers to work coopera-
tively and collaboratively to solve a scientific problem
Researchers associate the term grid to the way electricity is distributed in
municipal areas for the common man. In this context, the difference between
electrical power grid and grid computing is worth noting (Table 1.1).
1.6 Cloud Computing
The computing trend moved toward cloud from the concept of grid comput-
ing, particularly when large computing resources are required to solve a single
problem, using the ideas of computing power as a utility and other allied con-
cepts. However, the potential difference between grid and cloud is that grid
computing supports leveraging several computers in parallel to solve a particu-
lar application, while cloud computing supports
leveraging multiple resources,
including computing resources, to deliver a unified service to the end user.
In cloud computing, the IT and business resources, such as servers, stor-
age, network, applications, and processes, can be dynamically provisioned
to the user needs and workload. In addition, while a cloud can provi-
sion and support a grid, a cloud can also support nongrid environments,
such as a three-tier web architecture running on traditional or Web 2.0
applications.
We will be looking at the details of cloud computing in different chapters
of this book.
1.7 Biocomputing
Biocomputing systems use the concepts of biologically derived or simulated
molecules (or models) that perform computational processes in order to solve
a problem. The biologically derived models aid in structuring the computer
programs that become part of the application.
Biocomputing provides the theoretical background and practical tools
for scientists to explore proteins and DNA. DNA and proteins are nature’s

building blocks, but these building blocks are not exactly used as bricks;
the function of the final molecule rather strongly depends on the order of
these blocks. Thus, the biocomputing scientist works on inventing the order
suitable for various applications mimicking biology. Biocomputing shall,
therefore, lead to a better understanding of life and the molecular causes of
certain diseases.
1.8 Mobile Computing
In mobile computing, the processing (or computing) elements are small (i.e.,
handheld devices) and the communication between various resources is tak-
ing place using wireless media.
Mobile communication for voice applications (e.g., cellular phone) is widely
established throughout the world and witnesses a very rapid growth in all its
dimensions including the increase in the number of subscribers of various
cellular networks. An extension of this technology is the ability to send and
receive data across various cellular networks using small devices such as
smartphones. There can be numerous applications based on this technology;
for example, video call or conferencing is one of the important applications
that people prefer to use in place of existing voice (only) communications on
mobile phones.
Mobile computing–based applications are becoming very important
and rapidly evolving with various technological advancements as it
allows users to transmit data from remote locations to other remote or
fixed locations.
1.9 Quantum Computing
Manufacturers of computing systems say that there is a limit for cram-
ming more and more transistors into smaller and smaller spaces of inte-
grated circuits (ICs) and thereby doubling the processing power about
every 18 months. This problem will have to be overcome by a new quantum
computing–based solution, wherein the dependence is on quantum infor-
mation, the rules that govern the subatomic world. Quantum computers
are millions of times faster than even our most powerful supercomputers
today. Since quantum computing works differently on the most fundamen-
tal level than the current technology, and although there are working pro-
totypes, these systems have not so far proved to be alternatives to today’s
silicon-based machines.

7
Computing Paradigms
1.10 Optical Computing
Optical computing system uses the photons in visible light or infrared
beams, rather than electric current, to perform digital computations. An elec-
tric current flows at only about 10% of the speed of light. This limits the rate
at which data can be exchanged over long distances and is one of the factors
that led to the evolution of optical fiber. By applying some of the advantages
of visible and/or IR networks at the device and component scale, a computer
can be developed that can perform operations 10 or more times faster than a
conventional electronic computer.
1.11 Nanocomputing
Nanocomputing refers to computing systems that are constructed from
nanoscale components. The silicon transistors in traditional computers may
be replaced by transistors based on carbon nanotubes.
The successful realization of nanocomputers relates to the scale and inte-
gration of these nanotubes or components. The issues of scale relate to the
dimensions of the components; they are, at most, a few nanometers in at least
two dimensions. The issues of integration of the components are twofold:
first, the manufacture of complex arbitrary patterns may be economically
infeasible, and second, nanocomputers may include massive quantities of
devices. Researchers are working on all these issues to bring nanocomputing
a reality.
1.12 Network Computing
Network computing is a way of designing systems to take advantage of the
latest technology and maximize its positive impact on business solutions and
their ability to serve their customers using a strong underlying network of
computing resources. In any network computing solution, the client compo-
nent of a networked architecture or application will be with the customer or
client or end user, and in modern days, they provide an essential set of func-
tionality necessary to support the appropriate client functions at minimum
cost and maximum simplicity. Unlike conventional PCs, they do not need to be
individually configured and maintained according to their intended use. The
other end of the client component in the network architecture will be a typi-
cal server environment to push the services of the application to the client end.

Almost all the computing paradigms that were discussed earlier are of this
nature. Even in the future, if any one invents a totally new computing para-
digm, it would be based on a networked architecture, without which it is
impossible to realize the benefits for any end user.
1.13 Summary
We are into a post-PC era, in which a greater number and a variety of com-
puters and computing paradigms with different sizes and functions might be
used everywhere and with every human being; so, the purpose of this chap-
ter is to illustrate briefly the ideas of all these computing domains, as most of
these are ubiquitous and pervasive in its access and working environment.
Key Points
• Mobile computing: Mobile computing consists of small processing

elements (i.e., handheld devices) and the communication between
various resources is by using wireless media (see Section 1.8).
• Nanocomputing: Makes use of nanoscale components (see Section 1.11).
Review Questions
1. Why is it necessary to understand the various computing paradigms?
2. Compare grid computing with electric power grid
3. Will mobile computing play a dominant role in the future? Discuss
4. How are distributed computing and network computing different or
similar?
5. How may nanocomputing shape future devices?
Further Reading
Ditto, W. L., A. Miliotis, K. Murali, and S. Sinha. The chaos computing paradigm.
Reviews of Nonlinear Dynamics and Complexity 3: 1–35, 2010.

9
2
Cloud Computing Fundamentals
Learning Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to
• Understand the basic ideas and motivation for cloud computing
• To define cloud computing
• Understand the 5-4-3 principles of cloud computing and cloud
ecosystem
• Understand the working of a cloud application
• Have a brief understanding on the benefits and drawbacks in cloud
computing
Preamble
Modern computing with our laptop or desktop or even with tablets/smart-
phones using the Internet to access the data and details that we want, which
are located/stored at remote places/computers, through the faces of appli-
cations like Facebook, e-mail, and YouTube, brings the actual power of
information that we need instantaneously within no time. Even if millions
of users get connected in this manner, from anywhere in the world, these
applications do serve what these users–customers want. This phenomenon
of supply of information or any other data and details to all the needy cus-
tomers, as and when it is asked, is the conceptual understanding and work-
ing of what is known as cloud computing. This chapter is devoted to give
basic understanding on cloud computing.

2.1 Motivation for Cloud Computing
Let us review the scenario of computing prior to the announcement and
availability of cloud computing: The users who are in need of computing
are expected to invest money on computing resources such as hardware,
software, networking, and storage; this investment naturally costs a bulk
currency to the users as they have to buy these computing resources, keep
these in their premises, and maintain and make it operational—all these
tasks would add cost. And, this is a particularly true and huge expenditure
to the enterprises that require enormous computing power and resources,
compared with classical academics and individuals.
On the other hand, it is easy and handy to get the required computing
power and resources from some provider (or supplier) as and when it is
needed and pay only for that usage. This would cost only a reasonable invest-
ment or spending, compared to the huge investment when buying the entire
computing infrastructure. This phenomenon can be viewed as capital expen-
diture versus operational expenditure. As one can easily assess the huge lump
sum required for capital expenditure (whole investment and maintenance for
computing infrastructure) and compare it with the moderate or smaller lump
sum required for the hiring or getting the computing infrastructure only to
the tune of required time, and rest of the time free from that. Therefore, cloud
computing is a mechanism of bringing–hiring or getting the services of the com-
puting power or infrastructure to an organizational or individual level to the
extent required and paying only for the consumed services.
One can compare this situation with the usage of electricity (its services)
from its producer-cum-distributor (in India, it is the state-/government-owned
electricity boards that give electricity supply to all residences and organiza-
tions) to houses or organizations; here, we do not generate electricity (compa-
rable with electricity production–related tasks); rather, we use it only to tune
up our requirements in our premises, such as for our lighting and usage of
other electrical appliances, and pay as per the electricity meter reading value.
Therefore, cloud computing is needed in getting the services of comput-
ing resources. Thus, one can say as a one-line answer to the need for cloud
computing that it eliminates a large computing investment without compro-
mising the use of computing at the user level at an operational cost. Cloud
computing is very economical and saves a lot of money. A blind benefit of
this computing is that even if we lose our laptop or due to some crisis our
personal computer—and the desktop system—gets damaged, still our data
and files will stay safe and secured as these are not in our local machine (but
remotely located at the provider’s place—machine).
In addition, one can think to add security while accessing these remote
computing resources as depicted in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 shows several cloud computing applications. The cloud represents
the Internet-based computing resources, and the accessibility is through some

11
secure support of connectivity. It is a computing solution growing in popu-
larity, especially among individuals and small- and medium-sized compa-
nies (SMEs). In the cloud computing model, an
organization’s core computer
power resides offsite and is essentially subscribed to rather than owned.
Thus, cloud computing comes into focus and much needed only when we
think about what computing resources and information technology (IT) solu-
tions are required. This need caters to a way to increase capacity or add capabil-
ities on the fly without investing in new infrastructure, training new personnel,
or licensing new software. Cloud computing encompasses the subscription-
based or pay-per-use service model of offering computing to end users or cus-
tomers over the Internet and thereby extending the IT’s existing capabilities.
2.1.1 The Need for Cloud Computing
The main reasons for the need and use of cloud computing are convenience and
reliability. In the past, if we wanted to bring a file, we would have to save it to a
Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash drive, external hard drive, or compact disc (CD)
and bring that device to a different place. Instead, saving a file to the cloud
Document management
Email and office productivity
Finance ERP Social networks Training
Business intelligence Integration
Development and testing platform Storage
Application deployment Network
Database
Thin client Tablet
Smartphone
Laptop
Desktop
Compute
FIGURE 2.1
Cloud computing.

