Costs Analysis and Toxicity of Jatropha Curcas Oil on the Maize Weevil Pest

Crop Production without Fossil Fuel
Production Systems for Tractor Fuel and Mineral
Nitrogen Based on Biomass

Serina Ahlgren
Faculty of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences
Department of Energy and Technology
Uppsala

Doctoral Thesis
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
Uppsala 2009

Acta Universitatis agriculturae Sueciae
2009:78

Cover: Straw bale in Hummelsta
(photo: S. Ahlgren)

ISSN 1652-6880
ISBN 978-91-576-7425-8
© 2009 Serina Ahlgren, Uppsala
Print: SLU Service/Repro, Uppsala 2009

Crop Production without Fossil Fuel. Production Systems for
Tractor Fuel and Mineral Nitrogen Based on Biomass

Abstract
With diminishing fossil fuel reserves and concerns about global warming, the
agricultural sector needs to reduce its use of fossil fuels. The objective of this thesis
was to evaluate different systems for biomass-based production of tractor fuel and
mineral nitrogen fertilisers, which at present are the two largest fossil energy carriers
in Swedish agriculture. The land use, energy input and environmental load of the
systems were calculated using life cycle assessment methodology.
Two categories of renewable tractor fuel were studied: first generation fuels and
second generation fuels, the latter defined as fuels not yet produced on a
commercial scale. An organic farm self-sufficient in tractor fuel was modelled. Raw
material from the farm was assumed to be delivered to a large fuel production
facility and fuel transported back to the farm, where it was utilised. In general, the
second generation renewable fuels had higher energy balance and lower
environmental impact than the first generation fuels. However all systems studied
reduced the use of fossil fuels to a great extent and lowered the contribution to
global warming. The land needed to be set aside for tractor fuel varied between 2%
and 5% of the farm’s available land.
Two major routes for biomass-based production of mineral nitrogen for
conventional agriculture were studied, one based on anaerobic digestion and one on
thermochemical gasification of biomass. The crops studied were able to produce
between 1.6 and 3.9 tonnes N per hectare in the form of ammonium nitrate. The
use of fossil fuel for ammonium nitrate production was 35 MJ per kg N in the fossil
reference scenario, but only 1-4 MJ per kg N in the biomass systems. The
contribution to global warming can be greatly reduced by the biomass systems, but
there is an increased risk of eutrophication and acidification.
It is clear that the agricultural sector has great potential to reduce the use of fossil
fuel and to lower the emissions of greenhouse gases by utilising biomass resources.
However, there are many other issues to be addressed when utilising biomass
energy, for example the trade-off between different environmental impacts and the
use of limited resources such as fresh water, phosphorus and ecosystem services.

Keywords: agriculture, fossil fuels, biofuels, bioenergy, diesel, nitrogen fertiliser, life
cycle assessment, global warming, acidification, eutrophication

Author’s address: Serina Ahlgren, slu, Department of Energy and Technology,
P.O. Box 7032, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
E-mail: Serina.Ahlgren@et.slu.se

Dedication
I dedicate this thesis to Gubben Gran, Skruttfian and Prinsen.

It suddenly struck me that that tiny pea, pretty and blue, was the Earth. I put up my
thumb and shut one eye, and my thumb blotted out the planet Earth. I didn't feel
like a giant. I felt very, very small.
Neil Armstrong

4

Contents
List of Publications 7

Abbreviations 9

1 Introduction 11
1.1 Energy use in Swedish agriculture 11
1.2 Use of alternative tractor fuel 12
1.3 Production of renewable tractor fuel 14
1.4 Production of mineral nitrogen 15
1.5 Emissions from Swedish agriculture 16
1.6 Organic farming 17

2 Objectives and structure of the work 19
2.1 Objectives 19
2.2 Structure 20

3 Life cycle assessment in the context of the present work 23
3.1 LCA basics 23
3.2 LCA, energy and resources 25
3.3 LCA case studies of renewable fuels and mineral nitrogen 25
3.4 LCA and soil systems 26
3.5 LCA and land use 28

4 Organic farm self-suffient in tractor fuel (Papers I-III) 31
4.1 System description 31
4.2 Results 33
4.2.1 Energy balance 33
4.2.2 Land use 35
4.2.3 Global warming 37
4.2.4 Eutrophication 38
4.2.5 Acidification 39
4.3 Discussion of the results 40
4.3.1 Results compared with diesel 40
4.3.2 Including machinery 41
4.3.3 Economic allocation and price fluctuations 41
4.3.4 Soil carbon and nitrous oxide 42
4.3.5 Choice of functional unit 43

5

4.4 Discussion of the techno/economic systems 44
4.5 Conclusions of Papers I, II and III 45

5 Mineral nitrogen from biomass (Papers IV and V) 47
5.1 System description 47
5.2 Results 48
5.2.1 Fossil energy input 48
5.2.2 Land use 48
5.2.3 Global warming 49
5.2.4 Eutrophication 50
5.2.5 Acidification 51
5.3 Discussion of the results 52
5.4 Conclusions of Papers IV and V 53

6 General discussion 55
6.1 The concept of self-sufficiency 55
6.2 Amount of biomass needed for tractor fuel and nitrogen 56
6.3 Best use of biomass resources 57
6.4 Availability of land and biomass 58
6.5 Constraints on transition to fossil fuel-free crop production 60
6.6 Weighting of environmental impact categories 62
6.7 The concept of sustainability 63
6.8 Future research 64

7 Conclusions and final remarks 67

References 69

Acknowledgements 77

6

List of Publications
This thesis is based on the work contained in the following papers, referred
to by Roman numerals in the text:

I Hansson, P.A., Baky, A., Ahlgren, S., Bernesson, S., Nordberg, A.,
Norén, O. & Pettersson, O. (2007). Self-sufficiency of motor fuels on
organic farms – Evaluation of systems based on fuels produced in
industrial-scale plants. Agricultural Systems 94(3), 704-714.

II Ahlgren, S., Baky, A., Bernesson, S., Nordberg, Å., Norén, O. &
Hansson, P.A. (2008). Future fuel supply systems for organic production
based on Fischer-Tropsch diesel and dimethyl ether from on-farm-grown
biomass. Biosystems Engineering 99(1), 145-155.

III Ahlgren, S., Baky, A., Bernesson, S., Nordberg, Å., Norén, O. &
Hansson, P.-A. (2009). Tractive power in organic farming based on fuel
cell technology – Energy balance and environmental load. Agricultural
Systems 102(1-3), 67-76.

IV Ahlgren, S., Baky, A., Bernesson, S., Nordberg, Å., Norén, O. &
Hansson, P.-A. (2008). Ammonium nitrate fertiliser production based on
biomass – Environmental effects from a life cycle perspective. Bioresource
Technology 99(17), 8034-8041.

V Ahlgren, S., Bernesson, S., Nordberg, Å. & Hansson, P.-A. Nitrogen
fertiliser production based on biogas – Energy input, environmental
impact and land use (manuscript).

Papers I-IV are reproduced with the permission of the publishers.

7

The contribution of Serina Ahlgren to the papers included in this thesis was
as follows:

I Collected some input data for the calculations, wrote part of the paper
together with the co-authors.

II Planned the paper together with the co-authors. Carried out the data
collection and impact assessment. Wrote the paper with input from the
co-authors.

III Planned the paper together with the co-authors. Carried out the data
collection and impact assessment together with Baky. Wrote the paper
with input from the co-authors.

IV Planned the paper together with the co-authors. Carried out the data
co-authors.

V Planned the paper together with the co-authors. Carried out the data
co-authors.

8

Abbreviations
AN Ammonium nitrate
DME Dimethyl ether
FC Fuel cell
FTD Fischer-Tropsch diesel
FU Functional unit
GHG Greenhouse gas
ICE Internal combustion engine
LCA Life cycle assessment
MeOH Methanol
RME Rape methyl ester

9

1 Introduction
Modern agriculture, as we know it, is dependent on the input of cheap fossil
fuels. This was acknowledged already in the 1970s by Odum, who pointed
out that potatoes were not made from sun but from fossil fuel (Rydberg,
2007). However, fossil fuels will run out sooner or later, or become too
expensive to use. If we no longer have access to cheap fossil fuels, how will
we then produce enough food, and energy, for a growing world population?
Even if the fossil resources were to last longer than anticipated by various
peak oil theories, the combustion of fossil energy leads to emissions of
carbon dioxide. These emissions and their impact on the climate system are
regarded by many people as the greatest threat to humanity.
This thesis addresses the question of how agricultural production can be
carried out in a modern and efficient way without fossil fuel inputs.

1.1 Energy use in Swedish agriculture
The total use of energy in Swedish agriculture is estimated to be 9.2 TWh
(33 PJ) per year (Figure 1). The energy use can be divided into two parts,
direct and indirect. The direct energy is the energy used on farms, while the
indirect energy is the energy used for producing purchased inputs, although
not including the production of machinery and buildings.

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Direct energy use 5,9 TWh
Direct energy use 5.9 TWh Indirect energy use 3.3 TWh

Liquid biofuels Transport of inputs
1% 4%
Solid biofuels
20% Imported fodder
27%

Diesel Artificial fertilisers
48% 56%
Electricity
18% Silage plastic 7%

Seed 1%
Oil Pesticides
13% 5%

Figure 1. Direct and indirect use of energy in Swedish agriculture. Based on SJV (2009b),
SCB (2008), Edström et al. (2005) and Jenssen & Kongshaug (2003).

The largest direct energy use is the use of fossil diesel (primarily for
tractor fuel). Fossil oil and solid biofuels (mainly wood products and straw)
are used for heating animal houses and drying grain (SCB, 2008). Electricity
is primarily used in animal production. The Swedish electricity production
mix consists mainly of hydro and nuclear power and only 3.5% is based on
fossil energy (Energimyndigheten, 2008).
The largest indirect energy use is the production of fertilisers. The energy
used for fertiliser production is largely due to production of nitrogen
fertilisers, the main energy carrier being natural gas. The energy
consumption for nitrogen production was assumed here to be 39 MJ (11
kWh) per kg N, which is an average European figure based on Jenssen &
Kongshaug (2003). To a large extent the other indirect energy inputs are
also based on fossil resources, for example silage plastic and the production
of imported fodder.
Together, diesel and nitrogen fertilisers represent about 51% (4.7 TWh
or 17 PJ per year) of the total energy use in agriculture.

1.2 Use of alternative tractor fuel
th
Before the 20 century, the use of fossil fuels was rare in agriculture.
Animals such as horses and oxen were commonly used as a power source,
and still are in many developing countries. To fuel these power sources,

12

renewable energy was needed in the form of animal feed. Steam-powered
th
tractors were developed in the early 20 century, but were soon replaced by
petrol- and kerosene-powered tractors (Carroll, 2002). In a period during
World War II, the use of liquid fossil fuels for tractors was restricted due to
supply limitations. In Sweden, the problem was solved by converting
tractors to operate on wood or coal gas.
In the Swedish agricultural sector at present, the use of alternative tractor
fuel, mainly rape methyl ester (RME), is a moderate 1.4% of fossil fuel use
on an energy basis (SCB, 2008). However, many research and
demonstration projects for renewable tractor fuel or mixes of fossil and
renewable fuel have been conducted. For example in the 1980s, the use of
vegetable oils as tractor fuel was given a lot of attention (Jones & Peterson,
2002) and this is still a relevant research topic (Bernesson, 2004; Grau et al.
in press). Research is also being conducted on ethanol (Bernesson et al.,
2006) and biogas (Lampinen, 2004) for use in tractors.
In a European Union funded project, a solar-powered agricultural vehicle
has been developed (Mousazadeh et al., 2009). Batteries are charged up with
solar power and used in small agricultural vehicles up to 40 hp, a system that
can work well in the Mediterranean climate.
The manufacturer New Holland has recently released a concept tractor, a
fuel cell 75 kW tractor operated on compressed hydrogen stored in an
integrated tank under the hood (Figure 2). The use of fuel cells in tractors is
not a new concept however, as the world’s first fuel cell vehicle was a
tractor built in 1959 by Allis Chalmer (Figure 2). It was equipped with 1008
individual alkaline fuel cells and had an output of 15 kW of electricity
(Andújar & Segura, 2009).

