international-marketing-consolidated-notes.pptx

International Marketing
International markets represent one of the largest and fastest growing areas of commercial and marketing activity. As
such, they represent one of the most significant areas of business opportunities for the organisation. A company, in order
to go global, needs to to make a series of decisions:
 Deciding whether to go abroad – Pros and cons of international marketing
 Deciding which markets to enter – How many markets to enter; developed vs developing markets, trade blocks
 Deciding how to enter the market – Indirect exporting, Direct exporting, Licensing, Joint ventures, FDI
 Deciding on the marketing program – Marketing Mix Elements
 Deciding on th marketing organisation – Export Department, International Division, Global Organisation
The Changing Nature of the International Business Environment
As in all business situations, opportunities and threats stem from changes in the environment. In environments which are
not dynamic and changing, few such opportunities and threats arise. There is little doubt that the international
environment is one of the most dynamic. Examples of some of the major changes in the international business
environment in recent years include the following:
 The growth of whole new trading blocs and major changes to existing ones, e.g. the expansion of the European
Union (EU), and the formation of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
 Newly emerging markets with significant growth potential, e.g. the Chinese Economic Area, Indonesia, India,
South Korea and Mexico.
 Fundamental changes to the economic systems in some countries/regions of the world, for example the collapse
of the former Eastern European Communist Bloc.
 Diminishing barriers to international trade and consequent significantly increased competition across national
boundaries and often, as we shall see later, on a global basis.
 The growth of the multinational and transnational organisation.
 The development and impact of the Internet
Dynamic nature of the international environment
It is the dynamic nature of the international environment which provides the source of major business opportunities.
(a) The continued liberalisation of international trade
This particular aspect of the international environment is of particular importance when considering the growth of
international business. As already indicated, there has been a continuing trend towards the liberalisation of international
trade. Starting after the Second World War, under the auspices of GATT (latterly the World Trade Organisation),
agreements have been reached to gradually remove trade barriers such as tariffs and quotas. Imperfect though these
agreements have sometimes been, there is no doubt that these have helped the growth of world trade and the rising
importance of international business. Patterns of world trade and understanding the world trading environment are very
important to international business together with the social, legal, economic, political, technological and competitive
forces which underpin them.
(b) Cosmopolitan customers
A third factor in the growth in importance of international business is the changing nature of customers and demand, and
in particular, the increasingly cosmopolitan nature of today’s customers. Today’s consumer is much more widely
travelled compared to even a decade ago. Combined with an increasingly global media network, today’s consumer is
exposed to global lifestyles, products and brands. Increased affluence and education on the part of customers have also
served to reinforce much more cosmopolitan attitudes and lifestyles. At the turn of the twentieth century, our
grandparents were mainly exposed to domestic products and services.
Furthermore, they weren’t particularly interested in buying “foreign” products. Today’s consumer, however, travels
widely and wants to purchase the best value and most innovatory products and services, regardless of their country of
origin. Clearly, consumers and their needs change, together with their buying habits and the influences on these.
Understanding the consumer and their needs lies at the heart of business strategy and planning. This is no different in
international business – indeed, if anything, one might argue that the need to understand or at least analyse customer
behaviour is heightened when considering consumers across international frontiers.
(c) Improved communications
Helping to facilitate the emergence of the more cosmopolitan international consumer have been the huge improvements
in international communication. Indeed, the increase in international travel just referred to has partly come about because
of these. So, for example, it now costs approximately 1/6th in real terms of what it did only 15 years ago to fly the
Atlantic. Of particular importance in this area, of course, has been the growth of new communication technologies such
as satellite TV and more recently the growth of the Internet which is rapidly becoming ubiquitous and is giving ready
access to consumers to international trends and markets.
(d) Strategic networking and the international supply chain
It is not only final customers that have become more cosmopolitan in their lifestyles and purchasing habits, but so too
have organisational customers.
 Strategic networking is the formation of alliances and agreements between companies. Such alliances and

International Marketing (Consolidated Notes) Page 2 of 17
agreements may involve, licensing, franchising and even mergers and acquisitions. Strategic networking is an
attempt to combine two or more companies’skills and resources so as to be able to compete better.
 International supply chains refers to the increasingly international nature of supply in as much as companies
often purchase components, raw materials, services, etc. from very diverse parts of the world
Increasingly, organisational buyers, whether in manufacturing, services or retailing, are looking towards non-domestic
suppliers to provide their raw materials, components and finished products. A good example is that of the United
Kingdom retailer, Marks & Spencer. At one time, Marks & Spencer made a feature out of sourcing from only UK
suppliers wherever possible. However, in recent years this company, facing increrasingly aggressive competition, has
begun to purchase from whichever supplier can best serve their needs with regard to factors such as price, design,
delivery and so on, irrespective of their geographical location in the world.
Some of the same factors underpinning the emergence of the more cosmopolitan consumer, such as improved
communication apply equally to the organisational customer. In addition, companies are increasingly developing
strategic networks with suppliers which are based on international supply chains. So, for example, a car which is
ultimately sold in the United Kingdom may have had its engine built in Spain, its transmission in Japan, its gearbox and
steering in Korea and its trim in Brazil, with assembly in Germany.