(e.g., use of cloud application Dropbox) ensures that we will be able to access it
with any computer that has an Internet connection. The cloud also makes it much
easier to share a file with friends, making it possible to collaborate over the web.
While using the cloud, losing our data/file is much less likely. However,
just like anything online, there is always a risk that someone may try to gain
access to our personal data, and therefore, it is important to choose an access
control with a strong password and pay attention to any privacy settings for
the cloud service that we are using.
2.2 Defining Cloud Computing
In the simplest terms, cloud computing means storing and accessing data
and programs over the Internet from a remote location or computer instead
of our computer’s hard drive. This so called remote location has several
properties such as scalability, elasticity etc., which is significantly different
from a simple remote machine. The cloud is just a metaphor for the Internet.
When we store data on or run a program from the local computer’s hard
drive, that is called local storage and computing. For it to be considered cloud
computing, we need to access our data or programs over the Internet. The end
result is the same; however, with an online connection, cloud computing can
be done anywhere, anytime, and by any device.
2.2.1 NIST Definition of Cloud Computing
The formal definition of cloud computing comes from the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST): “Cloud computing is a model for enabling
ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of config-
urable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, and
services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal manage-
ment effort or service provider interaction. This cloud model is composed of five
essential characteristics, three service models, and four deployment models [1].
Itmeansthatthecomputingresourceorinfrastructure—beitserverhardware,
storage, network, or application software—all available from the cloud vendor
or provider’s site/premises, can be accessible over the Internet from any remote
location and by any local computing device. In
addition, the usage or accessibil-
ity is to cost only to the level of usage to the customers based on their needs and
demands, also known as the pay-as-you-go or pay-as-per-use model. If the need
is more, more quantum computing resources are made available (
provisioning
with elasticity) by the provider. Minimal management effort implies that at the
customer’s side, the maintenance of computing systems is very minimal as they
will have to look at these tasks only for their local computing devices used for
accessing cloud-based resources, not for those computing resources managed at
the provider’s side. Details of five essential characteristics, three service
models,

13
and four deployment models are provided in the 5-4-3 principles in Section 2.3.
Many vendors, pundits, and experts refer to NIST, and both the International
Standards Organization (ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) back the NIST definition.
Now, let us try to define and understand cloud computing from two other
perspectives—as a service and a platform—in the following sections.
2.2.2 Cloud Computing Is a Service
The simplest thing that any computer does is allow us to store and retrieve
information. We can store our family photographs, our favorite songs, or
even save movies on it, which is also the most basic service offered by cloud
computing. Let us look at the example of a popular application called Flickr
to illustrate the meaning of this section.
While Flickr started with an emphasis on sharing photos and images, it
has emerged as a great place to store those images. In many ways, it is supe-
rior to storing the images on your computer:
1. First, Flickr allows us to easily access our images no matter where
we are or what type of device we are using. While we might upload
the photos of our vacation from our home computer, later, we can
easily access them from our laptop at the office.
2. Second, Flickr lets us share the images. There is no need to burn them
to a CD or save them on a flash drive. We can just send someone our
Flickr address to share these photos or images.
3. Third, Flickr provides data security. By uploading the images to
Flickr, we are providing ourselves with data security by creating a
backup on the web. And, while it is always best to keep a local copy—
either on a computer, a CD, or a flash drive—the truth is that we are
far more likely to lose the images that we store locally than Flickr is
of losing our images.
2.2.3 Cloud Computing Is a Platform
The World Wide Web (WWW) can be considered as the operating system
for all our Internet-based applications. However, one has to understand that
we will always need a local operating system in our computer to access web-
based applications.
The basic meaning of the term platform is that it is the support on which
applications run or give results to the users. For example, Microsoft Windows
is a platform. But, a platform does not have to be an operating system. Java is
a platform even though it is not an operating system.
Through cloud computing, the web is becoming a platform. With trends
(applications) such as Office 2.0, more and more applications that were
originally available on desktop computers are now being converted into

web–cloud applications. Word processors like Buzzword and office suites
like Google Docs are now available in the cloud as their desktop counter-
parts. All these kinds of trends in providing applications via the cloud are
turning cloud computing into a platform or to act as a platform.
2.3 5-4-3 Principles of Cloud computing
The 5-4-3 principles put forth by NIST describe (a) the five essential char-
acteristic features that promote cloud computing, (b) the four deployment
models that are used to narrate the cloud computing opportunities for cus-
tomers while looking at architectural models, and (c) the three important
and basic service offering models of cloud computing.
2.3.1 Five Essential Characteristics
Cloud computing has five essential characteristics, which are shown in
Figure 2.2. Readers can note the word essential, which means that if any of
these characteristics is missing, then it is not cloud computing:
1. On-demand self-service: A consumer can unilaterally provision com-
puting capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as
needed automatically without requiring human interaction with
each service’s provider.
2. Broad network access: Capabilities are available over the network and
accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by hetero-
geneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, laptops,
and personal digital assistants [PDAs]).
On-demand
self
services
Measured
service
Cloud computing
Rapid elasticity Resource
pooling
Broad network
access
FIGURE 2.2
The essential characteristics of cloud computing.

15
3. Elastic resource pooling: The provider’s computing resources are
pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multitenant model, with
different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and
reassigned according to consumer demand. There is a sense of loca-
tion independence in that the customer generally has no control or
knowledge over the exact location of the provided resources but may
be able to specify the location at a higher level of abstraction (e.g.,
country, state, or data center). Examples of resources include storage,
processing, memory, and network bandwidth.
4. Rapid elasticity: Capabilities can be rapidly and elastically provi-
sioned, in some cases automatically, to quickly scale out and rapidly
released to quickly scale in. To the consumer, the capabilities avail-
able for provisioning often appear to be unlimited and can be pur-
chased in any quantity at any time.
5. Measured service: Cloud systems automatically control and optimize
resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of
abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, process-
ing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be
monitored, controlled, and reported providing transparency for
both the provider and consumer of the utilized service.
2.3.2 Four Cloud Deployment Models
Deployment models describe the ways with which the cloud services can be
deployed or made available to its customers, depending on the organizational
structure and the provisioning location. One can understand it in this man-
ner too: cloud (Internet)-based computing resources—that is, the locations
where data and services are acquired and provisioned to its
customers—
can take various forms. Four deployment models are usually distinguished,
namely, public, private, community, and hybrid cloud service usage:
1. Private cloud: The cloud infrastructure is provisioned for exclusive
use by a single organization comprising multiple consumers (e.g.,
business units). It may be owned, managed, and operated by the
organization, a third party, or some combination of them, and it may
exist on or off premises.
2. Public cloud: The cloud infrastructure is provisioned for open use by
the general public. It may be owned, managed, and operated by a
business, academic, or government organization, or some combina-
tion of them. It exists on the premises of the cloud provider.
3. Community cloud: The cloud infrastructure is shared by several orga-
nizations and supports a specific community that has shared con-
cerns (e.g., mission, security requirements, policy, and compliance
considerations). It may be managed by the organizations or a third
party and may exist on premise or off premise.

4. Hybrid cloud: The cloud infrastructure is a composition of two or
more distinct cloud infrastructures (private, community, or public)
that remain unique entities but are bound together by standardized
or proprietary technology that enables data and application porta-
bility (e.g., cloud bursting for load balancing between clouds).
2.3.3 Three Service Offering Models
The three kinds of services with which the cloud-based computing resources
are available to end customers are as follows: Software as a Service (SaaS),
Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). It is also
known as the service–platform–infrastructure (SPI) model of the cloud and is
shown in Figure 2.3. SaaS is a software distribution model in which applica-
tions (software, which is one of the most important computing resources) are
hosted by a vendor or service provider and made available to customers over
a network, typically the Internet. PaaS is a paradigm for delivering operating
systems and associated services (e.g., computer aided software engineering
[CASE] tools, integrated development environments [IDEs] for developing
software solutions) over the Internet without downloads or installation. IaaS
involves outsourcing the equipment used to support operations, including
storage, hardware, servers, and networking components.
1. Cloud SaaS: The capability provided to the consumer is to use the
provider’s applications running on a cloud infrastructure, includ-
ing network, servers, operating systems, storage, and even individ-
ual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited
user-specific application configuration settings. The applications are
accessible from various client devices through either a thin client
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
End user application is delivered as a service.
Application platform onto which custom
applications and services can be deployed.
Physical infrastructure is abstracted to provide
computing, storage, and networking as a service.
FIGURE 2.3
SPI—service offering model of the cloud.