Figure 2. Left: the first fuel cell vehicle in the world, an Allis Chalmer tractor built in 1959
(photo courtesy of Science Service Historical Image Collection). Right: the new fuel cell
concept tractor built by New Holland in 2008 (photo courtesy of New Holland).

13

1.3 Production of renewable tractor fuel
Most agricultural tractors, harvesters and other machines operate on diesel.
The production of alternative fuel for tractors would therefore be the same
as for any other diesel vehicle. Although there is no official classification of
renewable fuels into groups, it is common to refer to first and second
generation fuels.
First generation renewable fuels are usually defined as those that can be
produced with current technology on a commercial scale. Ethanol is
produced via a fermentation process from sugar-rich crops such as sugar beet
and sugar cane and from starch-rich crops such as cereals (Balat & Balat,
2009). Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), sometimes referred to as bio-diesel,
also belong to the first generation fuels. An example of FAME is RME,
produced from transesterification of rapeseed oil. FAME can also be
produced from animal fat, palm oil, soy oil, etc. (Basha et al., 2009). Biogas
from anaerobic digestion of crops and waste is also referred to as a first
generation fuel (Börjesson & Mattiasson, 2008).
Second generation renewable fuels are usually defined as those fuels that
are not yet produced on a commercial scale. Examples are ethanol from
lignocellulosic material and fuels produced via thermochemical gasification
of non-food biomass and waste such as Fischer Tropsch diesel (FTD),
dimethyl ether (DME), hydrogen and methanol (RENEW, 2008).
In a thermochemical gasification process, the flow of oxidation medium
(usually air, oxygen or steam) is restricted. Instead of producing heat as in a
combustion process, the main product is an energy-rich gas. Depending on
the oxidation material and the configuration of the gasifier, the gas consists
of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide
(McKendry, 2002). The gas also contains a number of unwanted substances
such as particles, tar, nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and alkali
compounds, which have to be removed. After cleaning, the gas can be
upgraded in a steam reforming and shift conversion step in order to increase
the yield of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (Balat et al., 2009):

CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2 (steam reforming)
CO + H2O CO2 + H2 (water-gas shift)

If necessary, carbon dioxide can be separated from the exiting gas flow. The
cleaned and upgraded gas consisting of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is
usually referred to as synthesis gas or simply syngas. The syngas can be
converted to many different fuels in reactors with different catalysts,
pressures and temperatures.

14

The conversion of solids to liquid and gaseous fuels is not new, as
gasification of coal has been performed since World War II. However, using
biomass as the raw material sets new demands on gasification technology,
not least for the gas cleaning phase (RENEW, 2008).
Sometimes even a third generation of renewable fuels is mentioned,
defined as new and hybrid processing technologies that convert organic
materials to fuels (Ruth, 2008). This includes for example cultivation of
cyanobacteria or microalgae that produce hydrogen. Artificial photosynthesis
is also a promising concept; research is being conducted to imitate the
enzymatic process that green plants use to capture sunlight and split water
molecules into oxygen and hydrogen (STEM, 2007).

1.4 Production of mineral nitrogen
Use of artificial fertilisers based on fossil fuels became common after World
War II, significantly increasing yields, and is considered as one of the
prerequisites for the global population growth we have seen in the last
century (Smil, 2001).
The basic component in current industrial nitrogen fertiliser production
is ammonia. Ammonia is formed in the Haber-Bosch process, the overall
reaction being N2 + 3H2 2NH3 . At present, the production of ammonia
is most commonly based on steam reforming of natural gas, but gasification
of coal and heavy oil also occurs (Appl, 1999). The fossil resource is needed
to produce the hydrogen used, while the nitrogen is derived from normal
air.
However, if biomass can replace the fossil fuel, it would be possible to
produce mineral nitrogen fertilisers based on renewable sources. In the wake
of the 1970s energy crisis, some research was carried out to investigate the
possibilities of producing nitrogen fertilisers without fossil fuel (Grundt &
Christiansen, 1982; Dubey, 1978). These studies were based on electrolysis
of water to produce the hydrogen needed for ammonia synthesis. A more
recent project with water electrolysis is being carried out in Minnesota, US.
A demonstration plant is about to be built with a windmill driving an
electrolysis process that supplies hydrogen to a small-scale ammonia
production plant (Hagen, 2009).
Ammonia can be used directly as a fertiliser, as is done for example in the
US (IFA, 2009). In Europe, however, it is more common for the ammonia
to be further processed into solid fertilisers, as a straight nitrogen fertiliser or
as a combined fertiliser with phosphorus and potassium. The most
commonly used straight nitrogen fertilisers in Europe are ammonium nitrate

15

(AN) and calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), accounting for 43% of the
nitrogen sold in fertilisers (EFMA, 2009). Ammonium nitrate is produced by
reaction of ammonia and nitric acid. Carbonate can be added as a filler in a
final step to produce calcium ammonium nitrate (EFMA, 2000).

1.5 Emissions from Swedish agriculture
According to the Swedish national inventory report (Naturvårdsverket,
2009a), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from Swedish agriculture
amounted to 8.43 million tonnes CO2-equivalents during 2007,
corresponding to 13% of national greenhouse gas emissions. This is mainly
from animal production (methane) and soil emissions (nitrous oxide).
However, that figure does not include the production of inputs such as
diesel, fertilisers and imported fodder, nor carbon dioxide release from
organic soils.
In a study by Engström et al. (2007), the emissions of GHG from the
entire food chain, including the food industry, exports and imports, was
calculated to be about 14 million tonnes CO2-equivalents. In another study,
conducted by the Swedish Board of Agriculture (SJV, 2008), the GHG
emissions from agriculture were estimated to be 15 million tonnes CO2-
equivalents per year, the largest contribution coming from nitrous oxide
emissions from soil (Table 1). However, that report points out the large
uncertainties in these quantifications, especially for the nitrous oxide
emissions from soil and the carbon dioxide from managed organic soils.

Table 1. Distribution of greenhouse gas emissions from Swedish agriculture (SJV, 2008)

Nitrous oxide from nitrogen in soil 30 %
Carbon dioxide from managed organic soils 25 %
Methane from animal digestion 20 %
Production of mineral fertilisers 10 %
Methane and nitrous oxide from manure (storage and spreading) 7%
Carbon dioxide from fossil fuels 7%
Imported feed 3%

As can be seen in Table 1, the production of fertilisers and use of fossil
fuels account for only 17% of the GHG emissions from agriculture.
However, some of the other larger items are emissions that are steered by
biological activities and therefore difficult to control. The nitrogen and

16

diesel are however production systems where there is a practical possibility
to lower the GHG emissions.
The leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural soils is a large
contributor to eutrophication of water. Of total anthropogenic emissions,
40% of both the nitrogen and the phosphorus are estimated to originate
from agriculture. Other emission sources are sewage plants, domestic sewage
systems and industry (SJV, 2009a).
Emissions of ammonia from agriculture contribute to both eutrophication
and acidification. About 90% of the ammonia emissions in Sweden originate
from agriculture (Naturvårdsverket, 2009b). Ammonia emissions mainly
occur in manure management (storage and spreading), from grazing and
when applying mineral nitrogen fertilisers to soil. Another source of
eutrophication and acidifying emissions is NOx from combustion of diesel
and oil.

1.6 Organic farming
Organic production is defined by a number of fundamental characteristics
drawn up by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements (IFOAM) that are implemented in production standards
regulated by control organs on national level. One of the principal aims of
organic production is to use renewable resources to the greatest extent
possible in production and processing systems (IFOAM, 2006). This ought
to cover the use of fossil fuel for tractors, currently a topic of debate within
the organic movement (see for example KRAV (2009) and TPorganics
(2008)).
Certified organic production comprised 7% of Sweden’s arable land
during 2007 (SJV, 2009b). However, there is a great deal of land cultivated
organically that receives European Union subsidies for organic production,
but is not certified. Taking this into account, 17% of arable land is cultivated
organically in Sweden (SJV, 2009b).
In organic farming the use of mineral fertilisers is prohibited. The
nitrogen requirement can be met by adding organic fertilisers such as
manure, but on stockless farms it is common to use green manure, i.e. at
regular intervals cultivate a nitrogen-fixing crop, which is ploughed under.
This means that the average yields per hectare and year in a crop rotation are
lowered, since not every year brings a harvest. Furthermore, the use of
chemical weed and pest control is prohibited in organic farming, which can
lower the yields.

17

There are many studies on the differences in energy input between
organic and conventional farming, for example Gomiero et al. (2008), Bailey
et al. (2003), Dalgaard et al. (2001) and Cederberg & Mattsson (2000). There
are differences in results between studies, but for crop production in general
it seems that organic agriculture has lower yields per hectare. However,
since no mineral nitrogen is used the energy input per hectare is lower. As a
result, in most studies the overall energy input per unit mass of crop in the
organic production is equal to or lower than that in conventional. Since
mineral fertilisers are not used in organic farming, the dominant fossil energy
use is in tractor fuel consumption.

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2 Objectives and structure of the work
To ensure that agriculture can provide a reliable supply of food and energy
to society in the future, a transition from fossil fuels must occur sooner or
later within the agricultural sector. Even if fossil fuel availability does not
diminish within the near future, it is important to reduce the emissions of
greenhouse gases in order to slow down global warming. For organic
farming it is also a matter of principle, as the general aim of organic
production is to achieve a sustainable production system, based on
renewable resources and local supply of production inputs (IFOAM, 2006).
The Swedish organic regulatory organisation KRAV also has the goal of
minimising the use of fossil energy (KRAV, 2009). Since the energy debate
is raging and public interest in the energy issue is generally high, organic
production without fossil fuels would be a way to increase the credibility
and competitive power on the market. In addition, since the costs of fossil
energy carriers are increasing, another major reason for increased use of
renewable energy is strictly financial – to decrease overall production costs.
The two largest energy carriers in Swedish agriculture are diesel fuel and
mineral nitrogen fertilisers.

2.1 Objectives
The overall aim of this thesis was to study how the use of fossil fuels in crop
production can be reduced. The more specific objective was to evaluate
production systems for biomass-based tractor fuel and mineral nitrogen using
life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Land use, energy inputs and
environmental load were calculated for a number of selected systems.
Furthermore, the estimated costs and the technical appropriateness of the
systems were discussed. The systems studied were selected on the basis of
literature reviews and evaluation of the technical suitability of the systems for

19

the agricultural sector. These systems included both organic and
conventional agricultural methods, as well as both existing and emerging
energy conversion technologies.

2.2 Structure
The thesis deals with tractor fuel and mineral nitrogen fertilisers for organic
and conventional production, produced with existing and emerging
technologies (Figure 3).

Existing technologies Emerging technologies
Tractor fuel

Organic
farming
Paper I Paper II Paper III
Nitrogen fertilisers

Conventional
Paper V Paper IV

farming
Figure 3. Output, technology and farming system studied in Papers I-V of this thesis.

Paper I investigated an organic farm assumed to be self-sufficient in tractor
fuel. The fuels studied were ethanol, RME and biogas, assumed to be
produced with existing technology from winter wheat, rapeseed and ley,
respectively. The energy balance, land use and environmental load from
cradle to grave were calculated for the different systems. In paper I the costs
for the farmer was also evaluated.
Paper II studied the same organic farm self-sufficient in tractor fuel, but
with the fuels FTD and DME produced via gasification of straw and Salix.
Gasification of biomass is classified here as an emerging technology. The
energy balance, land use and environmental load from cradle to grave were
calculated for the different systems.

20

Paper III studied the same organic farm self-sufficient in tractor fuel, but
with the fuels methanol and hydrogen. These fuels were assumed to be
produced via gasification of straw and Salix. One scenario with hydrogen
produced from reforming of biogas was also studied, with ley as the raw
material for the biogas. The study was of a futuristic character, as the tractors
were assumed to driven by fuel cells (FC). The energy balance, land use and
environmental load from cradle to grave were calculated for the different
systems.
Paper IV investigated the production of mineral nitrogen via gasification
of straw and Salix. The fossil energy use, land use and environmental impact
were studied from cradle to factory gate for 1 kg of nitrogen. The use of the
nitrogen was hence not included in the study, which is a difference from the
previous papers. Since the study assumed gasification of the raw material, it
is classified here as an emerging technology. The raw material was assumed
to be conventionally produced.
Paper V studied the production of mineral nitrogen from cradle to gate
but with existing technology, a system possible to implement at the present
time. Conventionally grown ley and maize were studied as raw materials for
biogas production, with the biogas then distributed via pipelines to a large-
scale nitrogen fertiliser production plant.