A number of factors underpin this growth of strategic networking and international supply chains. So, for example,
increasingly, even the largest companies can no longer afford to develop new products on their own, but must share the
risk by developing strategic alliances with other companies, often in different parts of the world. Similarly, sometimes a
company will be unable to gain access to an overseas market without the help of a local company and so again, strategic
alliances or joint ventures of some kind are increasingly the order of the day.
One of the most significant developments promoting the growth of the international supply chain has been the
recognition that managing supply effectively through value chain activities can be one of the most important sources of
competitive advantage. There is no doubt that strategic networking and the international supply chain management which
is associated with this, will continue to facilitate the growth of international business in the future.
(e)Growth of global companies – multinationals and transnationals Factors already discussed which have served to
underpin the growth of importance of international business have in turn led to the emergence of the global company.
The global company thinks, plans and operates on a truly global basis; in other words, it transcends international
boundaries. The 1980s and 1990s have seen the emergence of the multinational and, more recently, transnational
company. In an admittedly somewhat chicken and egg fashion, the emergence of the global company has in turn helped
fuel further growth in international business. At this stage, we should note that one factor in particular linking the global
company with the growth of international business itself has been the growth of the global brands which such companies
have promoted.
(f) Global brands
A combination of increasingly cosmopolitan consumers and lifestyles, together with the growth of global companies,
have led to the growth of the global brand. Global brands transcend international boundaries and include brands such as
Coca Cola, Ford, Mercedes, IBM and Rolex, to name just a few examples. Global brands reduce the risks for customers
of buying brands produced in other countries. They also help facilitate a feeling of “belonging” on the part of customers
throughout the world with shared lifestyles, values, aspirations, etc. These, then, are just some of the key factors which
underpin the growth in, and importance of, international business. Again, remember that we will be considering many of
these factors again in more depth in later study units. Here, we are simply concerned to establish the importance of
international business and the fact that the dynamic environment which surrounds this area of business means that this is
an area of significant opportunities. Needless to say, to recognise and appraise these opportunities is a key part of the
international business’s task. In addition to understanding the nature of the international environment and the factors
which underpin this, including competitor and customer aspects, the international business also needs to understand and
be able to apply the tools of international marketing research together with the concepts and techniques of competitive,
absolute and comparative analysis.
DECIDING WHETHER TO GO ABROAD – Pros & Cons of going abroad
Reasons for Going International
All business is ultimately about identifying opportunities in markets and developing programmes to take advantage of
these. We have already discussed some of the reasons for the growth of international business which have served to
illustrate how dynamic this area is and therefore how it gives rise to significant opportunities. In broad terms, going
international offers several potential advantages over and above purely domestic markets. For example, we have already
seen that international markets and trade have tended to grow faster than more domestic economies.
Furthermore, there is substantial evidence to suggest that international markets and business are more profitable – i.e. the
companies that operate in these markets achieve higher rates of return than their purely domestic counterparts of a similar
size. It is not difficult to think of reasons for these higher rates of return. For example, international markets often give
more scope for economies of scale or similarly, may allow the business to source components and raw materials, etc.
more cost-effectively.
Additionally, the international business may, through effective global branding, simply be able to command a price
premium or gain leverage for shelf space in the retail outlet compared to the purely domestic counterpart. There are all
sorts of reasons why international business may represent opportunities for increased profits but there are many reasons
which may underpin a decision for a company to go international. Examples of some of these reasons are shown below.

(a) Saturated domestic markets – the international product lifecycle
Very often, the motive for going international by a company will be that its own domestic markets are saturated, with no
potential for future growth. The business may therefore be prompted to look for other international markets where this
potential still exists.
There may be several reasons why a market may be saturated at home and yet offer potential for growth in other markets,
but one reason is the product lifecycle. You know, of course, that the product lifecycle concept illustrates the fact that
products pass through a number of stages in their lives from introduction through growth to eventual saturation and
decline. We can also see that a product may often be at different stages in different countries. So, for example, the
microwave oven was entering maturity in the United States whilst at the same time only being at the introduction stage in
the United Kingdom. Very often, in fact, there is a pecking order to the international product lifecycle with products and
services first reaching maturity and decline n developed economies while still being at the growth or even introductory
stage in developing economies. The point is that by carefully identifying the next growth market, a business can achieve
a fresh impetus to growth when domestic markets have become saturated.
Three further examples of products which are at different stages of their lifecycle in different parts of the world are
shown in the following table::
Product Current stage UK Stage of lifecycle elsewhere
Cable TV Introduction/growth Maturity (US)
Disposable nappies Maturity Introduction/growth (Poland)
Digital cameras Introduction Growth (Japan)
(b) Intense/increased international competition in home markets
Another factor which may prompt a company to go international is where it faces intense and/or increased competition in
its domestic markets, particularly from non-domestic competitors. Sometimes the business may seek to avoid such
intense competition by looking for non- domestic markets to maintain and expand sales and profits. The danger here, of
course, is that competition will simply follow you into your new markets. Sometimes, the company decides to
counterattack global competitors in their home market.