17
interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based e-mail), or a pro-
gram interface. The consumer does not manage or control the under-
lying cloud infrastructure. Typical applications offered as a service
include customer relationship management (CRM), business intel-
ligence analytics, and online accounting software.
2. Cloud PaaS: The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy
onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applica-
tions created using programming languages, libraries, services, and
tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or
control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over the
deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the
application-hosting environment. In other words, it is a packaged
and ready-to-run development or operating framework. The PaaS
vendor provides the networks, servers, and storage and manages
the levels of scalability and maintenance. The client typically pays
for services used. Examples of PaaS providers include Google App
Engine and Microsoft Azure Services.
3. Cloud IaaS: The capability provided to the consumer is to provision
processing, storage, networks, and other fundamental computing
resources on a pay-per-use basis where he or she is able to deploy
and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems
and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the
underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over the operating
systems, storage, and deployed applications and possibly limited
control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls). The
service provider owns the equipment and is responsible for housing,
cooling operation, and maintenance. Amazon Web Services (AWS) is
a popular example of a large IaaS provider.
The major difference between PaaS and IaaS is the amount of control that
users have. In essence, PaaS allows vendors to manage everything, while
IaaS requires more management from the customer side. Generally speak-
ing, organizations that already have a software package or application for a
specific purpose and want to install and run it in the cloud should opt to use
IaaS instead of PaaS.
2.4 Cloud Ecosystem
Cloud ecosystem is a term used to describe the complete environment or sys-
tem of interdependent components or entities that work together to enable
and support the cloud services. To be more precise, the cloud computing’s
ecosystem is a complex environment that includes the description of every

item or entity along with their interaction; the complex entities include the tra-
ditional elements of cloud computing such as software (SaaS), hardware (PaaS
and/or IaaS), other infrastructure (e.g., network, storage), and also stakehold-
ers like consultants, integrators, partners, third parties, and anything in their
environments that has a bearing on the other components of the cloud.
The cloud ecosystem of interacting components and organizations with indi-
viduals, together known as the actors who could be responsible for either provid-
ing or consuming cloud services, can be categorized in the following manner:
1. Cloud service users (CSUs): A consumer (an individual/person), enter-
prise (including enterprise administrator), and/or government/
public institution or organization that consumes delivered cloud
services; a CSU can include intermediate users that will deliver
cloud services provided by a cloud service provider (CSP) to actual
users of the cloud service, that is, end users. End users can be per-
sons, machines, or applications.
2. CSPs: An organization that provides or delivers and maintains or
manages cloud services, that is, provider of SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, or any
allied computing infrastructure.
3. Cloud service partners (CSNs): A person or organization (e.g., applica-
tion developer; content, software, hardware, and/or equipment pro-
vider; system integrator; and/or auditor) that provides support to the
building of a service offered by a CSP (e.g., service integration).
CSN 1 (application developer)
CSN 2 (content provider)
CSP 2
(Intercloud)
CSN 3
CSU 1 (enterprise) CSU 2 (consumer)
CSP 3
(SaaS/PaaS/IaaS/
CaaS/NaaS provider
and Intercloud)
CSP 1
(SaaS/PaaS/IaaS/CaaS/
NaaS provider and
Intercloud)
FIGURE 2.4
Actors with some of their possible roles in a cloud ecosystem.

19
In layman’s terms, the cloud ecosystem describes the usage and value of each
entity in the ecosystem, and when all the entities in the ecosystem are put
together, users are now able to have an integrated suite made up of the best-
of-breed solutions. An example of this ecosystem can be a cloud accounting
solution such as Tally; while this SaaS vendor focuses on their support for
accounting and integrated payroll solutions, they can engage (collaborate)
with any other third-party CSPs who could support additional features
in the accounting software like reporting tools, dashboards, work papers,
workflow, project management, and CRM, covering the majority of a client
or customer firm’s software needs. And, any other additional requirement
that may be essential will likely be added by a partner joining the ecosystem
in the near future. Figure 2.4 illustrates the idea of a cloud ecosystem.
2.5 Requirements for Cloud Services
From the concepts illustrated in the earlier sections, one can understand that
the cloud services or service offering models require certain features to be
exhibited in order to be considered as services. The following are the basic
requirements for anything that can be considered as a service by the actors
of the cloud computing ecosystem, which can be offered or provisioned
through the cloud:
1. Multitenancy: Multitenancy is an essential characteristic of cloud sys-
tems aiming to provide isolation of the different users of the cloud
system (tenants) while maximizing resource sharing. It is expected
that multitenancy be supported at various levels of a cloud infra-
structure. As an example, at the application level, multitenancy is a
feature that allows a single instance of an application (say, database
system) and leverages the economy of scale to satisfy several users
at the same time.
2. Service life cycle management: Cloud services are paid as per usage
and can be started and ended at any time. Therefore, it is required
that a cloud service support automatic service provisioning. In addi-
tion, metering and charging or billing settlement needs to be pro-
vided for services that are dynamically created, modified, and then
released in virtual environments.
3. Security: The security of each individual service needs to be pro-
tected in the multitenant cloud environment; the users (tenants) also
support the needed secured services, meaning that a cloud provides
strict control for tenants’ service access to different resources to
avoid the abuse of cloud resources and to facilitate the management
of CSUs by CSPs.

4. Responsiveness: The cloud ecosystem is expected to enable early
detection, diagnosis, and fixing of service-related problems in order
to help the customers use the services faithfully.
5. Intelligent service deployment: It is expected that the cloud enables effi-
cient use of resources in service deployment, that is, maximizing the
number of deployed services while minimizing the usage of resources
and still respecting the SLAs. For example, the specific application
characteristics (e.g., central processing unit [CPU]-intensive, input/
output [IO]-intensive) that can be provided by developers or via appli-
cation monitoring may help CSPs in making efficient use of resources.
6. Portability: It is expected that a cloud service supports the portabil-
ity of its features over various underlying resources and that CSPs
should be able to accommodate cloud workload portability (e.g.,
VM portability) with limited service disruption.
7. Interoperability: It is expected to have available well-documented and
well-tested specifications that allow heterogeneous systems in cloud
environments to work together.
8. Regulatory aspects: All applicable regulations shall be respected,
including privacy protection.
9. Environmental sustainability: A key characteristic of cloud computing
is the capability to access, through a broad network and thin clients,
on-demand shared pools of configurable resources that can be rap-
idly provisioned and released. Cloud computing can then be con-
sidered in its essence as an ICT energy consumption consolidation
model, supporting mainstream technologies aiming to optimize
energy consumption (e.g., in data centers) and application perfor-
mance. Examples of such technologies include virtualization and
multitenancy.
10. Servicereliability,serviceavailability,andqualityassurance:CSUsdemand
for their services end-to-end quality of service (QoS) assurance, high
levels of reliability, and continued availability to their CSPs.
11. Service access: A cloud infrastructure is expected to provide CSUs
with access to cloud services from any user device. It is expected that
CSUs have a consistent experience when accessing cloud services.
12. Flexibility: It is expected that the cloud service be capable of support-
ing multiple cloud deployment models and cloud service categories.
13. Accounting and charging: It is expected that a cloud service be capable
to support various accounting and charging models and policies.
14. Massive data processing: It is expected that a cloud supports mecha-
nisms for massive data processing (e.g., extracting, transforming, and
loading data). It is worth to note in this context that distributed and/

21
or parallel processing systems will be used in cloud infrastructure
deployments to provide large-scale integrated data storage and pro-
cessing capabilities that scale with software-based fault tolerance.
The expected requirements for services in the IaaS category include the
following:
• Computing hardware requirements (including processing, memory,
disk, network interfaces, and virtual machines)
• Computing software requirements (including OS and other prein-
stalled software)
• Storage requirements (including storage capacity)
• Network requirements (including QoS specifications, such as band-
width and traffic volumes)
• Availability requirements (including protection/backup plan for
computing, storage, and network resources)
The expected service requirements for services in the PaaS category include
the following:
• Requirements similar to those of the IaaS category
• Deployment options of user-created applications (e.g., scale-out options)
The expected service requirements for services in the SaaS category include
the following:
• Application-specific requirements (including licensing options)
• Network requirements (including QoS specifications such as band-
width and traffic volumes)
2.6 Cloud Application
A cloud application is an application program that functions or executes in
the cloud; the application can exhibit some characteristics of a pure desk-
top application and some characteristics of a pure web-based application.
A desktop application resides entirely on a single device at the user’s
location
(it does not necessarily have to be a desktop computer), and on the other
hand, a web application is stored entirely on a remote server and is delivered
over the Internet through a browser interface.

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content

He sent an army of four thousand men under the Earls of Oxford
and Essex to the rescue of the Palatinate. This force was altogether
inadequate to cope with the numerous army of the able Spinola; and
yet James had exhausted all his means and all his efforts in raising
it. Money he had none, and had been compelled to seek a loan and
a voluntary subscription. By the autumn the Lower Palatinate was
overrun by the Spaniards, and Bohemia had sought and received
pardon from the Imperial Court. James's real hope was that Spain
would join him in mediating a peace.
THE FRANZENSRING, VIENNA.
In this state of affairs James was compelled to summon a
Parliament. It assembled on the 30th of January, 1621, the king
having used all the unconstitutional means in his power to influence
the return of members. In his opening speech he now admitted what
he had so stoutly denied before, the presence of Undertakers in the
last Parliament, "a strange kind of beasts which had done mischief."
In that shallow, wheedling tone, that rather showed the hollowness

of the man than conciliated, as it was meant to do, he even enlarged
his confessions and admitted that he had been swayed by evil
counsellors. He then demanded liberal supplies to carry on the war
in the Palatinate, for which the people had indeed loudly called. The
Commons expressed their readiness, but first demanded that the
king should enforce the penalties against the Papists with additional
rigour, observing that they were the Papists in Germany who had
deprived the Elector Palatine of his crown, and were now seeking to
deprive him of his hereditary domains. They recommended that no
recusants should be allowed to come within ten miles of London,
that they should not be permitted to attend Mass in their own
houses or in the chapels of ambassadors; and they offered to pass a
Bill, giving to the Crown two-thirds of the property of recusants.
They then granted him two subsidies, but no tenths or fifteenths—a
sum wholly inadequate to the necessities of the war, much less of his
expenditure in general. Yet James, to keep them in good humour—
hoping to obtain more before the close of the Session—professed to
be more satisfied with it than if it had been millions, because it was
so freely granted.
The Commons showed more alacrity in complaining of the breach of
their privileges. They reminded the king of the four members of their
House whom he had imprisoned after the last Session of Parliament,
and insisted that such a practice rendered the liberty of speech
amongst them a mere fiction. As it was James's policy to remain on
good terms with them, he made a solemn assurance that he would
respect their freedom in that matter. Yet, the next day, the House, as
if to show that they themselves were ready to destroy the liberty
within, which they so warmly contended against being infringed from
without, expelled one of their members named Shepherd, for
declaring, in a speech against a Bill for restraining the abuses of the
Sabbath, that the Sabbath was Saturday, and not Sunday; that the
Scriptures recommended dancing on the Sabbath day; and that this
Bill was in direct opposition to the king's ordinances for the keeping
of Sunday.