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3 Life cycle assessment in the context of
the present work

3.1 LCA basics
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology used for studying the potential
impact on the environment caused by a chosen product, service or system.
The product is followed through its entire life cycle. The amount of energy
needed to produce the specific product and the environmental impact are
calculated. The life cycle assessment is limited by its outer system boundaries
(Figure 4). The energy and material flows across the boundaries are looked
upon as inputs (resources) and outputs (emissions).

Raw material acquisition

Processes RESOURCES
e.g. raw materials, energy,
land resources
Transports

Manufacture
EMISSIONS
Use to air, water, ground

Waste management

Figure 4. The life cycle model. Based on Baumann & Tillman (2004).

The methodology for the execution of a life cycle assessment is
standardised in ISO 14040 and 14044 series. According to this standard, a
life cycle assessment consists of four phases (Figure 5). The first phase
includes defining a goal and scope. This should include a description of why
the LCA is being carried out, the boundaries of the system, the functional
unit and the allocation procedure chosen. The second phase of an LCA is

23

the inventory analysis, i.e. gathering of data and calculations to quantify
inputs and outputs. The third phase is the impact assessment, where the data
from the inventory analysis are related to specific environmental hazard
parameters (for example CO2-equivalents). The fourth phase is
interpretation, where the aim is to analyse the results of the study, evaluate
and reach conclusions and recommendations (ISO, 2006). In an LCA study,
the phases are not carried out one by one but in an iterative process across
the different phases.

Goal and scope
definition

Interpretation
Inventory
analysis

Impact
assessment

Figure 5. Stages of an LCA (ISO, 2006).

There are two main types of LCA studies; attributional and
consequential. The attributional LCA study (sometimes also referred to as
accounting type LCA) focuses on describing the flows to and from a studied
life cycle. The consequential LCA (sometimes also referred to as change-
orientated type LCA) focuses on describing how flows will change in
response to possible decisions. Some authors state that attributional LCA are
mainly used for existing systems, while consequential LCA are used for
future changes (for example Baumann & Tillman, 2004). However as
Finnveden et al. (2009) point out, both types of LCA can be used for
evaluating past, current and future systems.
The type of LCA carried out has an impact on many of the
methodological choices in an LCA. For example in handling of by-products,
the attributional LCA uses an allocation based on mass, monetary value, etc.
In a consequential LCA, a system expansion is instead often the choice, e.g.
trying to determine the consequences of a new by-product appearing on the
market. It also affects the choice of data; in a consequential LCA marginal
data are used as it studies a change in a system, while an attributional LCA
uses average data.

24

The main criticism of the attributional LCA is that it does not capture the
real environmental costs of a system, while the main criticism of the
consequential LCA is that it is very complex and requires many assumptions,
which makes the results highly uncertain. However, there is not always a
clear line between the two different types of LCA and it not unusual to use a
combination of the two approaches, for example combining allocation and
system expansions for different parts of the system.

3.2 LCA, energy and resources
LCA, energy and resources are closely linked, as almost any life cycle
includes use of energy and resources of some sort (de Haes & Heijungs,
2007). In fact, life cycle assessment can be said to originate from the early
energy and resource analyses in the 1960s (Hunt et al., 1996). Energy
analysis is often included as a step in the execution of a life cycle assessment,
calculating the cumulative energy demand, often divided into renewable
primary energy carriers (e.g. biomass) and non-renewable primary energy
carriers (e.g. coal, oil, gas) (Jungmeier et al., 2003). The energy demand is
often expressed as primary energy, which is defined as the energy extracted
from the natural system before transformation to other energy carriers
(Baumann & Tillman, 2004). In LCA of energy systems, it is common to
determine the energy balance, often calculated as the primary energy input
divided by the energy output for the product studied.
Accounting for resource use in LCA is more complex. First of all, there is
a distinction between abiotic and biotic resources. The abiotic resources can
be accounted for by stating mass flow to the system studied. The flow can be
related to the technical or economic reserves of the resource to get an idea
of the impact on resource depletion (Finnveden et al., 2009). Resources can
also be connected to exergy consumption, which gives an indication of how
much usefulness of a resource that is depleted in a studied system
(Finnveden, 1997). The depletion of biotic resources is more difficult to
quantify and has so far received little attention (Finnveden et al., 2009).

3.3 LCA case studies of renewable fuels and mineral nitrogen
There are many LCA studies carried out for renewable fuels, often under the
name WTW (well-to-wheel) studies. These case studies are to a large extent
directed towards policymakers as a support in strategic decision-making,
guiding the selection of the right fuel, raw material and production process

25

(Hillman, 2008). Some of these studies are more extensive (e.g. Jungbluth et
al., 2008; Edwards et al., 2007; Wang, 2007).
For mineral nitrogen based on fossil hydrocarbons a few LCA studies
have been carried out, mainly with the focus on GHG emissions (Wood &
Cowie, 2004; Jenssen & Kongshaug, 2003; Davis & Haglund, 1999). No
LCA-studies on nitrogen based on renewable resources have been found in
literature, although as mentioned before there are some early studies on
nitrogen production based on hydrogen from electrolysis, but only
addressing energy inputs and costs. There are also several LCA studies on
production of hydrogen based on biomass, mainly for use as vehicle fuel, for
example in the above-mentioned WTW studies.

3.4 LCA and soil systems
Agricultural systems are very complex by nature, as they deal with biological
systems where local conditions can play a large role for the end LCA results.
The yield of crops is one such example. The yield of a certain crop is of
course determined by external factors such as choice of variety and rate of
fertilisation, but it is also governed by local factors such as soil properties,
weed pressure and climate.
The addition of nitrogen (organic or mineral) to a cropping system can
have a large impact on the results of an agricultural LCA study. Of course,
the production of the fertiliser has to be accounted for, but also the effects of
applying the nitrogen to the soil, which can have a major influence on the
results. This is because part of the nitrogen metabolised by micro-organisms
can be converted to nitrous oxide (N2O), which is a potent greenhouse gas.
The amount of mineral nitrogen converted to nitrous oxide depends on
many factors, for example the initial form of the nitrogen, temperature, soil
moisture content and oxygen supply (Kasimir-Klemedtsson, 2001). There
are few published studies presenting measurements of nitrous oxide
emissions from Swedish cultivated land. On an international level, many
different measurement studies have been conducted, but the results show
great variations (Snyder et al., 2009).
There are also a number of mathematical models for calculating nitrous
oxide emissions. A model described in Edwards et al. (2007) calculates the
N2O emissions based on the carbon content of the soil. Another example is
Crutzen et al. (2008), who used a top-down model to estimate the N2O
emissions. By studying air bubbles in ice cores, a pre-industrial level of
nitrous oxide in the atmosphere could be determined. By assuming that the
increase in nitrous oxide levels in the atmosphere since then is

26

anthropogenic and deducting the documented emissions from industrial
activities, the contribution from agriculture could be calculated. Using this
method, the emissions of nitrous oxide are estimated to be 3-5% of added
nitrogen.
Another method commonly used in LCA studies for estimating the N2O
emissions from soil is described in IPCC (2006). The method is based on
assumption of a linear relationship between nitrous oxide emissions and the
amount of nitrogen added to the soil in the form of commercial fertilisers,
farmyard manure, nitrogen-fixing crops and crop residues. With
measurements as base data, IPCC (2006) assumes that 1% of applied nitrogen
is emitted as nitrous oxide. The method was in fact originally intended for
national reporting of greenhouse gases under the United Nations
Framework and not for use in LCA, which is one of the major criticisms of
using this methodology. However, in the absence of other appropriate
models, this is often considered to be the most detailed method. In
greenhouse gas reporting to the UN it is also possible for member countries
to use national emission factors. The Swedish emissions factors are shown in
Table 2.
Excess nitrogen can also be carried away with water. The leaching of
nitrogen contributes to eutrophication, but also indirectly to global
warming, as part of the leached nitrogen is converted to nitrous oxide
emissions. IPCC (2006) has developed a method for the calculation of
indirect emissions of nitrous oxide. The method takes into account nitrous
oxide emissions produced when nitrogen leaches out with runoff water from
the field, as well as the proportion of added nitrogen that volatilises as
ammonia and is re-deposited on the ground, causing the formation of
nitrous oxide. In the reporting of greenhouse gases under the United
Nations Framework, national factors can be used for calculating indirect
nitrous oxide emissions (Table 2).

Table 2. Emissions factors for N2O (N2O-N as % of N-supply)
Swedish national IPCC emissions
emissions factor factor (IPCC, 2006)
(Naturvårdsverket, 2009a)
Mineral fertiliser 0.8 1
Manure 2.5 1
Crop residues 1.25 1
Extra increment due to cultivation 0.5 (kg N2O-N/ha/year) --
Indirect from leached N 2.5 0.75
Indirect from deposition of N 1 1

27

Another issue that has attracted much attention amongst agricultural LCA
practitioners in recent years is the carbon stock changes associated with
cultivation. The global carbon pool in soils down to 1 metre depth is about
twice the amount of carbon present in the atmosphere (Kätterer et al., 2004).
It is therefore feared that even small changes in the soil carbon pool could
have an impact on climate change. In general, management options that
influence soil organic carbon content include tillage intensity, removal of
crop residues, use of fertilisers and manure and inclusion of perennial crops
or fallow periods in the crop rotation (Cherubini et al., 2009; Marland et al.,
2003; Paustian et al., 1997). However, the change in carbon stocks due to
cultivation of a certain crop on mineral soil is rather small, perhaps a few
hundred kg C, compared with the total carbon stocks in the soil of 40-90
ton C per hectare (Berglund et al., 2009). Because of the difficulties in
determining these relatively small carbon fluxes, soil carbon changes are not
always included in LCA studies. British Standards (2008) recommends that
carbon changes should not be included in LCA calculation unless there is a
change in land use, e.g. the conversion of non-agricultural land to
agricultural land, whereby large fluxes can be expected. A Swedish review of
agricultural GHG calculation methods reached the same conclusion
(Berglund et al., 2009).

3.5 LCA and land use
In many LCA of biofuels based on agricultural biomass, land use is one of
the impact categories. Land use can be expressed as the number of hectares
needed per functional unit (FU), which would be referred to as the direct
land use. However, in recent years it has become more common in LCA
practice to include the indirect land use. When growing crops for energy
purposes, land is needed. If the land used for bioenergy crops has previously
been used for other activities, for example cereal production or pasture, it is
probable that the demand for these products will still continue to exist. The
demand for the products previously produced from the land now occupied
by bioenergy crops can be met by increasing the yields on the same land, or
more likely, by moving the activities to another location. This moving of
activities can cause land use changes, for example by utilisation of previously
uncultivated land within the country in question or outside that country
(Cherubini et al., 2009).
Including land use changes, both direct and indirect, in the LCA
calculations can affect the results. According to a study by Searchinger et al.
(2008), an increase in corn-based ethanol in the US would result in land use

28

changes in countries such as Brazil, China and India. Including the soil
carbon losses due to this land use change nearly doubled the GHG emissions
of ethanol compared with a fossil reference. Another illustrative example is
the so-called ‘carbon payback time’ for biofuels described in a study by
Gibbs et al. (2008). The carbon emitted during production and due to land
use changes is weighed against the benefit of reducing the use of fossil fuels.
The amount of years it takes for the production to pay back in terms of
GHG emissions is referred to as the carbon payback time. For expansion of
land into tropical ecosystems, it was found that the payback time is decades
to centuries, while expanding into degraded land or already cultivated land
provides immediate carbon savings. However, including land use changes in
LCA can be controversial since it includes a number of assumptions and
uncertain data and since there are no appropriate models for this type of
calculation (Sylvester-Bradley, 2008).
Using land can also influence other soil quality parameters such as soil
fertility, soil structure, soil erosion rate, water-holding capacity and nutrient
balance (Röing et al., 2005). Another important effect due to land use can
be changes in biodiversity. How, and whether, to include possible
degradation effects on soil and biodiversity in LCA studies due to land use is
an ongoing discussion (Schmidt, 2008; Finnveden et al., 2009).
Not all land use is negative, however. An increase in soil carbon can of
course be counted as a negative contributor to global warming, but there are
other land use parameters that are more difficult to reflect in an LCA study.
For example, cultivating Salix on land contaminated with hazardous
compounds (such as cadmium) can help clean up the soil, in a process
known as phytoremediation (Mirck et al., 2005). Another example is that
there can be an increase in biodiversity associated with land use, especially
for organic and extensive land use, which can be difficult to account for in
LCA studies (Trydeman Knudsen & Halberg, 2007).