(c) An opportunity to exploit a real competitive advantage
Some international markets present higher profit opportunities than the domestic market. A much more positive reason
for going international than avoiding increased competition in the domestic market is where a company has a genuine
competitive advantage which it wishes to exploit on an international basis. So, for example, a company with an
innovatory new product which is, say, patent protected may feel that it wishes to gain the maximum value by expanding
its sales of the product into other countries.
(d) Economies of scale
We have already mentioned the fact that international expansion through expanding the potential market often enables a
company to achieve economies of scale. At one time, these economies of scale were linked to decreases in average cost
in the production and research and development areas of the business, but increasingly, companies are also being driven
by economies of scale in the marketing area and particularly in the areas of branding and advertising where going
international can help reduce the average costs in this increasingly expensive area of the business.
(e) Merger and acquisition activity
Sometimes companies find themselves in the international arena through their merger and acquisition activities. Clearly,
where the reason for the merger/acquisition is to, say, gain access to an overseas market, then obviously this is a
conscious policy decision to go international. Sometimes, however, a company can find itself operating in international
markets where the major reason for the merger/acquisition was perhaps to simply protect the domestic market or to
acquire a valuable distribution structure. In doing so, however, the company may acquire/merge with a company that is
already involved in international markets and so goes international by default.
(f) Servicing Customers
Sometimes cutomers relocate to new places and require international service. Companies decide to set up servicing
facilities in these new locations where the existing customer base has relocated.
Clearly, there are many reasons why companies go international, but it is important to stress that all the evidence suggests
that where a company goes international for positive reasons it is much more likely to be successful. So, for example, a
company that is experiencing difficulties in its domestic markets, such as decreasing sales, increased competition, etc.
will often struggle if it attempts to move into international markets from this weak base.
This again highlights the importance of analysing and assessing international markets for genuine market opportunities
and matching these opportunities to company competences and strengths. This aspect of identifying and appraising
opportunities in international markets is again no different to purely domestic business. But if this aspect is no different,
it raises the issue of what is involved in international business and it is to this area that we shall now turn our attention.
Risks involved in Going International
 The company might not understand foreign preferences and could fail to offer a competitively attractive product.
 The company might not understand the foreign country's business culture.

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International Marketing (Consolidated Notes)
 The company might underestimate foreign regulations and incur unexpected costs.
 The company might lack managers with international experience.
 The foreign company might change its commercial laws, devalue its currency, or undergo political revolution.
INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC BUSINESS - Similarities & Differences
Similarities
(a) The centrality of the marketing concept
You will, of course, be familiar with the notion of the marketing concept, namely that effective business is based around
identifying and satisfying customers’ needs and wants. The importance of this concept is no different when considering
international or domestic marketing activities.
(b) Management processes
The key processes of business management, too, are no different in international compared to domestic markets.
Successful practice is still built upon the elements of analysis, planning, implementation and control.
(c) Management tools and techniques
All the tools and techniques pertinent to, and used in, domestic business activities are also relevant in the international
context. So, for example, the tools and techniques of marketing research, market segmentation and targeting, forecasting
and so on are just the same.
(d) The marketing mix
The elements of the marketing mix used in domestic marketing are all relevant to international marketing. So, later in the
course we shall be looking at the 7P’s of the marketing mix in the context of their application to international markets.
Obviously, the application of the elements may differ compared to purely domestic marketing, but the ideas and concepts
are just the same.
(e) Key decision areas/planning frameworks
Finally, the planning frameworks and key decision areas for international business are similar to those for domestic. So in
marketing, for example, the business must establish objectives, select target markets and positioning strategies, develop
marketing strategies encompassing the marketing mix and implement these and finally evaluate and control marketing
activities.
As with the marketing mix, there will be some differences in application. So, for example, the business must decide the
mode of entry into international markets – a decision obviously not found in purely domestic business, but again the
principles and key areas of decisions are just the same in international, compared to domestic business.
Differences
With so many similarities between international and domestic business, what, if anything is different? The deceptively
simple answer to this question (i.e. the key difference between international and domestic business) is the following:
“International business takes place across national boundaries.”
At first sight, this would not appear to be a major difference but the very fact that international business is carried on
across national boundaries is the reason for a range of major differences and applications of business concepts and
techniques. The process of international marketing though involves the same disciplines as domestic marketing, has some
differences compared to its domestic version. The major differences are the national differences between countries
arising out of political, legal, economic, social and cultural differences.
 Different environment, culture and language
Operating across national boundaries means that the business encounters a range of problems and issues not encountered
when operating exclusively in domestic markets. Again, this deceptively simple statement masks the complexities and
problems which this can cause. So, for example, the business must deal with a different set of environmental factors.
Perhaps most significant of all, the business is dealing with a set of customers from a different culture and language.
So, for example, in respect of marketing, research involves considering language and respondent differences, and
businesses must consider the extent to which marketing activities, and particularly the marketing mix, can be
standardised across national boundaries.
Culture refers to widely shared norms or patterns of behavior of a large group of people. It is defined as the values,
attitudes, beliefs, artifacts and other meaningful symbols represented in the pattern of life adopted by people that help
them interpret, evaluate and communicate as members of society. The need for greater cross cultural awareness is
heightened in our global economies. Cross cultural differences in matters such as language, etiquette, non-verbal
communication, norms and values can lead to cross cultural blunders as illustrated by the following marketing mix:
Product: A soft drink was introduced into Arab countries with an attractive label that had six-pointed stars on it.