From their own members they next extended their prosecutions to
public officers. They had appointed a committee of inquiry into
public abuses, and now summoned witnesses. The conduct of public
officers, judges, and their dependents, was subjected to a severe
scrutiny. They first examined into the abuses of patents, and three
of these incurred particular censure: the one for the licensing of ale-
houses, another for the inspection of inns and hostelries, and the
third for the exclusive manufacture of gold and silver thread.
Patents, to secure to inventors the fruits of their discoveries in arts
and manufactures, are beneficial, stimulating to improvement and
extending traffic. But these patents were of a directly contrary
nature, being grants, for money or through Court favour, to
individuals to monopolise some particular business; thus checking
competition, and defrauding the fair trader of his legitimate profits.
The inquiry laid open a scene of the most extraordinary fraud,
corruption, and oppression. The three patents just mentioned were
denounced as national injuries, and Sir Giles Mompesson and Sir
Francis Michell, a justice of the peace, his partner in them, were
arrested as offenders. The culprits sought protection from the
Government, Buckingham having sold them the patents and divided
the profits with his half-brother, Sir Edward Villiers. The Court was in
great tremor, and it was proposed to dissolve Parliament to save the
patentees. But Williams, Dean of Westminster, represented this as a
very imprudent measure, and another course was adopted at his
recommendation. Buckingham affected a patriotic air, as if he
himself had been no way concerned in it, and said if his brother had
shared the emolument, let him also share the punishment. But this
was safely said, for Villiers was already abroad out of the reach of
Parliament; and means were not long wanting to let Mompesson
escape out of the custody of the Serjeant-at-Arms. Michell was not
so fortunate; he was secured and lodged in the Tower.
In these prosecutions Coke was extremely active, for he saw a
prospect of taking a signal revenge on Bacon, who had not only
supplanted him, but insulted him in his fall. Bacon was notoriously
mixed up with the corruptions of the Court of Chancery; and Coke

informed the Commons that it was not within their jurisdiction to
punish offenders not of their own House, but that they could punish
all offences against the State in co-operation with the Lords.
Accordingly they invited the Upper House to take cognisance of
these offences, with which they readily complied, and sentenced
Mompesson and Michell to be degraded from their knighthood,
fined, and imprisoned. James, who had done his best to screen the
offenders, then in a fit of affected patriotism expressed his
indignation at having had his credulity imposed on by these men,
and by an illegal stretch of prerogative converted Mompesson's
sentence into perpetual banishment. Buckingham, the guiltiest party
of all, did not quite escape observation. Yelverton, the Attorney-
General, who was accused of participation in these illegal practices,
and who was condemned to severe fines and imprisonment for life,
boldly accused Buckingham, before the House of Lords, of his
master share in them. But that favourite was too strongly fortified by
the royal favour, and by those who must have fallen with him, to be
seriously endangered. But lesser men did not escape so well. Sir
John Bennet, Judge of the Prerogative Court, was impeached, as
well as Dr. Field, Bishop of Llandaff, for bribery and corruption.
Bennet was charged with having granted administration of wills for
money, contrary to law; but he escaped his punishment by obtaining
time to prepare his defence, during which Parliament was
prorogued; but he was afterwards fined twenty thousand pounds in
the Star Chamber, for which, however, he obtained a pardon. Field of
Llandaff had bound a suitor in Chancery to pay him over six
thousand pounds, if he obtained his suit for him, through
Buckingham. At the entreaty of the archbishop, however, he, too,
escaped, under the pretence of being left to the dealing of the
Church.
But the great offender, at whom Coke and others were directing
their main efforts, was the Lord Chancellor Bacon. Bacon had
managed to make his way from a moderate position to the highest
honours of the State. He was not only Lord Chancellor of the
kingdom, and a baron, but in January, 1621, became Viscount St.

Albans. Besides this elevation, he possessed a far higher one in the
fame of his philosophical works; and had he possessed as much real
greatness of mind as talent, might have stood in the admiration of
posterity as Milton does—poor, but glorious beyond the tinsel glory
of Courts; and it might have been said of him as of the great poet—
"His soul was like a star and dwelt apart."
But Bacon, who had placed his name high on the scroll of
immortality by his genius, was destined, like Lucifer, to become more
notorious by his fall than by his standing. Brilliant as were his
powers, superb as were his accomplishments, he had not hesitated
to trail his finest qualities through the mire of Courts and corruption,
in the eager quest of worldly distinction. He had risen, perhaps,
more by his base flatteries, and his calumnious envy of his
contemporaries, than by his abilities; and he had continued, whilst
rising, to make enemies on all sides. The king and Buckingham had
both conceived a deep dislike to him. James hated all men of genius
with the jealousy of a pedant, and was only rendered tolerant of
Bacon by his abject adulation, and his services in punishing Coke
and carrying out relentlessly the fiats of prerogative. Buckingham
probably never forgot what he had done in the matter of Coke's
daughter. The Lords hated him for his upstart vanity and ostentation,
and the Commons for his desertion of the public cause for that of
the despotic king. But perhaps not all these causes together would
have availed to pull him down, if Buckingham had not wanted the
Great Seal for his creature Williams, now Bishop of Lincoln.
The Parliamentary Committee inquiring into the abuses of office,
recommended the House of Commons to impeach the Lord
Chancellor for bribery and corruption in the court over which he
presided; and the Commons accordingly presented to the Upper
House a Bill of Impeachment against him, consisting of two-and-
twenty instances of bribery and corruption in his own person, and of
allowing the same in his officers. The corruption of the Chancellor
was notorious; and out of doors it was asserted that he had received
in presents no less than one hundred thousand pounds in the three

years of his Chancellorship. This he denied in a letter to
Buckingham; but the charges brought against him by the Commons,
who were prepared to support them, were so formidable that they
completely struck down the guilty man. He felt that his ruin was at
hand, and either feeling or feigning sickness, he took to his bed. If
he had not perceived sufficient indications of his impending fate
from other quarters, the conduct of the king left him in no doubt.
James informed the Lords that he trusted the Chancellor might clear
himself, but that if he did not, he would punish him with the utmost
severity.
It must not be supposed, however, that Bacon was the first to
introduce bribery into the Court of Chancery; it was an old and well-
known practice, which had been both familiar to Elizabeth and
sanctioned by her. But Bacon ought to have had a soul above it,
whereas he had indulged in the villainous custom the more profusely
because his mode of living was so extravagant and ostentatious, that
he saved not a penny of his enormous gain, but was always in need.
Bacon, on the presentation of the Bill of Impeachment, on the 21st
of March, prayed for time to prepare his defence, and this was
granted him, the House adjourning till the 17th of April. On the 24th
of that month, the humbled statesman drew up a general confession
of his guilt, which was presented by Prince Charles. In this letter he
threw himself on the mercy of the House and the king, and pleaded,
with a strange mixture of humility and ingenuity, his very crimes as
meritorious, since their punishment would deter others from them.
He represented his spirit as broken, his mind as overwhelmed by his
calamities; but he added that he found a certain gladness in the fact
that "hereafter the greatness of a judge or magistrate shall be no
sanctuary or protection to him against guiltiness; which is the
beginning of a golden work—the purgation of the courts of justice.
And," he added, "in these two points, God is my witness, though it
be my fortune to be the anvil upon which these two effects are
broken and wrought, I take no small comfort." After this edifying
spectacle of exhibiting his punishment as a public benefit, he
proceeded to apply that unctuous adulation to the Sovereign and to

the Peers in which he was so unabashed a master. He implored
mercy at the hands of the king—"a king of incomparable clemency,
whose heart was inscrutable for wisdom and goodness—a prince
whose like had not been seen these hundred years!" And then the
Lords were equally bepraised, "compassion ever beating in the veins
of noble blood;" nor were the bishops forgotten, "the servants of
Him who would not break the bruised reed, nor quench the smoking
flax."
INTERVIEW BETWEEN BACON AND THE DEPUTATION FROM THE LORDS.
(See p. 484.)
But all this cringing to the Crown, the coronet, and the mitre, did not
serve him: he was required by the Peers to make a separate and
distinct answer to each charge. He complied fully with the demand,
confessing everything; and when a deputation from the Lords waited
on him to know whether this was his own voluntary act—for they
excused him the humiliation of appearing at the bar of the House—
he replied with tears, "It is my act—my hand—my heart. Oh, my

lords, spare a broken reed!" This full and explicit confession being
read in the House, on the 3rd of May the Commons, headed by their
Speaker, attended to demand judgment, which the Lord Chief
Justice, acting as Speaker of the Upper House, declared to this
effect:—That the Lord Chancellor being found guilty of many acts of
bribery and corruption, both by his own confession and the evidence
of witnesses, he was condemned to pay a fine of forty thousand
pounds, to be imprisoned in the Tower during the king's pleasure, to
be dismissed from all his offices, and deemed incapable of either
holding office again or sitting in Parliament, and to be prohibited
from coming within twelve miles of the seat of Parliament.
The king remitted the fine, for the best of reasons—that Bacon had
nothing to pay it with; he also liberated him from the Tower after a
mere pro formâ imprisonment of a few days, and Bacon retired to
hide his dishonour at his house at Gorhambury, near St. Albans. Nor
had his fall extinguished all admiration for him as a great lawyer and
philosopher. Even in the House Sir Robert Philips, Sir Edward
Sackville, and others, reminded the public of the Lord Chancellor's
wonderful genius and acquirements; and as Prince Charles returned
from hunting one day, he beheld "a coach accompanied by a goodly
troop of horsemen," escorting the ex-Lord Chancellor to his house at
Gorhambury.
In that beautiful retreat, it was in Bacon's power to have so lived
and so written, that his disgrace as a statesman would have been
soon lost in the splendour of his genius and the dignified wisdom of
his latter years. But unfortunately Bacon was steeped to the core in
the love of worldly greatness, and the five years that he lived were
rendered still more miserable and still more contemptible by his
incessant hankering after restoration to place and honour, and his
persevering and cringing importunities to the king and Buckingham
for these objects. To such a length did the wretched man proceed,
that his letters became actually impious. He told the prince that as
the king, his father, had been his creator, he had hoped that he
would be his redeemer. The works which he completed after his
disgrace were only such as could result from so miserable a