29

4 Organic farm self-suffient in tractor fuel
(Papers I-III)

4.1 System description
A hypothetical 1000 ha stockless organic farm situated in south-western
Sweden was modelled. The seven-year crop rotation included two years of
green manure crops to supply nitrogen to the other crops in the rotation. It
was assumed that the raw material for fuel production had to be produced
within the 1000 ha available land. The raw material was assumed to be
harvested and transported to a fuel production plant and the fuel returned to
the farm, where it was utilised (Figure 6). The raw materials and fuels
studied are listed in Table 3.

1000 ha

Transp of raw mat.

Fuel production

Fuel use
Transp of fuel

Figure 6. Schematic description of the system studied in Papers I, II and III. Raw material for
fuel production is collected within the 1000 ha of available land. The raw material is
transported to a fuel production plant and the fuel transported back to the farm, where it is
utilised. The functional unit is defined as the motor fuel needed to cultivate the 1000 ha.
Fuel for transport is not included in the functional unit but calculated as an external energy
input to the system.

31

Table 3. The combinations of raw material, fuel and tractor propulsion technology (internal combustion
engine ICE and fuel cells FC) studied in Papers I, II and III
Raw material Fuel Tractor Included in
technology paper
Winter rapeseed RME ICE I
Winter wheat Ethanol ICE I
Ley Biogas ICE I
Salix FTD ICE II
Salix DME ICE II
Straw FTD ICE II
Straw DME ICE II
Salix MeOH FC III
Salix H2 FC III
Straw MeOH FC III
Straw H2 FC III
Ley H2 FC III

The functional unit (FU) in all systems was defined as the amount of
motor fuel needed to cultivate 1000 ha of the given organic crop rotation
during one year, including the fuel needed for fuel raw material production.
It is important to note that the results from the different papers are not
directly comparable, mainly due to the different assumptions in time-scale
and system boundaries. Time-scale differences in first and second generation
renewable fuels for example arise when making assumptions on process
energy for fuel production. In Paper I, it was assumed that the process
energy needed for the fuel production was supplied from external energy
sources. This will have an impact on the energy balance and on the
environmental load, but no land use was allocated for that purpose. Papers II
and III were of a more futuristic character, assuming energy-optimised fuel
production plants. By utilising part of the incoming raw material and waste
energy, they covered their own need for energy in the process. However
this meant that the land use also included a share of fuel production energy.
One important differing assumption concerning system boundaries is the
soil emissions from ley. In Paper I, ley was harvested for biogas production.
The digestate from biogas production was then allocated from the system
based on the economic value of the nutrients in the digestate. In Paper III
ley was also harvested for biogas and hydrogen production, but the digestate
with all its nutrients was assumed to be returned to the cultivation. Since the
original purpose of growing ley was to supply nitrogen to the organic crop

32

rotation, it can then be argued that biogas production should not be
burdened with the emissions associated with ley grown as a green manure.
The ley is just ‘borrowed’ for fuel production. In other words, in Paper I the
emissions from ley cropping were accounted for in the biogas scenario,
while in Paper III the ley was considered a free resource and was therefore
not burdened with the associated soil emissions.

4.2 Results

4.2.1 Energy balance
The energy input was calculated as primary energy and allocated to the fuel
production based on the economic value of the fuel and the by-products
from the systems. The energy input was calculated as the cultivation of raw
material (with the produced fuel used in the tractors), transport of raw
material, process energy for fuel production (Paper I) and transport of fuel
back to the farm.
The fossil energy input, total energy input and energy in the fuel
produced and the energy balance for the different systems in Paper I are
presented in Table 4. RME has a high energy balance since the energy
output from rapeseed cultivation is high compared with the input. The large
allocation to by-products from fuel production (rapeseed meal) makes the
balance even more favourable.
The fossil energy input is mainly due to transport of raw materials and
fuels, and to a certain extent energy input for fuel production. The transport
distance was set to 25 km in all scenarios in Paper I.

Table 4. Fossil energy input in fuel production, total energy input in fuel production and the energy in
the fuel produced for the scenarios studied in Paper I. The allocation was based on the economic value of
the by-products. The energy balance is calculated as the output divided by the allocated total energy input
Raw material Fuel Allocated Allocated Energy in Energy
fossil energy total energy fuel produced balance
input input (GJ)
(GJ) (GJ)
Raw oil Diesel 2019 2019 1905 --
Winter rapeseed RME 7 238 1983 8.3
Winter wheat Ethanol 15 651 1697 2.6
Ley Biogas 42 893 2914 3.3

33

The fossil energy input, total energy input and energy in the fuel
produced and the energy balance for the different systems in Papers II and
III are presented in Table 5. Because of high fuel conversion efficiency, the
systems based on second generation renewable fuels generally had good
energy balances. Systems based on fuel cell technology had the best energy
balances, since the conversion efficiency was high in fuel production and in
the tractors. The exception was the ley to hydrogen system, due to low
efficiency in fuel production.
The high energy efficiency for the second generation renewable fuels can
also be explained by the fuel production facilities studied having been
assumed to be self-sufficient in energy and with part of the incoming
biomass used to drive the process. In the energy balance evaluation this
means that for scenarios with external input of process energy to fuel
production (Paper I), the energy content of the process energy carrier was
included in the calculation. However, in the self-sufficient cases (Papers II
and III) only the cultivation and transport of the raw material needed for
process energy were included.
Fossil energy input is mainly due to transport of raw materials and fuels.
The transport distance was set to 100 km in all scenarios in Papers II and III
except for the ley to hydrogen scenario, in which it was set to 25 km. The
fossil energy use in the FTD and DME scenarios was relatively high as
transport was assumed to be carried out with trucks driven with natural gas-
based FTD and DME with high primary energy conversion factors.

Table 5. Fossil energy input in fuel production, total energy input in fuel production and the energy in
the fuel produced for the scenarios studied in Papers II and III. The allocation was based on the economic
value of the by-products. The energy balance is calculated as the output divided by the allocated total
energy input
Raw material Fuel Allocated Allocated Energy in fuel Energy
fossil energy total energy produced balance
input input (GJ)
(GJ) (GJ)
Salix FTD 124 189 1812 9.6
Salix DME 114 188 1872 10.0
Straw FTD 153 238 2124 8.9
Straw DME 109 195 1975 10.1
Salix MeOH 41 80 1252 15.6
Salix H2 47 75 1067 14.2
Straw MeOH 42 65 1271 19.5
Straw H2 48 66 1080 16.3
Ley H2 57 199 1206 6.1

34

4.2.2 Land use
The calculated land use for the hypothetical 1000 ha organic farm self-
sufficient in different tractor fuels is presented in Tables 6 and 7. The land
use is expressed as both the allocated value and the non-allocated value. The
non-allocated value is the total amount of land needed for fuel production,
while the allocated land use is for the fuel after allocation to by-products. It
could be argued that the non-allocated land use, which is the actual land use,
should be counted. However, as the farm was assumed to deliver raw
material to a larger production facility, taking back only the amount of fuel
needed for the farm, it can perhaps not be asked to deliver enough raw
material to cover the by-products as well. The difference in allocated and
non-allocated land use was particularly clear in the FTD scenarios due to the
high amount of by-products (naphtha, kerosene and electricity) in fuel
production.
The allocated land use for the renewable fuels studied in Paper I was 4%
of the available 1000 ha for RME and 5% for ethanol (Table 6). In the
biogas scenario, land was not required to be set aside, but 35 ha of the 286
ha of available ley in the crop rotation had to be harvested.

Table 6. Allocated and non-allocated land use for the systems studied in Paper I. The allocation was
based on the economic value of the by-products. The reduced area of cash crops was based on allocated
land use
Raw material Fuel Non- Allocated Reduced
allocated land use area of
land use (ha) cash crops
(ha) (ha)
Winter rapeseed RME 85 44 44
Winter wheat Ethanol 55 54 54
Ley Biogas 42 35 0

For the second generation fuels studied in Papers II and III based on
gasification of Salix, between 2 and 4% of the available land needed to be set
aside. When utilising straw as raw material no land needed to be set side. In
the crop rotation studied, straw can be collected from oats, rapeseed, rye and
winter wheat, which are cultivated on approximately 570 ha of the available
1000 ha. In the scenarios studied in Papers II and III, 8-14% of the straw-
producing area needed to be harvested for fuel production.

35

Table 7. Allocated and non-allocated land use for the systems studied in Papers II and III. The
allocation was based on the economic value of the by-products. The reduced area of cash crops was based
on allocated land use.
Raw material Fuel Non- Allocated Reduced
allocated land use area of
land use (ha) cash crops
(ha) (ha)
Salix FTD 108 34 34
Salix DME 38 38 38
Straw FTD 261 82 0
Straw DME 70 70 0
Salix MeOH 20 20 20
Salix H2 18 18 18
Straw MeOH 53 53 0
Straw H2 48 48 0
Ley H2 44 44 0

Ley was utilised as raw material for biogas production in Paper I and for
hydrogen production in Paper III. As ley is already grown in the crop
rotation for nitrogen-fixing purposes, no land needed to be set aside for fuel
production. In Paper I, an estimated 35 ha ley were needed, while in Paper
III 44 ha were needed. The difference in land use can mainly be explained
by the differing assumptions on process energy for fuel production. In Paper
I the energy needed for fuel production (heat and electricity) was assumed to
be externally produced. In Paper III, however, the fuel production plants
were assumed to be self-sufficient in energy and a larger amount of biomass
and land was then needed. In return, the energy balance improved. The
difference in allocation strategy for the digestate as well as the tractor
propulsion efficiency can further explain the difference in land use between
the ley scenarios.

36

4.2.3 Global warming
The results of the global warming impact assessment for the different systems
in the papers are shown in Figure 7. If diesel had been used as tractor fuel,
the equivalent figure would be 157 700 kg CO2-equivalents per functional
unit. The emissions of nitrous oxide from soil had a large impact in all the
scenarios except for the ley to hydrogen scenario, which was freed from soil
emissions (see Section 4.1). The nitrous oxide emissions were calculated as
direct and indirect emissions using national emissions factors
(Naturvårdsverket, 2003).

90000

80000
Fuel utilisation
70000
Fuel transport
Fuel production
60000 Transport to plant
Kg CO2-eq per FU

Soil emissions
50000 Prod raw material

40000

30000

20000

10000

0
Biogas

FTD (Salix)

DME (Salix)

FTD (straw)

DME (straw)

H2 (straw)

MeOH (straw)
RME

H2(Salix)

MeOH (Salix)

H2 (ley)
Ethanol


Figure 7. Contribution to global warming potential expressed as kg CO2-equivalents per
functional unit (FU) for the systems studied in Papers I, II and III.

37

4.2.4 Eutrophication
The results of the eutrophication assessment for the different systems in
Papers I-III are shown in Figure 8. If diesel had been used as tractor fuel, the
equivalent figure would be 10 542 kg O2-equivalents per functional unit.
The RME and ethanol systems are the only ones based on annual crops and
have a greater eutrophication potential than the other scenarios studied,
mainly due to leaching of nitrogen and phosphorus. Ley and Salix have
lower leaching of nutrients since they are perennial crops. Based on the
economic value of crop and straw, the straw scenarios were allocated only
part of the soil emissions from crop production, which explains the low
leaching emissions in those scenarios.

60000

50000 Fuel utilisation
Fuel transport
Fuel production
40000 Transport to plant
Kg O2-eq per FU

Soil emissions
Prod raw material
30000

20000

10000

0
Biogas
RME

FTD (Salix)

DME (Salix)

FTD (straw)

DME (straw)

H2 (straw)

MeOH (straw)

H2(Salix)

MeOH (Salix)

H2 (ley)
Ethanol


Figure 8. Contribution to eutrophication potential expressed as kg O2-equivalents per
functional unit (FU) for the systems studied in Papers I, II and III.