The Arabs interpreted this as pro-Israeli and refused to buy it. Another label was printed in ten languages, one of
which was in Hebrew-again the Arabs did not buy it
Price: An American firm was trying to get an acceptable price for their product from a Japanese buyer. The
Americans presented a very detailed presentation and offered what they felt was a reasonable price. After a few
moments of silence, the Americans thought the Japanese were going to reject the offer so they lowered the price.
There was more silence by the Japanese. The Americans then said they would lower their price one last time and
that this was the lowest they could go. The Japanese accepted this offer after a brief silence. The Japanese later
said the first price was within an acceptable range, but it was their custom to consider the proposal silently
before giving their decision. The Americans lost a lot of profit by jumping the gun and believing that Japanese

respond just like the Americans do.
Place: A well known drinks company tried to introduce a two liter drinks bottle into Spain, but found it hard to
enter the market - they soon discovered this was because few Spaniards had fridge doors large enough to
accommodate the large size bottle.
Promotion: When Pepsico advertised Pepsi in Taiwan with the ad “Come Alive With Pepsi” they had no idea
that it would be translated into Chinese as “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead.”
 Racial Differences: This would refer to the differences in physical features of people in different countries. For
example, the types of hair care and cosmetic products needed in U.S would differ from those needed in South Asia.
 Climatic Differences: This would include the meteorological conditions like degree of rain and temperature range in
the targeted foreign market. For instance, Bosch-Siemens had to alter their washing machines with a minimum spin
cycle of 1,000 rpm and a maximum of 1,600 rpm in Scandinavia, owing to irregular sunshine. In Italy and Spain, on
the other hand, it is sufficient to have a spin cycle of 500 rpm as there is abundant sunshine.
 Economic Differences: The level of economic development in a market can affect the desired properties of a product
and in this way can inspire a company to adapt its products in order to meet the needs of the local market. The level
of economic progress in a market can be assessed by a series of indications:
The level of revenue and buying power of local consumers: This will have an influence on the technical
conception and marketing of exported products. In richer countries where the state of economic progress is
more advanced, consumers generally having a higher purchasing power and tend to prefer purchase of more
sophisticated products with advanced functions, while people in poorer markets would be interested in a
simplified version of the product.
The state of infrastructure in the market: The general level of the quality of infrastructure in the country
consisting of elements such as transport, energy communication systems, etc. can affect how the product is
constituted as it can bring about different conditions of use. When car manufacturer Suzuki entered India, it had
to reinforce the suspension or the “road clearance level” of the cars as the state of the roads were poor.
 Religious Differences: Religion has many impacts on products, more particularly on the ingredients, that constitute
them. For example, in Islamic countries, companies, exporting grocery products based on beef have to furnish a
certificate declaring that the animals have been slaughtered respecting “Halal” methods. Alcoholic drinks are
equally banned in Middle Eastern countries. Religious restrictions can therefore require product adaptation.
 Historical Differences: Historical differences help explain facts such as the playing of cricket in England, as opposed
to game of boules in France. These differences have slowly evolved over time but have a profound effect on
consumer behavior. For example, drinking Scotch whiskey is considered prestigious and trendy in Italy, but old-
fashioned and almost boring in Scotland.
 Language Differences: Language is an important aspect of international marketing research. Inappropriate use of
language could result in loss of market apart from turning out to be a cross cultural gaffe. For instance, U.S. and
British negotiators found themselves at a standstill when the American company proposed that they “table” particular
key points. In the U.S. “Tabling a motion” means to not discuss it, while the same phrase in Great Britain means to
“bring it to the table for discussion.”
 Customers. In advanced countries, the wide range of available goods and services leaves few unsatisfied market
areas. Buyers can be very fickle about whether or not to buy, and businesses therefore must be very clear about
identifying and satisfying customer needs.
In lesser developed countries, many customers have insufficient money to buy products. In other words, there is no
“effective demand”. However, people in these countries are often aware of the most up-to-date products through
television and the cinema. Businesses in these countries face additional problems with regard to making products
available which customers can afford.
 Market information and forecasting
International markets often exhibit very different rates of growth which, combined often with a paucity of
information, makes it very difficult to develop reliable estimates of market size and sales forecasts.
 Competition
Businesses entering international markets, as already indicated, generally face much fiercer competition.
Furthermore, this competition is now composed of perhaps unknown competitors from other countries. Admittedly,
the purely domestic marketer can face international competition from both domestic and international competitors,
but generally speaking, international business moves competitive pressures up to a new level.
 Environmental turbulence
Compared to domestic environments, the international environment within which businesses must operate is much
more dynamic and unpredictable. Changes in the international environment can be very rapid indeed, such as the
much discussed withdrawal of the UK and Italy from the Exchange Rate Mechanism of the European Union in
September 1992. Even changes that have been expected for many years can be difficult to predict with regard to their
impact and implications for business, for example the handing back to China of Hong Kong. Environmental factors
such as inflation rates, disposable incomes and technological and legislative changes can all change very rapidly in
international markets, making it much more difficult for business. On the other hand, as we shall see, this very
dynamism in international markets also gives rise to major business opportunities.