condition of mind. They were suggested to him by the king, but
were not executed with the zest of his own inclination. They
consisted chiefly of a life of Henry VII., a revision of his former
works, and the superintendence of a Latin translation of them. At
length, finding all his efforts vain to move the king towards his
restoration, his health and temper gave way, and he died on the 9th
of April, 1626, the melancholy victim of an unworthy ambition.
GEORGE VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM.
(After the Portrait by Van Dyck.)
The Commons had rendered a very valuable service by these
impeachments of public men, and one which has since then
operated as a precedent in the hands of Parliament to check and
punish on a large scale the too daring and unprincipled servants of

the Crown. But, as if carried beyond themselves by their success,
they now fell into a grievous error, and displayed a spirit as
aggressive in themselves, as it was cruel, bigoted, and
unconstitutional. One Edward Floyd, a Catholic barrister, a prisoner
in the Fleet, was reported to have exulted in the success of the
Catholics in Germany over the Elector Palatine. This being mentioned
in the Commons, that august body took immediately such violent
offence, that it was proposed by members to nail him by the ears,
bore him through the tongue, set him in the pillory, and so forth. On
inquiry, all that could be substantiated against him was, that he had
said "that goodman Palsgrave and goodwife Palsgrave had been
driven from Prague."
For this paltry offence—which would not now attract a passing notice
in a newspaper—the Commons adjudged Floyd to pay a fine of one
thousand pounds, to stand in the pillory in three different places,
and to be carried from place to place on a horse without a saddle,
and with his face to the tail. The Commons had clearly stepped out
of their jurisdiction to adjudge a man who was no member of their
House, and Floyd instantly appealed to the king against the
proceeding. James, who had so often been checked in his
prerogative by the Commons, did not neglect this grand opportunity
of rebuking their error. He sent the very next morning to demand by
what authority they condemned one who did not belong to them,
nor had committed any breach of their privileges; and still more, by
what right they sentenced him without evidence taken on oath?
This was a posing inquiry. The House was greatly disconcerted, for
they were clearly in the wrong, and the king in the right. It was a
hard matter, however, to confess their fault: the case was debated
warmly for several days; but at length it was agreed to confer with
the Peers, who asserted that the Commons had invaded their
privilege of pronouncing judgment in such cases. The Commons still
contended that they had a right to administer an oath, and therefore
to pass judgment. But the Lords would not admit this, and it was
agreed that the Lords should sentence Floyd, which they proceeded
to do, as exercising their own exclusive right, the Commons

contending that the Lords now judged him by a similar right by
which they had already judged him. The sentence was severe
enough to satisfy the Commons. The fine was increased from one to
five thousand pounds, Floyd was to be flogged at the cart's tail from
the Fleet to Westminster Hall, to sit in the pillory, to be degraded
from the rank of a gentleman, to be held infamous, and to be
imprisoned in Newgate for life.
Perhaps so atrocious a sentence was never pronounced for so trivial
an offence. It showed how little either the Lords or Commons were
yet to be trusted with the lives and liberties of the subject, and how
ill-defined were still their functions. The public expressed its
abhorrence of the barbarous proceeding, and Prince Charles exerted
himself to procure a mitigation of the punishment, but could only
succeed in obtaining the remission of the flogging. The Commons
having executed so much justice and so much injustice, but making
no approach to a vote of further supplies, James adjourned
Parliament on the 4th of June to November. Vehement as had been
the wrath of the Commons against a disrespectful allusion to the
Palsgrave, they had done nothing towards the defence of his
territory. As the public were by no means so indifferent on this point,
the fear of their constituents suddenly flashed on the Commons, and
they then made a declaration that if nothing effectual was done
during the recess for the restoration of the Elector Palatine and the
Protestant religion, they would sacrifice their lives and fortunes in
the cause. This was not only carried by acclamation, but Coke,
falling on his knees, with many tears and signs of deep emotion,
read aloud the collect for the king and royal family from the Book of
Common Prayer.
Parliament being adjourned, James proceeded to appoint a new Lord
Chancellor in the place of Bacon. There were three public candidates
for the office—Ley and Hobart, the two Chief Justices, and Lord
Cranfield, the Treasurer, who had been originally a city merchant,
but had risen by marrying a relative of Buckingham's. But there was
another and still more extraordinary competitor determined on by
Buckingham and James for the Chancellorship—no other than a

clergyman—Williams, late Dean of Westminster, now Bishop of
Lincoln. That a clergyman should be placed at the head of the Court
of Chancery instead of a lawyer, was enough to astonish not only the
members of the legal profession, but the whole public. Williams
himself was openly professing to support the claims of Cranfield, and
expressed astonishment when the post was offered to him. He
declared so strongly his sense of his incapacity for the office, being
inexperienced in matters of law, that he would only accept of it on
trial for eighteen months, and on condition that two judges should
sit with him to assist him. Yet this truly scandalous appointment was
actually made, the real cause out of doors being assigned that "his
too grate familiarity with Buckingham's mother procured him these
grate favours and preferments one a suddaine." It was some time
ere the barristers would plead before him.
But not the less did another event confound the dignitaries of the
Church. Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury, hunting with Lord
Zouch in Bramshill Park, in Hampshire, accidentally shot the keeper
of the Park in aiming at a buck. The verdict of the coroner's inquest
was unintentional homicide; but still the clergy contended that by
the canon law the shedding of blood had disqualified him for
discharging any ecclesiastical functions. Much censure was also
expressed on his engaging in hunting at all; and as there were just
then four bishops-elect who awaited consecration, they refused to
receive it at his hands. Amongst these were Williams, the Lord
Keeper, and Laud, Bishop of St. David's, who were supposed to be
partly influenced by a hope of securing the primacy, if Abbot were
pronounced disqualified. A commission, however, of prelates and
canonists proposed that the archbishop should be absolved from all
irregularity, and James, as head of the Church, granted him a pardon
and appointed eight bishops to give him absolution; but from this
time forward he seldom appeared at Court.
During the recess the king performed an act calculated to conciliate
the Commons. By the advice, as it was said, of Williams, the Lord
Keeper, he had abolished thirty-seven of the most oppressive of the
patents and monopolies, of which the Commons had so long

complained. But the effect of this was totally neutralised by other
measures of a contrary tendency. Complaints had been made of the
growing audacity of the Algerine pirates, who had not only seized
several English merchant ships in the Mediterranean, but even on
the British coast. James requested Spain, which also was a sufferer
from these robbers, to join in an expedition to burn all their ships
and destroy Algiers itself. Sir Robert Monsell was sent with a
squadron for this purpose, but the Spaniards did not join him, and
he was said to have a royal order not to risk his ships. Under such
circumstances, nothing very vigorous was to be expected, yet on the
24th of May Monsell sailed up to the fort, and the sailors set fire to
the ships and then retired. No attack was made on the town, and
the firing of the vessels was so imperfectly done, that the Algerines
soon put out the flames, and threw booms across the harbour to
prevent the re-entrance of the English. Only two of the pirate vessels
were consumed, and the Algerines, like a swarm of hornets irritated
in their nest but not injured, rushed forth soon afterwards in such
force and fury, that they speedily captured no less than five-and-
thirty English merchantmen. Loud and bitter were the complaints in
the country of this worse than useless proceeding.
To add to the ill-humour generated by this imbecile transaction, the
public had been greatly incensed by the arrest of a number of
liberal-minded men—the Earls of Oxford and Southampton, Sutcliffe,
Dean of Exeter, Brise, a Puritan preacher, Sir Christopher Neville, Sir
Edward Sandys, and Selden, the great lawyer and antiquary; and a
prosecution had been commenced against Sir Edward Coke, on no
less than eleven charges of misdemeanour during the time that he
was a judge. Coke, unlike Bacon, had amassed great wealth during
his official life, and it was understood that these charges of
peculation and bribery had been got up at the suggestion of Bacon
and Coke's own wife, Lady Hatton.
The Commons took up zealously the cause of their members, Sandys
and Coke. Sandys had been examined on some secret charge before
the Council, and after a month's detention was discharged. Being
confined to his bed at the commencement of the Session, two

members were appointed to wait on him and learn the cause of his
arrest, notwithstanding the assurance of the Secretary of State that
it had no connection with his conduct in the House. They also
ordered the Serjeant-at-Arms to take into custody the accusers of
Coke, and appointed a committee to examine witnesses. They felt
assured that the proceedings against these gentlemen originated
with their popular conduct in Parliament.
At the same time, Coke, in the Commons, proposed a petition to the
king against the increase of Popery and the marriage of the Prince of
Wales to a Catholic. It represented that the success in Germany
against the Elector Palatine had so encouraged the Papists, that they
flocked in crowds to the chapels of the foreign ambassadors; sent
their children abroad for education, and were treated with so much
lenity that, if not prevented, they would soon again be in the
ascendant. Spain was represented, without directly naming it, as the
worst enemy of England, and the king was implored to recall all the
children of Catholic noblemen and gentlemen from abroad, to marry
his son to a Protestant princess, and to enforce the laws with rigour
against the Papists.
James received a private copy of this petition, and was thrown into a
paroxysm of rage at its perusal. To dictate to him how he should
marry his son; to recommend that he should invade the territories of
Spain, and to reflect on the honour of his ally, the Spanish king,
were examples of intolerable interference with his dearly valued
prerogative. He wrote at once to the Speaker, denouncing certain
"fiery, popular, and turbulent spirits" in the House, and desiring them
not to concern themselves about such matters as were included in
the petition. Adverting to Sandys, he denied that his offence was
connected with the House of Commons, but at the same time
declared that the Crown possessed a right to punish subjects,
whether members of Parliament or not, and would not fail to
exercise it.
The House received this missive with much dissatisfaction, but with
dignity, and vindicated their right of liberty of speech in a firm