38

4.2.5 Acidification
The results of the acidification impact assessment for the different systems in
Papers I-III are shown in Figure 9. If diesel had been used as tractor fuel, the
equivalent figure would be 1 251 kg SO2-equivalents per functional unit.
The contribution to acidification originated mainly from fuel utilisation
emissions in the scenarios with ICE, soil emissions and in the FTD scenarios
from fuel production.

1800 Fuel utilisation
1600
Fuel transport
Fuel production
1400
Transport to plant
Kg SO2-eq per FU

1200 Soil emissions
1000 Prod raw material
800

600

400

200

0
RME

Biogas

FTD (Salix)

DME (Salix)

FTD (straw)

DME (straw)

H2 (straw)

MeOH (straw)

H2(Salix)

MeOH (Salix)

H2 (ley)
Ethanol


Figure 9. Contribution to acidification potential expressed as kg SO2-equivalents per function
unit (FU) for the systems studied in Papers I, II and III.

39

4.3 Discussion of the results

4.3.1 Results compared with diesel
In Figure 10, the results of the environmental impact assessment are
illustrated relative to the 1000 ha farm using fossil diesel as tractor fuel.
Compared with diesel, all the renewable fuel scenarios studied had a lower
impact on global warming. However, the eutrophication potential in the
systems studied in Paper I was larger than for fossil diesel. In terms of
acidification, all the biomass-based fuel alternatives had a lower impact
except for RME due to high fuel utilisation emissions.
It is important also to note that the use of fossil energy is strongly reduced
in all the biomass alternatives studied compared with the use of diesel based
on fossil oil.

5

4

3

2

1

Eutrophication potential
Acidification potetntial
Global warming potential
0
Diesel RME Ethanol Biogas FTD DME FTD DME H2 MeOH H2 MeOH H2
(Salix) (Salix) (straw) (straw) (straw) (straw) (Salix) (Salix) (ley)

Figure 10. Environmental impact in the scenarios studied relative to the fossil diesel reference.

40

As mentioned earlier, the system boundaries were different in the different
studies, complicating comparisons between the papers. One such assumption
was the soil emissions in the ley scenarios and the energy supply for fuel
production. A few more issues that can affect the results are discussed below.

4.3.2 Including machinery
The input energy needed for the production of buildings and machinery was
not included in these studies. The energy for manufacturing of machinery
has been studied in the literature but the results vary, mainly due to
assumptions on the lifetime of machinery and the energy requirement for
steel production (Mikkola & Ahokas, 2010). Börjesson (1996) studied the
energy input for a number of different crops and reached the conclusion that
machinery accounted for 5-15% of total energy input in crop production. In
studies by Bernesson et al. (2006) and Bernesson et al. (2004), the machinery
in production of RME and ethanol accounted for 1-2% of total energy
input.
What is interesting for the present study is to identify any differences in
energy input and emissions during manufacturing of ICE and FC tractors. In
a study by Pehnt (2001), the production of fuel cell stacks made up 10-23%
of total GHG emissions from an FC vehicle running on hydrogen or
methanol produced from natural gas. The study was based on the existing
composition of FC stacks, not optimised for weight or material usage.
According to Ally & Pryor (2007), future generations will use different
design concepts that will make many of the present components obsolete
and dramatically improve energy efficiency. Furthermore, manufacturing is
an emerging technology that can be improved in large-scale applications. In
a more optimistic study by Hussain et al. (2007), no significant difference
was found in energy use and GHG emissions from the manufacture of FC
and ICE vehicles over their life cycle.
In conclusion, the energy and environmental costs for machinery are
quite low in most studies. The difference between a tractor with FC and
ICE propulsion is difficult to assess, but most likely there is no substantial
divergence in a long-term perspective.

4.3.3 Economic allocation and price fluctuations
In Papers I-III, economic allocation was used as a base case for handling of
by-products. In Paper I, by-products from fuel production were allocated;
distillers’ waste from ethanol production, rapeseed expeller and glycerine
from RME production and digestate from biogas production. No sensitivity

41

analysis was carried out in Paper I, but in a study by Fredriksson et al. (2006)
the same systems were considered (RME, ethanol and biogas) but for on-
farm fuel production. The results are comparable for the two studies. In
Fredriksson et al. (2006), a 20% change in oil price and rapeseed expeller
gave a 9% change in energy use and environmental impact. In the biogas
case, a 20% change in the price of digestate gave a 3% change in energy use
and environmental impact.
The sensitivity to assumptions on the economic value of the by-products
was also tested in Papers II and III for the global warming potential results.
The FTD process was assumed to give rise to a large amount of by-products,
mainly naphtha and electricity. A 20% change in naphtha price only gave a
3% change in GHG emissions, while a 20% change in electricity price gave a
8% change in GHG emissions. In several scenarios straw was used as raw
material for fuel production. Straw was allocated a share of the
environmental impact of crop production. A 20% increase in straw price
gave a 7-10% increase in GHG emissions.
In conclusion, utilising economic allocation involves making assumptions
on price levels of the products. It is therefore important to test the sensitivity
of the system to fluxes in price. However, in the scenarios studied here, a
20% change in price for selected parameters did not change the general
conclusions of the studies.

4.3.4 Soil carbon and nitrous oxide
Including changes in soil carbon can have large effects on the results. In the
scenarios studied in Paper I, no changes were made compared with normal
cash crop production that could change the soil carbon content in the
ethanol and RME scenarios. In the biogas scenario, ley was harvested and
the digestate allocated from the system. However only 35 ha of 286 ha ley
were assumed to be harvested per year and a large share of the carbon was
probably retained in the roots (Torssell et al., 2007) so the extent to which
this will influence the soil carbon content is uncertain. In Papers II and III,
straw was removed from parts of the winter wheat and rye fields, which
could have a negative impact on the soil carbon content. However, in an
organic crop rotation with a large proportion of green manure, the soil
organic matter content will be relatively high (Röing et al., 2005; Freibauer
et al., 2004) and removing a small proportion of the available straw will be
of minor importance. In Papers II and III scenarios were studied where part
of the cultivated area was assumed to be taken out of the crop rotation to
grow Salix, a crop with a lifetime of at least 20 years. This could have an
impact on the soil carbon content. In the sensitivity analysis in Paper III, the

42

-1 -1
effect of an increase in soil carbon of 133 kg C ha year was to lower the
global warming impact of the Salix scenarios by 61-69%.
The direct and indirect emissions of nitrous oxide gave a large
contribution to the global warming impact, especially when utilising cash
crops (rapeseed and winter wheat) for fuel production. Salix production also
gave emissions of nitrous oxide, mainly due to unharvested leaf litter.
However, there are great uncertainties in the quantification of N2O
emissions. As an example, the emissions factor for direct N2O emissions was
set to 0.8% of applied N as recommended in the Swedish national inventory
report, but the uncertainty in this emissions factor is estimated to be 80%
(Naturvårdsverket, 2009a). In Papers II and III, a 20% reduction in N2O
emissions tested in the sensitivity analysis gave a 7-16% reduction in global
warming impact potential.
In conclusion, nitrous oxide emissions from soil played a crucial role for
the global warming impact results. Including soil carbon changes could also
affect the results, especially in the Salix scenarios. However, nitrous oxide
and carbon emissions from soil are very difficult to determine with high
accuracy.

4.3.5 Choice of functional unit
The functional unit was chosen based on a farmer’s perspective. A farm has a
given amount of land, in this case set to 1000 ha. If the farm wants to be
self-sufficient in tractor fuel, raw material production has to take place
within this available land.
However, this complicates the comparison between the alternative fuels
studied here, as there are different amounts of cash crop outputs from the
systems. In the straw and ley scenarios, the output is the same as in a
situation without fuel production. In the scenarios with wheat and rapeseed
part of the output is used for fuel production, while in the Salix scenarios
part of the cultivated area is taken out of the crop rotation. It could be
argued that the reduced output of crops simply reduces the grain surplus on
st
the world market. During the first years of the 21 century cereal
consumption exceeded production, forcing a depletion of world stocks.
During the last couple of years, however, production of cereals has been
higher than consumption (FAO, 2009).
However, it could also be argued that the crops will be produced
somewhere else, leading to indirect land use. In the sensitivity analysis in
Paper III, the changes in global warming potential were studied when the
reduced amount of output crops due to Salix cultivation was accounted for.
It was assumed that the missing output was replaced by winter wheat

43

conventionally grown in Sweden on existing farm land. The sensitivity
analysis indicated that the results for the Salix scenarios doubled when the
cultivation of wheat to compensate for the reduced output was included.
However, since the GHG emissions were already very low compared with
the diesel reference scenario, this did not affect the conclusions of the study.
Furthermore, transport energy was not included in the functional unit,
but considered as an external energy input. The required transport work is
different in the systems depending on the assumed transport distance, bulk
and moisture content of the raw material and the energy density of the fuel.
If the fuel needed for transport had been included in the functional unit, the
differences in transport requirements would have been reflected in the land
use, and consequently in the environmental impact categories.
In LCA of agricultural products the functional unit is often expressed as a
hectare or a kg crop. When it comes to biofuels the functional unit is often a
MJ. None of these functional units would have been suitable for the present
study. In addition, there are few LCA of agricultural systems with which to
make comparisons. However, in a paper by Halberg et al. (2008), in which a
Danish organic farm producing its own energy was studied, the energy use
and GHG emissions were evaluated. The functional unit was defined as a 39
ha organic farm unit and two alternative crop rotations for bioenergy
production were modelled, where the production of crops was reduced. It
was assumed that the reduced production of crops was silage barley in the
base case used as feed on the farm. The reduced amount of barley was
replaced by import of the missing amount from a system outside the farm.
In conclusion, the functional unit in the present study was well chosen,
but it would perhaps have been appropriate to include the indirect land use,
unless it can be proven that the reduced output reduces a grain surplus on
the world market. Alternatively, another functional unit could have been
chosen in which the same amounts of output crops were produced in all the
systems and where the renewable fuel for both tractors and transport was
included.

4.4 Discussion of the techno/economic systems
It is not only the energy balance and environmental impact that needs to be
evaluated for the biofuel systems, since it is equally important that the
systems can be implemented in practice, that they are robust and user-
friendly and that the costs are reasonable. In general, liquid fuels are easier to
handle than gaseous fuels. For gaseous fuels, delivery to the farm, storage and
re-fuelling are more complicated than for liquid alternatives. The working

44

range of gas-powered tractors is also shorter, requiring frequent refuelling. If
costs allow, a solution for distribution of fuel could be a pipeline to the farm.
For new tractors that do not need to be retro-fitted with gas tanks, the
amount of on-board gas could be increased. For hydrogen, the high
conversion efficiency in fuel production and use in fuel cells could motivate
such technical solutions.
The annual costs for raw material and fuel production, transport of raw
material and fuel, farm storage costs and eventual costs for modification of
tractors for the new fuels were evaluated in Paper I. The calculated costs of
RME, ethanol and biogas systems were €94 200, €72 950 and €111 240,
respectively. Using diesel, the annual costs would have been €33 545 based
on a diesel price of € 0.6 per litre.
For the more futuristic systems described in Paper II the corresponding
costs were estimated to be €30 780 and €26 050 for FTD from gasification
of straw and Salix, respectively. For DME the costs were evaluated at €
32 040 and €30 120 from straw and Salix, respectively (Ahlgren et al.,
2007). This is based on assumptions of future development of fuel
production technology and commercialisation.
The systems described in Paper III are of high technological complexity,
for example concerning the hydrogen infrastructure and fuel cell
technology. These systems will need some years before they reach
commercial-scale production. It is therefore difficult to evaluate the costs
and the extent of development of surrounding technological systems that
could facilitate a transition to an energy self-sufficient farm.
The fuel production plants studied in the gasification scenarios are very
large-scale in order to cover the high investment costs required for the
gasification and cleaning equipment. However, this imposes special
requirements on biomass logistics, especially for straw, which is a bulky
material. One way to solve the large-scale biomass supply at a reasonable
cost could be to use transport means other than trucks, such as train and
boat. The storage of biomass at large-scale facilities is also an issue which
needs be addressed further.

4.5 Conclusions of Papers I, II and III
It can be concluded that it is difficult to compare first and second generation
fuels, as they have different intrinsic values. For example, second generation
renewable fuels are not produced on a commercial scale yet, and the
modelling reported in the literature on the plausible yield of the fuels often
assumes production plants that are self-sufficient and energy-optimised.