DECIDING HOW TO ENTER THE MARKET
Once a company decides to target a particular country, it must determine the best mode of entry. There are five market
entry strategies that it can choose from. Each succeeding strategy entails more commitment, risk, control, and profit
potential.
Indirect exporting: The normal way to get involved in an international market is through export. Companies typically
start with indirect exporting – that is, they work through independent intermediaries. Domestic based export merchants
buy the manufacturers' products and then sell them abroad. Domestic based export agents seek and negotiate foreign
foreign purchases for a commission. Cooperative organisations carry on exporting activities on behalf of several
producers. Export management companies agree to manage a company's export activities for a fee.
Direct exporting: Companies eventually may decide to handle their own exports in one of the following ways: Domestic
based export department or division, overseas sales branch or subsidiary, travelling export sales representatives, or
Foreign based distributors or agents.
Licensing: The licensor issues a license to a foreign company to use a manufacturing process, trademark, patent, trade
secret, or other item of value for a fee or royalty. The licensor gains entry at a little risk; the licensee gains production
expertise or a well-known product or brand name.
Joint ventures: Foreign investors often join hands with local investors to create a joint venture company in which they
share ownership and control.
Direct Investment: The ultimate form of foreign involvement is direct ownership of foreign based assembly or
manufacturing facilities.
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS INVOLVEMENT
There are a number of different types of involvement in international business. At one extreme, some companies have a
few sporadic foreign orders that they process as and when they arrive. At the other extreme, there are companies – such
as Coca-Cola, Unilever, General Motors and Sony – with significant investments in plant, machinery and staff in other
countries and with detailed marketing, planning and implementation in a large number of countries.
The degree of involvement can be measured by the percentage of sales revenue or profit contribution attributable to
domestic and non-domestic sales. The amount of investment in non-domestic markets is another indicator. Other
measures are the percentage of staff working on international markets and the relative planning importance given to
international business.
The ways in which companies move from very little to intense international business have been explained in a number of
different ways. In such a varied situation of companies, countries and interests, any one explanation is unlikely to be
complete. Here we shall consider two such approaches.
Different Orientations, Different Management Culture
More companies are taking to operations on a global or regional scale than a national scale. The complexity and
sophistication of the operations changes as the company steps into international markets. The guidelines to these issues
can be found in the EPRG framework (Wind, Douglas, & Perlmutter, 1973). This framework identifies four types of
orientations towards internationalization as the company expands into international markets.
Orientation
Ethnocentric
Polycentric
Regiocentric
Geocentric
Focus
home/domestic country
host country
regional market groups, e.g. ASEAN
world/global
These attitudes reflect the goals and philosophies of the company and help in developing management strategies and
planning procedures with regard to its international operations.
 The ethnocentric orientation is one where the attitudes and approaches of managements are based upon their
own domestic market. Little or no consideration is given to the different needs of non-domestic customers. The
top management views domestic techniques and personnel as superior to foreign and as the most
effective in overseas markets. The company sees its domestic business as its priority and views foreign sales
as a profitable extension of its domestic sales. A company with this domestic market extension concept typically
identifies markets where demand is similar to the home market and where its domestic product will be
acceptable.
 The polycentric orientation is associated with multi-national enterprises with subsidiaries strongly based in host
countries. This orientation is sometimes called multi-domestic because the company operates with an almost
domestic approach to a number of different markets. A polycentric attitude emerges once the company begins to
recognize the importance of the inherent differences in offshore markets. A company guided by this concept is of
the view that country markets are vastly different and that, market requires an almost independent program for
each country. The company also believes in using local personnel and techniques to suit the local market
conditions. The company with such a multi-domestic market concept adapts its products without coordination
with other country markets; its advertising campaigns, pricing and distribution decisions being localized.
 Regiocentric orientation has become more prevalent as regional market groupings have developed. In Europe
we are seeing an increased interest in tackling European markets.

 Geocentric orientation is becoming increasingly important. It is sometimes mistakenly thought that the
geocentric approach is only for very large companies. It is increasingly likely that all but the small companies
will need to consider a geocentric orientation. Medium-sized companies might not compete in many markets
around the world, but they need to be aware of emerging world trends in buying behaviour, in cost levels and in
technologies. Without this global vision the company will not be able to adapt to our fast-changing world.
In the regiocentric and geocentric stages, the company recognizes the regional commonalities and undertakes regional
strategies by considering the region or the entire world as a potential market, ignoring national boundaries. The firm
develops policies and organizes activities on a regional or worldwide basis. Firms using this global marketing concept
design product lines, pricing decisions, promotions and the channels of distribution for regional or worldwide markets.
Coca-Cola, Ford Motor Company, General Motors and several other companies follow this orientation and can be
described as global companies.
The Stages Approach
The following table illustrates the different stages a company may go through in developing from a purely domestic
business to one that is fully international.