memorial. James replied that though their privileges were no
undoubted right, but were derived from the grace of his ancestors
on the throne, yet so long as they kept them within the limits of
duty, he should not exercise his prerogative and withdraw those
privileges. The House declared its high resentment at this language,
which reduced their right into mere matter of royal favour, and the
expression of feeling ran so high that James became alarmed, and
wrote to Secretary Calvert, instructing him to qualify his assertions a
little. But the House was not thus to be satisfied where the question
of its privileges was directly raised, and on the 18th of December it
drew up the following protest:—"That the liberties and jurisdictions
of Parliament are the most ancient and undoubted birthright and
inheritance of the subjects of England; that arduous and urgent
affairs concerning the king, the State, and defence of the realm, and
the Church of England, the making and maintenance of laws, and
the redress of grievances, are proper subjects of counsel and debate
in Parliament; that in the handling of these businesses every
member hath and ought to have freedom of speech; that the
Commons in Parliament have like liberty to treat of these matters in
such order as they think proper; that every member hath like
freedom from all impeachment, imprisonment, and molestation,
other than by the censure of the House itself, concerning any Bill,
speaking or reasoning touching Parliament matters; and that if any
be complained of for anything said or done in Parliament, the same
is to be showed to the king by assent of the Commons before the
king give evidence to any private information."
This was speaking out; the Parliament threw down the gage and
James, in his wrath, took it up. Forgetting that he was represented
as ill, he rode up to London in a fury and ordered the clerk of the
Commons to bring him the Journals of the House. According to
Rushworth, he tore out the obnoxious protest with his own hands, in
full Council, and in presence of the judges; at all events he cancelled
it; had what he had done entered in the Council-book; and on the
6th of January, 1622, by an insulting proclamation, dissolved
Parliament, assuring the public that it was on account of its evil

temper that he had dissolved the House of Commons, and not with
any intention of doing without one; that he should soon call another;
and in the meantime the country might rest assured that he would
endeavour to govern well.
The first proof of his notions of governing well was the summoning
of the Earls of Oxford and Southampton from the House of Peers, of
Coke, Philip, Pym, and Mallory from the Commons, and of Sir John
Selden, to appear before the Council. Some were committed to the
Tower, some to the Fleet, and others to the custody of private
individuals. Though nothing in either House could have occasioned
these arrests, various reasons were assigned for them. Moreover,
Selden was not a member of the Commons, and he therefore could
have incurred no blame there. But he was the legal adviser of
Sandys and others, who had made themselves prominent in the
popular cause, and he was known as one of the ablest legal
advocates of Parliamentary and public rights. The two Peers were
also at the head of a popular party which had sprung up in the
Lords, and the whole matter was too palpable for mistake. Nothing
could, however, be fixed on any of the prisoners which the
Government dared to charge as a crime, and after a sharp rebuke
they were liberated. There were still other members whose conduct
had excited the anger of the Court, but against whom no specific
charge could be established. These were Sir Dudley Digges, Sir
James Parrott, Sir Nathaniel Rich, and Sir Thomas Carew. To punish
them a singular mode was devised. They were appointed to a
commission in Ireland to inquire into the state of the army and navy,
into the condition of the Church and of public schools, into the
abuses in the collection of revenue and in the settlement of the
plantations, and into the existence of illegal and mischievous
patents. As it was extremely inconvenient for these gentlemen to
absent themselves on such business, they protested decidedly
against it; but they were told that the king had a right to the
services of his subjects, in any way that he pleased; and though
these gentlemen had stood boldly with their fellows in a collective
capacity for the rights of the subject, they were not sufficiently

screwed up to the pitch of martyrdom to stand upon their individual
freedom, and refuse at all costs. Coke, who had now taken the lead
in the popular cause, because the Court had repelled and dismissed
him, offered to accompany them, and assist them with his legal
advice and experience, but his offer was declined. The subjects of
inquiry, of themselves, were of a nature to furnish much strength
and information to the reformers, and the mode of punishing these
men was as short-sighted as it was arbitrary. But the great contest
was now fully begun, in which the blindness and tyranny of the
Stuarts, and the firm intelligence of the people, were to fight out the
grand question of constitutional government. Those who regard this
as a matter only of Charles I.'s reign have strangely overlooked the
doings and doctrines of James, who was the real author of the
conflict, and opened it himself with all the dogmatism which
distinguished the royal side to the end. This very session Prince
Charles had been a diligent attender of the House of Lords, but
seems to have had no perception whatever of the spirit which was
dominant in the House of Commons, and rapidly diffusing its electric
fire through the nation. The names of Pym, Coke, Wentworth, and
Laud, were already in men's mouths, the heralds of that mighty
host, which, for good or for evil, was soon to engage in terrible
combat; the issue of which was to be the morning-star of
governmental science to the nations, determining the true powers,
uses, and limitations of governments, as well as the liberty of the
people protected, by its own popular safeguards, from licence and
anarchy.

THE FLEET PRISON.
In foreign affairs James was placed in particular difficulties. The two
objects which he had more than all others at heart, were the
marriage of his son, the Prince of Wales, to the Infanta of Spain, and
the restoration of the Elector Palatine to his hereditary possessions.
He had tried too late to secure the Princess Christine of France. She
was already affianced to Philip of Spain. He had since negotiated for
the hand of Donna Maria of Spain. If he could accomplish this
marriage, he should be at once able to secure by it his other grand
desire—the restoration of the Palsgrave,—for Spain would then be
induced to withdraw its forces from the assistance of the Emperor
against the Palatinate, and to add its earnest co-operation in
arranging for the Palsgrave's re-instatement.
But against this project of marriage—the stepping-stone to these
measures in Germany—stood the aversion of the people in England
to a match with so pronouncedly Catholic a country as Spain, and so
bigoted a family as that of its Sovereign. Just as adverse were the

Spaniards, and especially the priests, to the young Infanta coming
into a heretical country, and to any impediment thrown in the way of
the Emperor of Germany exterminating the Protestants there. During
the life of Philip III., the father of Donna Maria, little progress was
made in these negotiations, but on the accession of his son Philip
IV., in 1621, the prospect brightened. Both James and Charles wrote
to the new king and his favourite Olivarez. In England Gondomar,
the Spanish minister, was warmly in favour of the alliance, seeing in
it a guarantee for the relief of the Catholics and of increased
strength against France. Lord Digby, now Earl of Bristol, late
ambassador at Madrid, was equally zealous for the marriage; and
James was the more eager for it as he saw no hope of aid in his
German project from France. There the feeble monarch, Louis XIII.,
was wholly in the hands of a despicable favourite, De Luynes, who
was insolently opposed to the English interests, though the French
people, from the hereditary hatred of the house of Austria, would
have gladly marched against the invaders of the Palatinate.
The affairs of Frederick, the Elector Palatine, were desperate. The
Palatinate, in fact, was already lost. Count Mansfeldt—the ablest
general who had fought for the Elector's interests—and the Prince
Christian of Brunswick, had evacuated the Palatinate; Heidelberg and
Mannheim were in the hands of the enemy; and these generals had
entered the service of the Dutch. The Emperor, in reward for the
successful services of Maximilian of Bavaria, had conferred on him
the Electorate of the Palatinate with the greater part of the territory.
James himself, to get rid of the maintenance of the garrison, had
given up Frankenthal to the Spaniards, on condition that if, within
eighteen months, a satisfactory peace were not made, it should be
returned. Everything, therefore, was lost, and James fondly hoped
that the Spanish match might yet recover everything.
Circumstances appeared to favour his hopes. The young King of
Spain and his minister, Olivarez, responded cordially to James's
proposal; Gondomar hastened on to Madrid to promote the object,
and was soon followed by the Earl of Bristol, equally earnest for the

accomplishment of the marriage. It was, however, necessary to
procure a dispensation for this union from the Pope, and this the
King of Spain undertook to procure through his ambassador at
Rome. James was not to appear at all in the affair, but with the
unconquerable propensity to be meddling personally in every
negotiation, he could not help despatching George Gage, a Catholic,
with letters to the Pontiff, as well as to the Cardinals Ludovisio and
Bandini; and Buckingham, to complete the intercession, sent Bennet,
a Catholic priest, on the same errand.
The Pope was not likely to grant the favour to James without a quid
pro quo, and therefore, as might have been expected, replied that
the canons of the Church could only be suspended for the benefit of
the Church; that the King of England had been very liberal of his
promises to the late King of Spain, but had performed nothing; he
must now give proof of his sincerity by relieving the English Catholics
from the pressure of his penal laws, and the request would be
accorded. This was a demand in limine which would have shown to
any prudent monarch the dangerous path he was entering upon; but
James trusted to his tortuous art of king-craft, and rashly set to work
to undo all that he had done throughout his reign against the
Catholics. He caused an order under the Great Seal to be issued,
granting pardons to all recusants who should apply for them within
five years; and the judges were commanded to discharge from
prison those who gave security for their compliance with these
terms.
There was a glad and universal acceptance of the proffered lenity by
the Catholics. The doors of the prisons were opened, and the
astonished Puritans saw thousands on thousands of the dreaded
Papists once more coming abroad. There was instantly a cry of
terror and indignation from John O'Groat's to the Land's End. The
pulpits resounded with the execrations of enthusiastic preachers on
the traitorous dealing of the Court, and the depicted horrors of
Catholic and Spanish ascendency. James trembled, but ordered the
Lord Keeper Williams and the Bishop of London to assure the public
that he was only seeking to gain better treatment for the Protestants