45

Furthermore, methodological choices made in the studies, for example
choice of functional unit and not including soil carbon in the calculations,
rendered comparisons between the fuels complicated. However, even when
these assumptions are taken into account it can be concluded that compared
with the diesel reference, use of fossil fuel was greatly reduced in the
scenarios studied. The global warming potential was also lower in all
scenarios, but in some cases the eutrophication and acidification potential
could be higher. The second generation renewable fuels studied in Papers II
and III based on thermochemical gasification generally performed better in
all environmental categories than the first generation renewable fuels. The
use of straw or ley as raw material is especially attractive, as it does not
require land to be set aside for fuel production. When crop residues or ley
were not utilised as raw material for fuel production, the land use varied
between 1.8% and 5.4% for the 1000 ha organic farm self-sufficient in
tractor fuel.

46

5 Mineral nitrogen from biomass
(Papers IV and V)

5.1 System description
Two different routes for production of biomass-based nitrogen and four
different raw materials were studied (Figure 11). In Paper IV,
thermochemical gasification of straw and Salix was considered. The biomass
was assumed to be transported to a large-scale facility where gasification and
nitrogen production were also assumed to take place. This made it possible
to match the energy flows of the different processes.
In Paper V, regional-scale production of biogas via anaerobic digestion of
ley and maize was studied. The biogas was assumed to be injected into a gas
grid and the nitrogen to be produced elsewhere, this because the optimal
scale of nitrogen production is much larger than the optimal scale of biogas
production.
To cover the crop fertiliser requirements, ash produced in the gasification
process and digestate from the biogas process were assumed to be returned
to the crop production. Furthermore, a fraction of the ammonium nitrate
produced was assumed to be used in the cultivation. A reference scenario
with natural gas as raw material for ammonium nitrate production was also
studied.
The functional unit in both studies was 1 kg of fertiliser nitrogen, as
ammonium nitrate (3 kg AN, 33.5% N) at the gate of the production
facility.

47

Paper IV Reference Paper V

Salix and straw Ley and maize
production production
Natural
Pre-treatment gas Digestate
Anaerobic
extraction
digestion
Ash
Gasification
Injection
on gas Cleaning and
Gas cleaning grid upgrading

H2-separation Ammonia Injection on gas
production grid
Air separation
Nitric acid
production

Ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate Ammonium nitrate
production

AN Electricity

Figure 11. Flow chart of the systems studied in Papers IV and V. The end products of the
systems are ammonium nitrate (AN) with 33.5% nitrogen content and electricity.

5.2 Results

5.2.1 Fossil energy input
The allocated primary fossil energy input for the reference case natural gas-
based ammonium nitrate was calculated to be 34.6 MJ per kg nitrogen. The
allocation was based on the economic value of the nitrogen and electricity
produced. For straw and Salix the corresponding values were 1.3 and 1.2 MJ
per kg nitrogen, respectively. For ley and maize, the primary fossil energy
input was calculated to be 3.7 and 2.3 MJ per kg nitrogen as ammonium
nitrate, respectively.

5.2.2 Land use
The amounts of nitrogen calculated to be produced per hectare before and
after reduction for ammonium nitrate returned to the cultivation are
presented in Table 8. The nitrogen requirement in the straw case was based

48

on the allocation between winter wheat and straw. Salix is a plant with low
nitrogen requirements. Ley and maize have higher nitrogen requirements
but a large proportion of these requirements were covered here by return of
the digestate. Salix has the highest nitrogen production per hectare due to
high yields (10 ton dry matter per ha and year was assumed) and high
conversion efficiency. For straw, 4.3 ton dry matter was assumed to be
collected per ha. Ley has a lower production potential compared with maize
due to lower crop yield and lower methane production potential. The ley
yield was assumed to be 6 ton dry matter per hectare and year and the maize
yield 10 ton.

Table 8. Gross amount of nitrogen in the form of ammonium nitrate (AN) assumed to be produced per
hectare, the amount returned to crop production and net production in the different scenarios. In the
anaerobic digestion scenarios, nitrogen is also returned via the digestate
Raw material Biomass conversion Gross Returned AN to Net
technology production crop production production
(kg N/ha) (kg N/ha) (kg N/ha)
Straw Gasification 1624 9 1615
Salix Gasification 3978 64 3914
Ley Anaerobic digestion 1680 40 1640
Maize Anaerobic digestion 3612 43 3569

5.2.3 Global warming
The calculated impact on global warming potential is presented in Figure
12. In the natural gas scenario, the impact originates from carbon dioxide
emissions in ammonia production and from nitrous oxide emissions in nitric
acid production. In the biomass scenarios, the cultivation of raw material
made a large contribution to the global warming potential, mainly due to
nitrous oxide emissions from soil.
Nitrous oxide emissions from nitric acid production occur in both the
natural gas and the biomass scenarios. In the ley and maize scenarios,
methane leakage from biogas production and emissions from stored digestate
also contributed to global warming and are included here in the nitrogen
production bars in Figure 12.

49

2500
Nitrogen production
Transports
2000 Cultivation, harvest and handling

g CO2-eq per kg N
1500

1000

500

0
Natural gas Salix Straw Ley Maize
(Paper IV) (Paper IV) (Paper V) (Paper V)

Figure 12. Contribution to global warming potential (kg CO2-equivalents per kg N) from the
scenarios studied in Paper IV and V.

5.2.4 Eutrophication
The eutrophication potential impact of the scenarios studied is shown in
Figure 13. The main contribution in the biomass systems comes from soil
emissions due to leaching of nitrogen and to some extent phosphorus. Salix
has low leaching of nutrients since it is a perennial crop with low nutrient
requirements and deep roots, allowing for efficient uptake of nutrients.
Based on the economic value of crop and straw, the straw scenario was
allocated only part of the soil emissions from wheat production. Together
with high efficiency in the conversion to nitrogen, this explains the low
leaching emissions in the Salix and straw systems. Maize, which is a spring-
sown crop, has higher nitrogen requirements and nitrogen leaching per
hectare than ley. However, because of the higher crop yield and higher
biogas yield for maize, the difference evened out in the end results for the
two scenarios.

50

400

350
Nitrogen production
300
g O2-eq per kg N Transports
250 Cultivation, harvest and handling

200

150

100

50

0

Figure 13. Contribution to eutrophication potential (kg O2-equivalents per kg N) from the
scenarios studied in Papers IV and V.

5.2.5 Acidification
The contribution to acidification potential of the scenarios studied is shown
in Figure 14. In the ley and maize scenarios, the contribution was higher
than for the other systems studied. This was mainly due to the spreading of
digestate during cultivation, which gave rise to ammonia emissions.
Emissions from nitrogen production also contributed to acidification, mainly
due to ammonia emissions from the production facility.

51

10

9 Nitrogen production
Transports
8
Cultivation, harvest and handling
7

g SO2-eq per kg N
6

5
4

3

2
1

0

Figure 14. Contribution to acidification potential (kg SO2-equivalents per kg N) from the
scenarios studied in Papers IV and V.

5.3 Discussion of the results
The biomass to nitrogen systems studied here were all calculated to lower
the impact on global warming compared with natural gas-based nitrogen.
The eutrophication and acidification potential were found to be higher in
the scenarios based on ley and maize than for the natural gas reference
scenario. However, the use of fossil resources was much lower in the
biomass-based systems. The trade-off between different impact categories is
further discussed in Section 6.6.
In the biomass to nitrogen systems, nitrous oxide emissions from soil gave
a large impact on the global warming results, especially in the ley and maize
scenarios. However, these emissions are very difficult to estimate. The
nitrous oxide emissions from soil were calculated with the emissions factors
stated in IPCC (2006), which also gives an uncertainty range for these
factors. In the sensitivity analysis in Paper V, tests on the uncertainty range
of the emission factors showed that the variation in global warming was so
large that it could offset the entire reduction in global warming impact of
using ley as raw material for nitrogen production.
However, there is also the matter of deciding the fossil reference
scenario. In this case, best available technology was chosen for natural gas-

52

based nitrogen production. When producing nitric acid, nitrous oxide is
formed. In older production plants these emissions to air can be large, but in
the present study it was assumed that modern emissions abatement
techniques were used, greatly lowering the N2O emissions. In terms of
energy and feedstock consumption, new plants are better optimised in
ammonia conversion and with energy recovery. In a modern natural gas to
ammonia plant, approximately 82% of the gas is used as feed and 18% as
fuel. In a study by Jenssen & Kongshaug (2003), the emissions when
producing ammonium nitrate with old technology would result in 7.5 kg
CO2-equivalents per kg N, while a plant with new technology would
generate 3.0 kg CO2-equivalents per kg N.
In Paper IV, which dealt with emerging technologies for biomass
conversion, it could be useful to have a high-tech fossil reference scenario.
In Paper V, however, it is perhaps better to use present technology for the
fossil reference scenario. As there are still many old plants running, the
European average in 2003 was 6.8 kg CO2-equivalents per kg N (Jenssen &
Kongshaug, 2003) However, much has happened since then. The
technology for emissions abatement has been further developed and another
driver is that the fertiliser industry is nowadays included in the European
greenhouse gas emission rights trading scheme, making it profitable for
producers to reduce their emissions of nitrous oxides. It is therefore difficult
to determine what the present fossil reference should be. The main supplier
of fertilisers on the Swedish market states that the GHG production of
nitrogen fertiliser in 2010 will be 2.9 kg CO2-equivalents per kg N (Ahlgren
et al., 2009b), but the European average could be higher. An assumption
that 10% of the ammonium nitrate delivered is produced with old
technology (7.5 kg CO2-eq per kg N) and 90% with new technology (2.9
kg CO2-eq per kg N) results in an average figure of 3.4 kg CO2-eq per kg
N. This could be a better comparison for the results in paper V.

5.4 Conclusions of Papers IV and V
Papers IV and V show that great potential exists to produce mineral nitrogen
based on gasification and anaerobic digestion of biomass. The crops studied
were able to produce between 1.6 and 3.9 tonnes N per hectare in the form
of ammonium nitrate. The use of fossil fuels can then be largely reduced, as
well as the contribution to global warming. However, there is a risk that the
contribution to eutrophication and acidification will increase in the biomass
systems compared with the natural gas reference. Of the systems studied
here, gasification of straw and Salix performed best. This was mainly due to

53

high energy and nutrient use efficiency in the production of raw material, as
well as high conversion efficiency to nitrogen.

54

6 General discussion

6.1 The concept of self-sufficiency
The concept of self-sufficiency in power on farms is not new. Before
tractors came into common use, draught animals were used for field work.
Part of the land then had to be set aside for producing feed for these animals.
In a large part of the world, this is still the case.
Self-sufficiency can be considered on different scales, for example on
farm, regional and national level. In Papers I-III, the self sufficiency was
considered on farm scale. However, the farm was regarded as part of a larger
fuel production system. The crops were transported to a large-scale facility
and converted to fuels, allowing more energy-efficient conversion than if
done on-farm. The organic farm was also self-sufficient in nitrogen by
cultivating nitrogen-fixing ley in the crop rotation.
In Papers IV and V the self-sufficiency was not explicitly defined, but was
regarded as more regional or national self-sufficiency. However, the concept
of farm-scale self-sufficiency could also be applied to nitrogen fertiliser
production. A conventional farm could then be self-sufficient in both fuel
and nitrogen by delivering a certain amount of crops to the industry.
Why is it anyway important that agriculture is self-sufficient in energy,
included embedded energy in nitrogen? There are a number of reasons for
this. First, fossil fuels will run out sooner or later and agriculture, like the
rest of society, will then have to look for other alternatives. Second, there is
a general aim to reduce the environmental impact from agriculture. Third, if
primary production (agriculture) is self-sufficient, it can deliver ‘clean’
products such as food and energy to the rest of society. This can be used as
an added marketing value. For organic farming, the concept of self-
sufficiency is particularly important since one of the basic principles in

55

organic production is to use renewable and local resources. Fourth, it is a
matter of food security. If the agricultural sector has a self-sufficient
functional system, it will be less sensitive to instability on the oil and gas
market. In a crisis situation, food production can then be secured with a
reliable supply of fuel and nitrogen.
The extent of self-sufficiency achieved can be debated. A farm can never
be completely independent of the surrounding society, as there will always
be certain product (energy) flows to the farm. For example, manufacture of
the tractors was not included in this study on self-sufficiency in renewable
tractor fuel. The fuel for transporting the raw material to the fuel production
plant and the fuel back to the farm was also not included in the self-
sufficiency, but was counted as an external energy input to the system.
Although some of these choices of system boundaries are debatable, as I see
it there is no point in trying to be completely independent of the rest of the
world.
Another alternative for farm self-sufficiency in fuels discussed in Paper I is
the possibility of exchanging fuels. This is based on the fact that some fuels
are less suitable for farms and more suitable for city vehicles. For example,
ley is a good substrate for biogas production and can easily be grown within
both conventional and organic crop rotations. However, the utilisation of
biogas in tractors is quite expensive and complicated. If a biogas reactor is
installed on the farm, there is a mismatch between biogas production and
peak fuel requirements during spring and autumn. If biogas production is
centralised, the biogas somehow has to be transported out to the farm,
which could be a very expensive system. The fitting of gas tanks on tractors
and the short range of gaseous fuels is another problem. The idea behind
fuel exchange is that the farm delivers ley for biogas production, but instead
of using biogas in the tractors, the farm can use the equivalent amount of
another type of fuel better adjusted to the farm conditions. Paper I showed
that in general, the scenarios based on fuel exchange were cheaper for the
farm than the base case scenarios. The most economically favourable
scenario was to sell biogas raw material to a plant and fuel the tractors with
RME bought on the market.