Stages in Process International BusinessApproach
Domestic
Degree of International
Involvement
None None
Export selling None
Reactive, very limited,
experimental
Proactive exporting Active involvement Increasing knowledge and the development of planning
approaches. Approaches are usually more tactical than
strategic.
International Committed involvement The key here is that the company has some investment in
at least one other country. Planning is used extensively,
but usually on a multi-domestic basis.
Global Committed strategic approach Treats the world as an opportunity.
The equidistant approach would be an ideal.
Note that the international business approach becomes more comprehensive, strategic and sophisticated the closer to the
global stage the company has reached.
The difference between simply exporting and international business arises from the fact that exporting is the physical
movement of a product produced in one country to another country. Profits are made from the sales revenue (less
variable and indirect costs) gained from the non-domestic country customer. In international and global business, profits
will be earned in a variety of ways:
 Net profits remitted by subsidiary companies;
 Net profits remitted from joint ventures;
 Licence fees earned by allowing non-domestic users to use your patented processes;
 Fees earned from the sales of "know-how";
 In addition, there will usually be sales revenues earned from exporting.
In general, international business is a more sophisticated process than exporting. It is usually closer to the final customer.
Global business is a much more recent phenomenon. Whereas exporting and international business look for profitable
opportunities, almost wherever they exist, global business seeks systematically to exploit opportunities around the world.
For the global company the markets of Europe, North America and Japan, sometimes called the Triad, usually represent
over 75% of the world market and are therefore of crucial importance. The Triad is likely to contain most of the world
market and most of the world competition.

THE REASONS FOR INTERNATIONAL TRADE
International trade, of course, is not new – nations have been trading, and often fighting to trade, with other nations for
thousands of years. The simple reason for this is that trade, and especially international trade, brings wealth and
economic growth. Furthermore, few countries if any can be totally self-sufficient in all the goods and services that are
needed to be consumed within a country.
The only solution is to do without or trade with other nations. Sometimes, of course, nations trade with other nations for
non-economic reasons – for example, to develop international relations with other countries for strategic and political
reasons, or perhaps even to help other nations develop their economies. The primary reasons for international trade,
however, are essentially economic. Perhaps as we would expect then, it was the economists who first provided a rationale
and a set of theories to explain the reasons for, and the patterns of, world trade. We shall begin by examining the
economists’ earliest theories of trade before moving on to consider more recent theories, including the emergence of
more market and competitor-based theories of trade.
Theories of Advantage and Factors of Production
The 17th and 18th century economists were amongst the first to provide a rationale for international trade. Perhaps the
first recognised theory was that developed by Adam Smith based on the notion of absolute advantage. This theory was
further refined in Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage.
(a)Absolute advantage
This is developed from the work of Adam Smith in “The Wealth of Nations” published in 1776. If one country can
produce, for the same costs, more products than another country, there is an advantage to be gained by specialising
production in the higher-output country. In effect, the costs per unit are lower.
(b)Comparative advantage
Attributed principally to David Ricardo, the important idea here is the economist’s concept of forgone opportunity. In
producing, say, aeroplanes, the opportunity to produce consumer durable products will be missed. The ideal approach is
to concentrate on those products and services that give the best relative position.
To take an extreme example, country X might have an absolute advantage over country Y in every type of product and
service. Country X should concentrate on those items that give the best returns – those items in which it is able to add
most value. It is probable that country X will concentrate on complicated manufacture requiring a talented and well
educated and trained workforce. Country Y will produce more straightforward products and services. X will gain because
it produces more high added value items. Y will gain because it will have access to the products produced by X at lower
prices than Y could achieve.
These early economic theories were very influential, not only in exploring the rationale for international trade but in
doing so, providing the basis for the promotion of such trade by governments and individuals. There is no doubt that the
major legacy that these early economists left were the justification, ever since, for the protagonists of free trade.
Important and influential though these early theories were, they did have shortcomings, particularly as countries and
international trade itself began to develop further. Changes in the patterns of international trade led to two further
additions to the economists’ theories of international trade – in particular, the so-called productivity theories and the
factor proportions theory. Each of these theories is outlined below.
(c)Productivity theories
There are various explanations for trade flows that look in detail at the productivity of factors of production. Early
theories concentrated on the productivity of labour. If one country had people who produced more products or services,
their costs would be lower. Trade would flow from this country to the other less productive countries.
The weakness with the labour productivity theory is that labour is not the only factor of production. In the 20th century,
the full range of factor costs or factor output per time period is still important. However, this needs to be balanced by the
different factor inputs. Some companies can compensate for high labour costs by applying capital to increase the use of
machinery. In addition, those companies tend to specialise in advanced innovative products with high levels of service.
Germany and Sweden, both high-cost labour countries, are examples of this approach.
(d)Factor proportions theory
This theory assumes different factor proportions for different products. It also assumes that different countries will have
different amounts of resources (i.e. factors of production). For example, if the UK wishes to gain more exports, it might
wish to consider investing in education and training to develop a workforce capable of generating the kinds of added-
value, knowledge-based products and services likely to be demanded in the future.

International product life-cycle
The standard product life-cycle (PLC) concept was applied in the 1960s by Raymond Vernon to international markets.
The basic idea was a “trickle down” from advanced countries to the less advanced countries.