abroad, whom the Continental princes declared they would punish
with the same rigour as James had punished the Catholics in
England, unless the British severity was somewhat mitigated; and
that, moreover, there was no danger; for the recusants, though out
of prison, had still the shackles about their heels, and could at any
moment be remanded. This, without satisfying the Puritans, undid all
confidence amongst the Catholics. They recalled the habitual
duplicity of James and felt no longer any security; and when
Gondomar boasted in Spain that four thousand Catholics had been
released in England, those Catholics only remarked, "Yes; but we
have still the shackles about our heels, and may at any moment be
thrust again into our dungeons."
His only consolation was that the Spanish match now seemed really
to progress. On the 5th of January, 1623, the twenty articles
securing the freedom of her worship to the Infanta in England, the
cessation of persecution of the Catholics, and the exercise of their
religious rites in their own houses, were signed by James and Prince
Charles. The dower of the princess was to be two millions of ducats.
The espousals were to take place at Madrid by proxy, within forty
days from the receipt of the dispensation; and the princess was to
set out for England within three weeks. The time for the final
consummation of the marriage, and the intervals between the
several payments of the dower, were all fixed, and Gondomar and
Bristol congratulated themselves on the completion of their arduous
negotiation.
At this crisis, however, arrived two Englishmen at the Earl of Bristol's
residence at Madrid, under the names of John and Thomas Smith.
To the ambassador's astonishment and chagrin, on appearing before
him, they turned out to be no other than the Prince of Wales and
Buckingham, who had arrived in disguise, and with only three
attendants. But how this extraordinary and imprudent journey had
come about requires to be told with some detail. It was said to have
originated with Gondomar; it had been planned on his visit to
London the preceding summer, and had since been stimulated by his
letters. He is declared to have represented to the prince, who

complained of delay, that all obstacles would vanish at once if he
were to suddenly appear and press his own suit. The idea caught
the imagination of the prince, and was warmly seconded by
Buckingham, who not only longed to seek adventures among the
beauties of Madrid, but also hoped to snatch the achievement of the
match out of the hands of Bristol, whom he hated. If it were really
the scheme of the wily Spaniard, he must have prided himself
greatly on its success; a success, however, which produced its own
ruin.
When the plan was first opened to James by Charles and
Buckingham, he gave in to them without hesitation so much did he
desire to have the affair settled. But on thinking it over alone, he
was immediately sensible of the danger and the impolitic character
of the enterprise. He therefore begged the prince and the favourite
to give it up, pointing out, with great justice, how much they would
put themselves in the power of the Spaniards, what advantages they
would give them over them, and what a storm of anger and alarm
would break out at home as soon as it became known. The two
knights-errant bade him dismiss his fears, saying that all would go
well and that they had selected Sir Francis Cottington and Sir
Endymion Porter to attend them. James approved their choice, but
commanded Cottington to tell him plainly what he thought of the
project. Cottington, who did not seem yet to have been let into the
secret, on hearing it, was much agitated and declared that it was a
rash and perilous adventure; whereupon James threw himself upon
his bed in an agony, crying—"I told you so; I told you so before. I
shall be undone, and lose baby Charles." The prince and
Buckingham were furious at the behaviour of Cottington, and
handled him severely; but after all, James, with his usual weakness,
gave his consent, and the travellers set forward on the 17th of
February, 1623, and after an adventurous journey arrived at their
destination.
Lord Bristol had despatched a messenger immediately on the prince
reaching his house, informing the king that his son and friend were
safe in Madrid, after a journey of sixteen days. Meanwhile, strange

rumours began to run about the Spanish capital that some great
man from England had arrived, supposed to be the king himself; and
it was deemed best to make the fact known to the Court.
Accordingly they sent for Gondomar, who hurried off to Court with
the welcome news. There were first private but stately interviews,
and then a public reception. The prince was first privately conducted
to the Monastery of St. Jerome, from which the Spanish kings
proceed to their coronation, and was then brought back publicly by
the king, his two brothers, and the élite of the Spanish nobility.
Charles rode at the king's right hand through the whole city to the
palace, when he was conducted to the apartments appropriated to
him. He had then a formal introduction to the queen and Infanta.
Charles had two keys of gold given him, by which he could pass into
the royal apartments at all hours, yet Spanish etiquette did not allow
him to converse with the Infanta except in public. Tired of this
restraint, Charles determined to break through the Court formality,
and speak unceremoniously with his proposed wife; wherefore,
hearing that Donna Maria used to go to the Casa de Campo on the
other side of the river to gather Maydew, he rose early and went
thither also. He passed through the house and garden, but found
that the princess was in the orchard, and between him and her a
high wall, and the door strongly bolted. Without further ceremony he
got over the wall, dropped down, and seeing the princess at a
distance, hastened towards her. But the princess, on perceiving him,
gave a shriek and ran off; and the old marquis, her guardian, falling
on his knees before the prince, entreated him to retire, as he should
lose his head if he permitted the interview. Accordingly he let him
out and rebolted the door.
Great were the public rejoicings, however, on account of this
chivalric visit. The king professed to feel himself much complimented
by the reliance of the English prince on the Spanish honour, on the
earnestness it evinced in the prosecution of his suit; and the people
as firmly calculated on his conversion to the Catholic faith. The
prisons were thrown open; presents and favours were heaped upon
him, the king insisted on his taking precedence of himself, and

assured him that any petition which he presented to him for a whole
month should be granted. There were bull-fights, tournaments,
fencing matches, feasts, and religious processions, held in his
honour and for his amusement.
But at home, dire was the consternation when it was known that
Charles had gone off with slight attendance to Spain. It was stoutly
declared that he would never escape alive from amongst the
inquisitions and monks of that priest-ridden country, or if he did, it
would only be as a Papist. The freedom of comment on the occasion
in the pulpits caused James to issue an order through the Bishop of
London that the clergy should not in their prayers "prejudicate the
prince's journey, but only pray to God to return him home in safety
again to us, and no more." Whereupon a preacher, with an air of
great simplicity, prayed that the prince might return in safety again,
and no more—that is, as it was understood, without a Catholic wife.
Yet to pacify his subjects, the king informed them that he had sent
after them two Protestant chaplains, together with all the stuff and
ornaments fit for the service of God. And he added, "I have fully
instructed them, so as all their behaviour and service shall, I hope,
prove decent and agreeable to the purity of the primitive Church,
and yet so near the Roman form as can lawfully be done. For," says
this stern persecutor of Catholicism, "it hath ever been my way to go
with the Church of Rome usque ad aras."
In so very complying a mood was James at this moment, that when
these chaplains asked him what they were to do if they met the Host
in the streets, he replied they must avoid meeting it whenever they
could; when they could not, they must do as the people did there.
And poor James soon found that he had need of all his moral
pliability. The Spanish Court, as might have been foreseen, once
having the prince in their power, resolved to benefit by it. They soon
let the prince and Buckingham know that the Pope made grave
difficulty about the dispensation, and the Papal nuncio was sternly
set against it, and it was inquired how far the prince could go in
concession. Buckingham wrote, therefore, to the king in these
ominous words:—"We would gladly have your directions how far we

may engage you in the acknowledgment of the Pope's special power,
for we almost find, if you will be contented to acknowledge the Pope
chief head under Christ, that the match will be made without him."
This was asking everything and James was brought to a stand. He
wrote in reply that he did not know what they meant by
acknowledging the Pope's spiritual supremacy. He was sure they
would not have him renounce his religion for all the world.
"Perhaps," he wrote, "you allude to a passage in my book against
Cardinal Bellarmine, where I say that if the Pope would quit his
godhead and usurping over kings, I would acknowledge him for chief
bishop, to whom all appeals of Churchmen ought to lie en dernier
ressort. That is the farthest my conscience would permit me to go;
for I am not a monsieur who can shift his religion as easily as he can
shift his shirt when he cometh from tennis."

PUBLIC RECEPTION OF PRINCE CHARLES IN MADRID. (See p. 492.)
That Buckingham would have advised Charles to abandon his
religion for the achievement of his object, had he dared, there is
little question, for his mother was an avowed Papist and was his
constant prompter in his policy. Before leaving London, the two
adventurers had obtained the king's solemn promise in writing, that
whatever they agreed to with the Spanish monarch he would ratify;
so that James might well be alarmed at their suggestion. Charles, in
fact, did not hesitate, in reply to a letter from the Pope, to pledge
himself to abstain from every act hostile to the Catholic religion, and
to seek every opportunity of accomplishing the reunion of the
Church of England with that of Rome. The letter—which, Lord

Clarendon truly says, "is, by your favour, more than a compliment"—
may be seen in the Hardwicke papers. Charles afterwards said that it
was only a promise that he never meant to keep; we may therefore
see that already his father's notions of king-craft had taken full
possession of him, which, with his large self-esteem and a
persevering disposition, produced in him that fatal mixture of
determination and unscrupulous insincerity which ruined him.
Instead of a firm resistance to the palpable schemes of the Pope and
the Spaniard, and a truthful candour which would have convinced
them that they had no chance of moving him, he led them by his
apparent acquiescence to believe that they could win him over; and
when they had carried him beyond the bounds of prudence, and
much beyond those of honesty, he had no alternative but to steal
away and repudiate his own solemn words and acts. Is it at all to be
wondered at that neither foreign nations nor his own could ever
after put faith in him? The sophistry and absolutism of the father
had already destroyed the son, by perverting his moral constitution.
It is probable that Charles also acquired a strong taste for
ecclesiastical pomp and circumstance during this visit and its
religious shows and ceremonies, which falling in afterwards with the
ambitious taste of Laud, also tended to direct him towards the same
"facilis descensus Averni."
James had despatched after the prince a great number of people, to
form a becoming attendance on the heir of England. Others flocked
thither of their own accord and especially Catholic refugees, who
swarmed in the prince's court, and particularly about Buckingham.
The Jesuits did their best to convert them, and were encouraged by
every appearance of success. Though James had sent what he called
the "stuff and ornaments" for public Protestant worship, we are
informed that these were never used; for though the Prince had the
Earl of Carlisle, and the Lords Mountjoy, Holland, Rochfort, Andover,
Denbigh, Vaughan, and Kensington, besides a number of other
courtiers and their dependents around him, they had no public
worship, as if they were ashamed of their heretical faith, or feared to
offend their Catholic friends. Charles contented himself with bed-

chamber prayers. The consequence was, as Howell, who was there,
wrote, that the Spaniards, hardly believing the English Christians and
seeing no evidence of worship, set them down as little better than
infidels. This occasioned great discontent amongst the more
conscientious of the retinue, and they did not hesitate to avow their
religious belief, and their contempt of the mummery which they saw
around them, which led to much scandal and anger. Archie, or
Archibald, Armstrong, the famous Court fool, whom oddly enough
James had sent as well as the Church plate and vestments, seemed
to think himself privileged by his office to say what he pleased, and
he did not hesitate to laugh at the religious ceremonies, and argue
on religious points with all the zeal of a Scottish Presbyterian, as he
was. Others even proceeded to blows. Sir Edward Varney, finding a
priest at the bedside of a sick Englishman, struck him under the ear
and they fell to fighting till they were thrust asunder.
This state of things would not have been tolerated so near the
Inquisition except for the great end in view—the belief that Charles
would become a Catholic. Gregory XV. had written to the Inquisitor-
General to this effect:—"We understand that the Prince of Wales, the
King of Great Britain's son, is lately arrived there, carried with a hope
of Catholic marriage. Our desire is that he should not stay in vain in
the courts of those to whom the defence of the Pope's authority, and
care of advancing religion, hath procured the renowned name of
Catholic. Wherefore, by apostolic letters, we exhort his Catholic
majesty that he would gently endeavour sweetly to reduce the
prince to the obedience of the Roman Church, to which the ancient
kings of Great Britain, with Heaven's approbation, submitted their
crowns and sceptres. Now, to the attaining of this victory, which to
the conquered promiseth triumphs and principalities of heavenly
felicity, we need not exhaust the king's treasures, nor levy armies of
furious soldiers, but we must fetch from heaven the armour of light,
whose divine splendour may allure the prince's eye, and gently expel
all errors from his mind. Now, in the managing of these businesses,
what power and art you have, we have well known long ago;
wherefore, we wish you to go like a religious counsellor to the