6.2 Amount of biomass needed for tractor fuel and nitrogen
This thesis studied production systems for tractor fuel and nitrogen based on
biomass. How much biomass is then needed to make Swedish agriculture
self-sufficient in fuel and mineral nitrogen? As an example with future
technology, our hypothetical organic farm self-sufficient in FTD from Salix

56

required 3.8% of the cultivated area. However, this figure cannot be
transferred to the entire Swedish agricultural sector since it relates to an
organic farm with a specific crop rotation. Fuel consumption was calculated
to about 57 litres diesel per hectare in the organic crop rotation studied here,
while statistics show that the figure is closer to 100 litres per hectare as an
average for all crops. In a study by Ahlgren et al. (2009a), the self-
sufficiency in tractor fuel of Swedish agriculture was investigated. Using
Salix as raw material for FTD, about 203 000 ha would be needed to supply
Swedish agriculture with tractor fuel, equivalent to 7.7% of the arable land.
In Paper IV, the amount of land required to make mineral nitrogen from
Salix for Swedish agriculture was calculated to be around 42 000 ha,
equivalent to 1.5% of the arable land. Thus, roughly 244 000 ha of Salix
would be required, equivalent to 9% of the arable land. As diesel and
nitrogen are the two major fossil energy-consuming items, setting aside this
land would mean a large reduction in fossil energy use in Swedish
agriculture.
For straw, which does not need land to be set aside, it is more
appropriate to discuss the requirement in energy terms. Using straw as raw
material for FTD, about 6.3 TWh straw would be needed to supply Swedish
agriculture with tractor fuel (Ahlgren et al., 2009a). Using data from Paper
IV, 2.1 TWh of straw would be needed to supply Swedish agriculture with
nitrogen. Together, roughly 8.4 TWh would be needed, which can be
compared with the estimated straw potential of 4-7 TWh per year (see
Section 6.4).

6.3 Best use of biomass resources
Is it a good idea to use biomass for transport fuel and nitrogen in order to
lower anthropogenic GHG emissions? In a study by Gustavsson et al. (2007),
a number of different scenarios for the use of biomass in Sweden were
modelled. The highest GHG reduction was achieved by expanding the
district heating system. Using biomass for heat is also a cost-effective option,
which is reflected in the current use of biomass energy. In Sweden, 85% of
biomass for energy is used for process heat in industry and in district heating
systems, 10% is used for electricity production and 5% for vehicle fuel
production (Börjesson et al., 2009).
Even though replacing coal with biomass for heat production gives the
largest GHG savings in the short term, the long-term conclusions can be
different. It is expected that more transport fuels will be produced on other
fossil resources than oil, for example gasification of coal. Biomass could then

57

replace coal for vehicle fuel production with the same reduction potential as
coal for heat production (Börjesson et al., 2009).
Maximising the reduction in GHG emissions could be one criterion for
best use of biomass. At a time when peak oil production is believed by many
researchers to be past or getting close, the replacement rate of oil can be
another criterion for best use of biomass. In sectors such as district heating
and process heat in industry, oil has to a large extent already been replaced
by other energy sources in Sweden. However, the transport sector is still
heavily dependent on fossil oil. Replacing oil in Sweden would therefore
primarily be aimed at the transport sector. A study by Gustavsson et al.
(2007) examining the trade-off between oil use reduction and climate
change mitigation showed that if a high GHG reduction is aimed for, the oil
use reduction is less and vice versa. However, aiming for both reduced GHG
emissions and oil use led to the following recommendations (Gustavsson,
2008): Replace oil and coal with biofuelled heat and power plants; expand
the district heating grid; and replace fossil vehicle fuels with bio-based high
efficiency alternatives, namely second generation fuels.
Nitrogen and tractor fuel are vital in maintaining high yields in crop
production. It is therefore very important that agriculture continues to have
a reliable supply of nitrogen and fuel, with the GHG savings being less
important in this context. I therefore suggest that production of nitrogen
and tractor fuel should not be regarded as competing with other uses of
biomass, but as a fundamental prerequisite for continued production of food
and energy for a growing world population. Better yet, the expected future
expansion of bio-refineries, producing a combination of vehicle fuels, heat,
electricity and/or chemicals, opens new doors. Because of the combination
effect, biomass resources can be used to produce vehicle fuels and other
products with high energy efficiency and low GHG emissions (Börjesson,
2008). The debate on whether to produce vehicle fuel, heat, electricity or
nitrogen is then no longer an issue.

6.4 Availability of land and biomass
As seen in the present study, biomass residues are preferably used in order to
avoid competition with food production and indirect land use. The largest
agricultural residue source in Sweden is straw from cereal production. The
use of straw for energy purposes at present in Sweden is about 0.4 TWh
(Bernesson & Nilsson, 2005). The potential yield is difficult to estimate, as it
is dependent on the amount of land used for straw-producing crops, the
need for straw as a bedding material, the weather conditions during harvest

58

and how often in a crop rotation removal of straw can be done without
negative ecological consequences. Bernesson & Nilsson (2005) estimate the
potential for straw as fuel to be 4 TWh per year, Börjesson et al. (2008)
estimate it to be 6 TWh per year and the Federation of Swedish Farmers
(Herland, 2005) estimate it to be 7 TWh per year.
During 2006, 1.2 TWh biogas was produced in Sweden, the majority
from sewage sludge. Only 14 GWh biogas was produced from agriculture
during 2006 (Englesson, 2009). The potential is however estimated to be
much larger, 6.6 TWh per year from agricultural residues (87% from straw)
and 4.1 TWh from manure (Avfall Sverige, 2008). This can be compared
with the use of natural gas, which was 11 TWh in Sweden during 2007
(Energimyndigheten, 2008).
At present, Salix is cultivated on about 15 000 ha (SOU, 2007) in
Sweden. However, there is an expectation that Salix cultivation will expand
rapidly in coming years. According to the Federation of Swedish Farmers
(Herland, 2005), by the year 2020, 100 000 ha of Salix may be grown,
equivalent to about 4 TWh annual production. More optimistic projections
by SOU (2007) estimate 200 000 ha Salix by 2020. Fallow land could be
used for cultivation of Salix or other bioenergy crops. In the European
Union, it was obligatory in the past to keep land in fallow (set-aside) in
order to reduce overproduction of agricultural products. However, this rule
was removed in 2007 and since then the area of set-aside has decreased.
During 2008 set-aside land comprised 6% (150 000 ha) of arable land in
Sweden (SJV, 2009b).
On a global scale, the consumption of biomass energy is at present 50 EJ
or 14 000 TWh, which corresponds to 10% of global annual primary energy
consumption. This is mostly traditional biomass used for cooking and
heating (IEA, 2009). The future potential for bioenergy has been estimated
in several studies (see for example Dornburg et al. (2008), Berndes et al.
(2003) and Hoogwijk et al. (2003) for reviews). The results vary between
very low potential (for example 27 EJ in Field et al., 2008), and very high
potential (for example up to 1548 EJ by 2050 in Smeets et al., 2007)). The
results are dependent on a number of assumptions, one of the most
important being the expected yield increase. In large parts of the world there
is doubtless great potential to increase yields with mechanisation, use of
fertilisers and irrigation. If productivity in food production increases, there
will be more land available for bioenergy production. For example, Smeets
et al. (2007) estimate that in 2050, food demand can be met by reducing the
food production area by 72% compared with today’s land use for food. The
potential is also dependent on future changes in world population and

59

dietary choices. Stehfest et al. (2009) estimate that by 2050 an extra 40 EJ
per year bioenergy could be produced globally with a restricted meat diet
compared with a future with business as usual. When estimating the global
biomass potential, the outcome is also dependent on natural restrictions
imposed concerning for example protection of high biodiversity areas. van
Vuuren et al. (2009) claim that many studies overestimate the bioenergy
potential, since factors such as water scarcity, land degradation and
protection of high bio-diversity areas are overlooked. van Vuuren et al.
(2009) approximate the global bioenergy potential to 150 EJ by 2050, but
80 EJ of this would not be suitable for production due to land degradation,
water stress and biodiversity issues.
Another question related to future competition of land is weather we
should be practicing organic agriculture, should we not try to maximise the
production per unit of land? In a study by Wolf et al. (2003), the future
global bioenergy potential in the year 2050 was studied based on two
different types of agricultural systems; one high external input and one low
external input system (similar to organic production). In the high external
input scenario it was found that plenty of land could be released for
bioenergy production, while in the low input scenario, no land at all was
found to be available for bioenergy. However, there are other studies that
claim that organic agriculture has great potential to feed the world and
produce bioenergy (Badgley et al., 2007; Halberg et al., 2006). This is
mainly based on the assumption that organic agriculture can increase yields
compared with conventional low input practices in developing countries.
This assumption on yield increases has been criticised (see for example
Connor (2008) and Kirchmann et al. (2008)). However, it is not certain
how an increase or decrease in production in a certain part of the world will
affect the problems of global food and bioenergy supply. As Halberg et al.
(2009) point out, at present we have enough food in terms of calories and
protein to feed the world population, and yet there are almost 850 million
starving people on this earth.

6.5 Constraints on transition to fossil fuel-free crop production
There are a number of technical constraints on transition to fossil fuel-free
crop production. Biomass gasification was studied here for production of
both tractor fuel and mineral nitrogen, but the technology for
thermochemical gasification of biomass is still being developed. The main
technical problems relate to the ash content of biomass, giving for example
problems with sintering, deposition and corrosion. Tar formation is also a

60

problem, leading to a need for complex tar removal systems as well as lower
yield of syngas (Wang et al., 2008). Difficulties in handling multiple varieties
of biomass also limit the commercialisation of gasification technology
(Digman et al., 2009). Furthermore, biomass gasification plants need to be
large-scale because of the high investment costs, which places extra
requirements on the logistics system.
For implementation of biomass-based nitrogen fertilisers on farms, no
changes would have to be made concerning the use phase, as the nitrogen is
exactly the same as in the fossil alternative. For some of the tractor fuels
studied, however, technical changes would be required in storage, refuelling
and use in tractors. From the farmer’s point of view, gaseous fuels such as
hydrogen and biogas are difficult and more expensive to handle than liquid
alternatives.
There are also a number of non-technical constraints on transition to
fossil fuel-free crop production, the most obvious being the costs. Fossil fuels
have long been so cheap that it has been difficult for alternatives to compete
without subsidies and tax breaks. Funding for demonstration projects has
also been limited, slowing the rate of technological learning needed for
development of emerging technologies like biomass gasification and fuel cell
technology.
The potential of expanding Salix cultivation is large, as mentioned
previously. However, even though Salix plantations often show better
profitability than conventional food crops, the increase in acreage grown has
been much slower than anticipated (SOU, 2007). One explanation for the
lack of enthusiasm from farmers could be that Salix has a life span of over 20
years, which lowers the flexibility of the land use. Since the political and
economical arena is constantly changing, the subsidies and the profitability
can be difficult to assess for such a long term commitment. One way to get
around the problem of risky investment is to cultivate energy cops on
contract. This is already the case with most Salix plantations in Sweden. The
farmer plants and grows the Salix and the contractor harvests and transports
the crop. The advantage for the farmer is that there is a guaranteed market
and that no investment has to be made in specialist harvesting machinery.
There is also a land ownership issue. In Sweden, 45% of farm land is
leased (tenancy agreements). Contracts usually run for one to five years,
making it difficult to make long-term investments. It can also be difficult to
lease land for cultivating energy crops. In a survey commissioned by Paulrud
& Laitila (2007) in which landowners were asked about their willingness to
lease their land for energy crops. Only 4% of the asked land owners where
willing to lease land for Salix cultivation. For one-year crops such as wheat

61

for ethanol production, the corresponding figure was much higher (25%). In
the study by Paulrud & Laitila (2007), farmers were also asked whether they
would consider planting bioenergy crops and 43% answered no. The reasons
stated were mostly a combination of things, but the most important were
low profitability (39%) and a belief that agricultural land should be used for
food production (32%). This reveals that traditional opinions on how farm
land should be used are just as important as hard facts about profits.