It assumes that advanced countries will innovate products and services. Over time, these new products will mature in
their domestic markets and will, then, be introduced into the developing and the less developed countries. In these
countries the PLC will start with the introduction phase, etc. Thus, products would be developed in, say, the US, but the
PLC for that product would be straddled across the export of the product to less developed markets.
The trickle or cascade approach
Advanced Country
(e.g. US)
Developing
Countries
Less Developed
Countries
This approach is much less likely to happen in the turbulent 1990s. Many companies take a strategic approach to product
development and product launch, with products often being launched, in a co-ordinated way, into several markets at
once. This more modern approach has been referred to by Keegan as the shower approach.
The shower approach
Co-ordinated
Launch Programme
Advanced Country Developing Less Developed
(e.g. US) Countries Countries
In addition, the concept of the international PLC does not take account of other changes in the 21st century:
 New products and services are being developed in many different countries, not just advanced countries.
 There are fewer demand differences between countries. We have not moved to the globalvillage, but there are
considerable signs of convergence.

Reasons for Erecting Trade Barriers
Countries, or rather governments, may erect trade barriers for a number of reasons. Some of the most frequent reasons
are as follows:
 Protection of home markets/industries and employment. In some instances, barriers might legitimately allow an
infant industry to establish itself before the full forces of competition can shake it, perhaps to breaking point. In
other instances, the barriers might allow the domestic industry to become inefficient, resulting in domestic
consumers paying higher prices and having less up-to-date products and lower levels of customer service.
 Strategic (military) reasons.
 Retaliatory reasons – political, economic, etc.
 As bargaining levers to secure desired objectives in international relations with other countries.
Tariffs
Tariffs are taxes or duties that are placed on imports and their use is widespread around the world. The purposes of tariffs
vary from a means of raising revenue for a government to creating barriers to entry to the domestic market.
Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs)
Whilst there has been a general reduction in the range and levels of tariffs, non-tariff barriers have tended to increase. For
example, the Single European Market eliminated tariffs between the 15 member states, but is still wrestling with the need
to harmonise NTBs.
The main types of non-tariff barrier are as follows.
(a) Public procurement policies
This is selective and discriminatory buying policies on the part of governments and state- owned-industry. In many
countries there is either an explicit or implicit “buy our own national products” policy (e.g. in the UK, “Buy British”, in
France, “Buy French”).
In the EU, no favouritism can be shown to national or local suppliers. Goods and services have to be selected either at the
lowest tendered price or by an agreed “best value” formula.
(b)Quotas
Under this type of barrier, only a specified amount of particular goods are allowed to be imported during a time period
(usually, over a year). Once this amount is filled, no more goods can be imported until the next time period. This restricts
the potential market for exporters and makes it easier for domestic producers to gain market share. In addition, the
exporter is faced with uncertainty – it might be difficult to establish whether the quota is full or not. If the quota amount
has been reached, the exporter will have to wait until the next time period when the quota resumes.
(c)Technical standards
Many countries have technical requirements applying to specific goods within the domestic market. Sometimes these can
be used to make it easier for domestic suppliers than those seeking to gain entry. The domestic suppliers understand the
regulations better, perhaps continually changing the regulations to keep the balance of advantage on their side.
(d)Health and safety standards
These can be used in much the same way as technical standards.
(e)Restrictive administration procedures
A classic example of this occurred during the 1980s when the French attempted to slow the entry of Japanese-made video
cassette recorders. They did this by making the only entry into France through one town for Japanese video cassette
recorders. This caused very considerable delays.
Dumping and Anti-Dumping
Although generally speaking, barriers to trade are, in economic terms at least, largely indefensible, there are sometimes
good reasons for imposing them, at least in the short term. One situation where barriers to trade might be justified is in
the case of anti-dumping legislation which is enacted to protect a market from unfair competition.
Dumping occurs when a product is sold in another country at a price below its actual costs. There may be some difficulty
in establishing what the actual cost is – it can be argued that it should include all costs (i.e. direct and indirect costs)
although it is generally agreed that, in the short term, the price should cover the direct, attributable costs of producing a
specific quantity of product.
There are three main types of dumping:
(a)Sporadic
This happens from time to time, usually as a result of surplus inventory or stocks. A company might prefer to find an
export market to unload the surplus rather than risk unsettling the domestic market in which the company has a major
interest.
(b)Predatory
This is a type of competition strategy in which a company seeks to destabilise a market with the objective of gaining
market share by selling at very low prices. Once the domestic producers are driven out of business, the company can
increase prices and recover profit levels.
(c)Persistent
This is the continued sale of products at very low prices. This was a particular problem with ex-COMECON countries
where, in countries like Poland, Hungary and the USSR, prices and costs were established arbitrarily by central planners.
Costs and prices showed no relationship to conventional Western accounting practices.

WORLD TRADE BODIES AND INSTITUTIONS
The early economists established the rationale and the benefits of free world trade. During the 1920s and 1930s, a major
recession spread throughout the world. As economies collapsed, governments sought to maintain domestic output and
employment in their own economies and a wave of trade protectionism swept across the globe. Tariffs, quotas and
outright bans on imports were introduced in a bid to prevent industries collapsing further.