Catholic king, and to try all ways which, by this present occasion,
may benefit the kingdom of Britain and the Church of Rome. The
matter is of great weight and moment, and therefore not to be
amplified with words. Whoever shall inflame the mind of this royal
youth with a love of the Catholic religion, and breed a hate in him of
heretical impiety, shall begin to open the kingdom of heaven to the
Prince of Britain, and to gain the kingdom of Britain to the Apostolic
See."
It was easy to foresee that this absurd journey would lead to these
determined attempts to regain the rich islands of Great Britain to the
Catholic Church. The Catholics everywhere regarded the rupture to
have been occasioned by Henry VIII.'s Protestant marriage, and
nothing appeared so likely as that a Catholic marriage would heal it.
It was not so easy to foresee that Charles, at the age of twenty-
three, should so consummately act the hypocrite. He wrote to the
Pope, in reply to a most gracious and paternal letter from his
holiness, calling him "Most Holy Father," telling him how much he
deplored the division of the Churches and longed to restore union.
Gregory was dead before this extraordinary epistle arrived at Rome,
but Urban VIII., the new Pope, lifted up his hands in joyful
astonishment on reading it, and "gave thanks to the Father of
Mercies, that on the very entrance of his reign a British prince
performed this kind of obeisance to the Pope of Rome." Having
apparently so favourable a subject to operate upon, Olivarez now
told Charles that the treaty entered into through the Earl of Bristol
had been rather for show than use, and that now, as the prince and
his able adviser were there themselves, they should make a real and
effective compact. Accordingly, in spite of the strenuous
remonstrances of the two British ambassadors against re-opening
the question already settled, Charles and Buckingham permitted it;
and the Spanish minister found little difficulty in introducing several
new and more favourable clauses. There was, in fact, a public and a
private treaty agreed to. By the public one the marriage was to be
celebrated in Spain and afterwards in England; the children were to
remain in the care of their mother till ten years of age; the Infanta,

was to have an open church and chapel for the free exercise of her
religion, and her chaplains were to be Spaniards under the control of
their own bishops. By the private treaty it was engaged that the
penal laws against Catholics should be suspended; that Catholic
worship should be freely performed in private houses; that no
attempts should be made to entice the princess to abandon her
hereditary faith; and that the king should swear to obtain the repeal
of the penal Statutes by Parliament.
When this treaty was sent home, James was struck with
consternation. He had pledged himself to Charles and Buckingham
not to communicate any of their proceedings to the Council; but the
present responsibility was overwhelming and he therefore opened
his difficulty to the Council. After making what the Secretary of the
Council calls "a most sad, fatherly, kind, wise, pious, manly, stout
speech as ever was heard," the lords of the Council came to the
conclusion, though reluctantly and with fear, that the prince's honour
must be maintained and the oath to keep the treaty taken. This,
however, was only the public treaty; James kept the private one to
himself and swore to it separately.
Having got the English Court, as they supposed, thus secured, both
the Pope and the Spaniard raised their heads still higher and showed
that they meant to exact the utmost possible concession. In Spain
the Papal dispensation for the marriage was already in the hands of
the nuncio, but he refused to deliver it till the King of England,
according to his oath, had obtained the repeal of the penal Statutes
by Parliament; while in England James refused to go a step farther
till the marriage was celebrated and the first instalment of the dower
paid. When the king's resolve was known, it was conceded that the
marriage should at once take place, but that the princess and the
dower should remain in Spain till the stipulated indulgence to the
English Catholics was obtained from Parliament. James refused this,
and sent word that the marriage must be celebrated and the prince
bring home his bride, or come without the wedding: this brought the
Spaniards down a little. The ambassadors in London assured James
that a royal proclamation would satisfy them, but he replied that a

proclamation without the added sanction of Parliament was no law;
that, however, he would issue an order for Catholic indulgence under
the Great Seal. This they were obliged to be satisfied with; but when
it came, to the Lord Keeper Williams, he refused to put the Great
Seal to it, as a most dangerous act, without precedent.
As there was no prospect of a speedy settlement, Charles, who had
probably grown tired of a princess surrounded by such a hedge of
difficulties and delays, desired his father to send him an order for his
recall. It would appear as if the prince had planned the mode of his
retreat, for the preparations for the marriage of the Infanta
proceeded, on the understanding that she was to continue in Spain
till spring. James was apparently occupied in preparing grand
wedding presents for the bride, and a small fleet to bring her home.
This, if carried out, must have been very onerous to him; for he had
already made doleful representations to Charles and Buckingham, of
the exhaustion of his treasury by his remittance of five thousand
pounds, and three thousand pounds for their "tilting stuff," &c. At
Madrid the marriage articles were signed and confirmed by oath, the
Infanta assumed the title of Princess of England, and had a Court
formed of corresponding importance.
Never was the marriage so far off. Charles and Buckingham had
resolved to steal away and abandon the whole affair. They felt that
they were regularly entrapped through their folly; and other causes
rendered a speedy exit necessary. Buckingham—vain, empty, and
sensual—had given way without caution or control to his
licentiousness and love of parade. To make him more fitting for the
companion of his son, James had raised him to the rank of duke
since his departure. His extravagance, his amours, his haughty
bearing, and unceremonious treatment of both his own prince and
the grandees of Spain, astonished all Madrid. He introduced the very
worst people, men and women, into the palace, and would sit with
his hat on when the prince himself was uncovered. His behaviour in
the presence of the King of Spain was just as irreverent, and the
minister Olivarez was so incensed at his insolence that he detested
him. He had the soul of an upstart lackey under the title of a duke,

and was never easy unless he could outshine all the grandees at the
Spanish Court. He was perpetually importuning the king to supply
orders, jewels, and money. Georges and garters were sent over in
numbers to confer on different courtiers, and the constant cry of
Buckingham's letters was "Jewels, jewels, jewels." He represented
how rich the Spaniards were in jewels, and how poor those looked
which they themselves already had. He described the prince as quite
mean in his appearance, compared with the Spanish splendour. "Sir,
he hath neither chain nor hatband, and I beseech you consider first
how rich they are in jewels here; then in what a poor equipage he
came in; how he hath no other means to appear like a king's son;
how they are usefullest at such a time as this, when you may do
yourself, your son, and the nation honour; and lastly, how it will
neither cost nor hazard you anything. These reasons, I hope, since
you have already ventured your chiefest jewel, your son, will serve
to persuade you to let loose these more after him:—first, your best
hatband, the Portugal diamond, the rest of the pendent diamonds to
make up a necklace to give his mistress, and the best rope of pearl,
with a rich chain or two for himself to wear, or else your dog must
want a collar, which is the ready way to put him into it. There are
many other jewels, which are of so mean quality as deserve not that
name, but will save much in your purse, and serve very well for
presents."
The prince quite aware that he had entangled himself in
engagements that he could only keep at the risk of his father's
crown, and Buckingham equally aware of the hatred which he had
excited in a proud and vengeful nation, the two agreed to put the
most honest possible face on the matter, and get away. Charles,
therefore, presented his father's order for their return, and pledging
himself to fulfil the marriage according to the articles; nay, appearing
most eager for its accomplishment before Christmas, they were
permitted to take their leave, loaded with valuable presents. The
king gave the prince a set of fine Barbary horses, a number of the
finest pictures by Titian and Correggio, a diamond-hilted sword and
dagger, and various other arms of the richest fashion and ornament.

The queen gave him a great many bags of amber, dressed kid-skins,
and other articles; and Olivarez also presented him with a number of
fine Italian pictures and costly articles of furniture. In return, Charles
gave the king diamond-studded hilts for a sword and dagger, to the
queen a pair of rich earrings, and to the Infanta the string of pearls
recommended by Buckingham, to which was attached a diamond
anchor, as an emblem of his constancy. He affected the utmost
distress at leaving his bride even for a short time only, and the
princess ordered a Mass for his safe journey home.
Never did appearances look more real, never were they more hollow.
The Spaniards had endeavoured by every act, into which the sacred
name of religion had been dragged, to make the most of their
advantage in the presence of the prince, and to extort terms beyond
the original contract; they were, therefore, properly punished. But
nothing could justify the deep and deliberate falsehood, and
repeated perjury of a young Protestant prince, whose conduct
stamped a deep stain on his country and on Protestantism itself. The
Protestants had long and loudly denounced the jesuitry of the
Catholics, and asserted that no faith could be put in their most
solemn engagements. Here, however, was a voluntary surrender of
the pure and lofty morality of Protestantism, a willing abasement of
its honour to the level of the worst Catholic duplicity. We shall see
that the whole of Charles's conduct was lamentably in keeping with
this unprincipled beginning.

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