6.6 Weighting of environmental impact categories
As seen in the results of both biomass-based tractor fuel and mineral
nitrogen, the contribution to global warming potential was lower than for
fossil fuel alternatives. However, the contribution to eutrophication and
acidification was often higher, or even much higher, than in the fossil fuel
scenario. In a decision on whether to use the biomass alternatives, the
question then comes down to the weighting of the environmental impact
categories. Several methods exist in LCA for weighting different impact
categories against each other. All weighting models are in principle built on
ethical, moral and ideological values. The choice of weighting method is in
itself an act of valuation. The different weighting methods can in general be
divided into panel and monetisation methods. In the panel method a group
of people are asked about their values and these are translated to weighting
factors. Monetisation methods can for example be based on willingness to
pay or how ecotaxes in a society are distributed (Finnveden et al., 2009).
Weighting different environmental impacts, regardless choice of method, is a
controversial and difficult issue.
Without any scientific evidence, global warming seems to weigh heavily
at the moment. To mention one example, the European Union has
launched sustainability criteria for biofuels (European Parliament, 2009).
These state that areas with high biodiversity or high carbon stocks must not
be used for biofuel crop production and that the GHG emissions must be
lowered by 35% compared with a fossil fuel reference scenario. However,
nothing is said about other environmental effects such as eutrophication and
acidification. One explanation could be that acidification and eutrophication
are more regional problems, while GHG emissions pose global problems. As
we live in a globalised era, it is perhaps natural that global problems receive
more attention.
It is also possible to consider the use of fossil resources as an impact
category. This thesis shows that utilising biomass for the production of
tractor fuel and nitrogen lowers the use of fossil resources, even when the

62

fossil energy used in biomass production is accounted for. In a future with
diminishing and increasingly expensive fossil fuels this could be one of the
determining factors for utilising biomass alternatives.

6.7 The concept of sustainability
The word sustainable is derived from the Latin word sustinere, meaning to
hold up, support or withstand. Sustainability in agriculture in a broad
context has been defined as the use of resources to produce food and fibre in
such a way that the natural resource base is not damaged, and that the basic
needs of producers and consumers can be met over the long term (Yunlong
& Smit, 1994). In practice this could of course mean a number of things and
will vary both temporally and spatially (Rigby & Caceres, 2001). To assess
what is sustainable, very divergent parameters have to be evaluated, for
example quantitative science-based data as well as more qualitative data
concerning ecosystems, social and normative settings (von Wirén-Lehr,
2001). As Rigby & Caceres (2001) point out, it is only in retrospect that we
can identify what sustainable practice is.
For many people, organic agriculture is synonymous with sustainability.
This can be questioned, however, since organic farming like conventional
farming and any other land use has an impact on the environment, such as
emissions of greenhouse gases, nutrient run-off and soil erosion. Organic
farming also uses a large amount of fossil fuels. However, the organic
movement has identified a number of points of what is considered to be
non-sustainable, and by applying a number of principles is trying to move
away from these. In other words, organic farming aims at being sustainable,
but it can be questioned whether it is in practice. Low-input is also
sometimes identified as sustainable. Historically, however, low-input
agriculture has in many places been non-sustainable, leading to degradation
of soils and thereby civilisations.
Although it seems to be very difficult to determine what sustainable
agriculture is, it can be concluded that careless use of limited renewable and
non-renewable resources is not sustainable in the long run. A limited
resource is fossil fuels. Other limited resources include phosphorus, water
and ecosystem services.
Phosphorus, like nitrogen and potassium, is a macronutrient needed for
high yielding crop production. Phosphorus is retrieved from phosphate
rock, with reserves concentrated in just a few countries. Current global
reserves are projected to be depleted in 50-100 years. However, unlike fossil

63

fuels, phosphorus can be recovered from for example human excreta,
manure and food residues (Cordell et al., 2009).
Most crop water requirements are met by rainfall. However, 20% of
crops worldwide need irrigation, especially in regions like North Africa,
South Asia and North China Plains. The irrigation of agricultural land
consumes 70% of all the water used by humans (de Fraiture & Berndes,
2009). In a future with expanding bioenergy plantations, the water demand
will be even higher. In certain parts of the world, there is a large potential
for increased water use (Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa), while in
other parts of the world the limit of water exploitation has already been
reached (for example in India and China) (de Fraiture & Berndes, 2009).
Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems and
can be seen as a limited resource. Such services include natural medicines,
air quality regulation, climate regulation, pollination and soil formation to
mention a few (World Resources Institute, 2005). It is clear that without
these services, food and bioenergy cannot be produced. Loss of biodiversity
is identified in a study by Rockström et al. (2009) as one of the most critical
factors for a continued safe operating space for humanity.

6.8 Future research
Developments in LCA methodology, especially concerning land use in
agricultural LCA, have had a major impact on research. For example,
including the change in soil carbon stocks or including indirect land use has
been shown in some recent studies to completely change the outcome. In
this light, many of the previous biofuel LCA results may have to be
revaluated.
In LCA of agricultural systems, nitrous oxide emissions from soil often
have a large impact on the results. Unfortunately, these emissions are very
difficult to determine. The models that are available are not intended, and
often not suitable, for direct application in LCA. Field measurements are
costly and the results vary significantly. Detailed models with lower
uncertainty in nitrous oxide emissions, adjusted to LCA practices, would
increase the usefulness of LCA of agricultural systems.
Oil for drying grain is a large energy-consuming item that was not
addressed in this study. For fossil fuel-free crop production, drying or other
conservation methods need to be investigated. It would also be interesting to
study biomass-based alternatives to silage plastics.
Much research is being conducted on novel technologies for producing
renewable vehicle fuels, for example production of methanol from recycled

64

carbon dioxide, biodiesel from algae and hydrogen from artificial
photosynthesis. This could be of interest for the agricultural sector, both as
producers of raw material and as end-users of the fuel. For mineral nitrogen
there are also many alternative production routes which need to be studied,
for example utilising electrolysis for hydrogen feedstock production.
However, all new solutions need to be studied from a systems perspective in
order to highlight any hidden environmental costs.
Before any large-scale implementation of biomass-based tractor fuel or
nitrogen production takes place, it would be appropriate to evaluate the
practical performance on a demonstration scale, especially concerning the
implementation on farm level. The research must be conducted in
cooperation with farmers in order to make the systems possible to
implement.
Last, I would like to mention the importance of continued
comprehensive approach discussions and research of how we in a sustainable
way can produce both food and energy for a growing world population.

65

7 Conclusions and final remarks
From Papers I, II and III it can be concluded that:
Compared with the diesel reference scenario, the use of fossil fuel can
be largely reduced by using farm raw materials to produce tractor fuel.
Use of straw or ley as raw material is particularly attractive, as it does
not require land to be set aside for fuel production.
When crops were used as raw material for fuel production, the land
use varied between 1.8% and 5.4% for the 1000 ha organic farm self-
sufficient in tractor fuel.
The global warming potential was lower in all biomass-based systems
studied, but the eutrophication and acidification potential were higher
in some cases.
The second generation renewable fuels studied in Papers II and III
based on thermochemical gasification generally performed better in all
environmental categories than the first generation fuels.
It is difficult to compare first and second generation fuels as they have
different intrinsic values. For example, second generation renewable
fuels are not yet available on a commercial scale and fuel yield
predictions often assume plants that are optimised and self-sufficient in
energy.
Methodological choices made in the study, for example choice of
functional unit, complicated the comparisons between the fuels.
On the farm, liquid alternatives are easier and less costly to use than
gaseous fuels.

From Papers IV and V it can be concluded that:
The use of fossil fuels can be largely reduced by utilising biomass for
production of mineral nitrogen.

67

If ley and maize are used as raw material to produce biogas through
anaerobic digestion, and the biogas to produce ammonium nitrate,
approximately 1.6 and 3.6 ton of N can be produced per hectare from
ley and maize, respectively.
If straw and Salix are gasified to produce hydrogen, and the hydrogen
used to produce ammonium nitrate, approximately 1.6 and 3.9 ton of
N can be produced per hectare from ley and maize, respectively.
The global warming potential was lower in all biomass-based systems
studied. However, there is a risk that the contribution to
eutrophication and acidification will be greater in the biomass systems
compared with the natural gas reference scenario.
Of the systems studied, gasification of straw and Salix performed best
in the environmental impact categories. This was mainly due to high
energy and nutrient efficiency in the production of raw material, as
well as high conversion efficiency to nitrogen.

It is clear that the agricultural sector has great potential to reduce its use of
fossil fuels and to lower emissions of greenhouse gases by utilising biomass
resources. Scaling up the results for self-sufficiency on a national level was
not feasible, but by using results from other studies it was estimated that
Salix cultivated on 9% of the arable land would be sufficient to supply
Swedish agriculture with both tractor fuel and nitrogen. It was argued that
producing nitrogen and tractor fuel from biomass should not be regarded as
competing with other uses of the biomass, but as a prerequisite for
continued production of food and energy for a growing world population.
However, there are many other issues to deal with in sustainable
production of crops, for example use of limited resources such as fresh
water, phosphorus and ecosystem services. Furthermore, in many of the
biomass systems studied here, the eutrophication and acidification emissions
were larger than in the fossil reference scenarios. These emissions will have
to be reduced or to be weighted lower than global warming. The use of
fossil oil for grain drying is another issue that needs to be addressed. In
addition, there are a number of technical constraints to overcome, as well as
economic and social non-technical constraints. Seen on a global scale,
agriculture also has to deal with difficult issues such as resource distribution
and the protection of soil and biodiversity. Last but not least, we all need to
take responsibility for our common future by wasting less food and making
active consumer choices, such as eating less meat.

68

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76

Acknowledgements
First of all, my deepest gratitude to my main supervisor: thank you for all of
your support, Per-Anders. I owe you my development from fluffy student
duckling to full feathered researcher! Deep gratitude also to my co-
supervisors Sven and Åke for all the support and input and the time you
spent reading my work. A special thank you goes to Andras Baky for good
co-operation during the years. Special thanks also to Olle Norén for all the
knowledge you possess and so willingly share. Again, thank you members of
the research group for all the inspiring meetings, with many scientific
discussions but also with many good jokes.
Thank you present and previous colleagues at the Department for all the
valuable small talk during lunches and coffee breaks. Special thanks to
Carina, it was very nice to have you as a room neighbour. You are so easy-
going and full of good ideas! Thank you Ingrid for acting as opponent on
my pre-dissertation seminar and for your good friendship. Thank you also
Cecilia, who gave a lot of input during the writing of my thesis. Daniel
Nilsson, thank you for the introduction to teaching! Berit and Majsan for
practical support. Thanks to Mary McAfee who improved my English
writing!
My gratitude also goes to all my friends and family: My mother and
father who since my childhood have inspired me to believe I can do
whatever I want, my sister and brother for good companionship. And then
to my three darlings, Simon, Rebecka and Sixten. You have not seen your
mother so much during the last half year, but now we can look forward to a
nice long Christmas holiday together! And to my husband Gijs, I don´t
know what to say. You are the most wonderful man on this earth and I love
you very much! Thank you for all the support!!
Finally, the research fund Formas, which sponsored my work, is
gratefully acknowledged.

77

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