We now know, of course, that this did not help. Indeed, as Smith and Ricardo would have predicted, it made the
worldwide recession even worse. Economies were just beginning to recover from this recession when the Second World
War intervened. As a result, a large part of international trade, or at least conventional trade, collapsed, as did many
economies as a result of their war efforts and damage to infrastructure and industries caused by hostilities.
By the end of the war, therefore, many economies were totally crippled and some countries such as Germany and Japan
were totally crushed. In an effort to help these countries, and thereby the world economy, a number of international
bodies and institutions were formed, principally with the objective of helping this worldwide reconstruction, but
underpinned very much by the philosophy of promoting the growth and return of free world trade. Since their
establishment, some of these bodies and institutions have had a major influence and impact on world trade and continue
to have an important impact still today.
Of particular significance and importance are the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), more recently known
as the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (often referred to
as The World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Each of these is discussed below.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/The World Trade Organisation (WTO)
GATT was set up after World War II in an effort to avoid the difficulties of the 1920s and 1930s. During the inter-war
years the world recession had been compounded by countries’ individual policies on importing and exporting which were
aimed at ensuring their preferential position in the international market-place. GATT aimed to create order and
predictability in world trade with the objective of encouraging the development of this trade around the world.
GATT as it stands today is not just one treaty agreed in 1948, but a large cluster of around 180 which over the years have
shaped its constitution and thus its direction, its membership and its mission. There have been seven negotiating
“rounds”, each lasting an average of nine years, which clearly demonstrates the complexities of the issues which GATT
tried to address in a fast changing world trading environment.
Following the approval of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round of GATT in 1993, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), a
permanent body with a status commensurate with that of the International Monetary Fund or the World Bank, effectively
replaced GATT.
It is the responsibility of the WTO to monitor agreements to reduce barriers to trade, such as tariffs, subsidies, quotas and
regulations which discriminate against imported goods.
All members of GATT automatically became members of the WTO on ratification of the Uruguay Round. Currently, the
WTO has 132 members and a further 29 countries which have observer status.
The aim of the WTO is to create order and predictability in world trade. The principles embodied in the WTO are:
(a)Reciprocity
The idea is that if one country reduces its tariffs against another country’s exports, then it can expect the other country to
reduce the tariffs against its exports.
(b) Non-discrimination
Under the terms of membership, nations agree to apply their most favourable tariff rate to other WTO signatories. It is,
however, possible to have preferential rates which may be used to encourage trade with particular nations. For example,
the UK may wish to use a preferential rate with Commonwealth countries, particularly those that are less developed. The
highest degree of preferential status is the “most favoured nation” (MFN) status and is accorded on a bilateral basis.
In recent years the granting or withdrawal of MFN has been seen as a political means of rewarding or punishing
countries. For example, President Carter of the United States of America withdrew MFN from the USSR over the human
rights issue with the Communist country, and President Reagan withdrew MFN from Central and Eastern European
countries when martial law was imposed in Poland.
The potential economic impact of either loss or gaining of MFN status should not be underestimated. As we have already
discussed, self-sufficiency is virtually impossible and the stability of most countries’ economies is tied into the import
and export market and more importantly into the country’s position within that market.
(c)Fair trade
This principle prohibits export subsidies on manufactured goods and limits their use on primary products. Whilst the aim
and principles of the WTO are relatively simple, the complexities surrounding their application and indeed their

influence as we begin the new millennium must not be underestimated.
Since the establishment of GATT, more and more groups of countries have looked to become unified from an economic
viewpoint, the European Union being perhaps the most successful to date. Increasingly the dimensions of the Pacific
trading markets are changing as a response to shifts in regional trade flows. Economic indicators are pointing to an
increasing interdependence among these nations. At the same time, Europe continues to debate the strengthening and
extension of its economic ties.
The impact of the WTO can appear to be most significant at a national level. However, its potential impact at an
organisational level is something that should not be overlooked and we will consider this further in the next unit when we
look at influences on the international business environment.
The WTO is not without its critics. Towards the end of 1999, anti-globalisation protestors held a series of demonstrations
which turned into riots outside the building in which the WTO was holding its next round of meetings. There were a
number of reasons for these protests, but essentially, a number of critics feel that the WTO represents the interests of the
highly industrialised countries, and particularly of the United States, at the expense of the lesser-developed countries.
This, they suggest, continues to repress these developing countries, despite the WTO’s commitment to raising the living
standards for all the people of the world. There are also those who believe that the WTO represents the epitome of
commercial greed and capitalism and hence are determined to destroy it. Yet others believe that world trade helps destroy
the environment. These demonstrations were so successful that the discussions had to be postponed. There is little doubt
that the interests of such pressure groups and a more socially responsible attitude will have to be taken into account in
any future considerations by the WTO.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The idea for the IMF was developed at the Bretton Woods Conference in New Hampshire, in the United States, towards
the end of World War II in 1944. The IMF was designed to provide a stable framework for international currencies.
Members of the IMF subscribed to a quota based on expected trade patterns. One quarter of the quota was to be paid in
gold or dollars and the rest in local currencies. The funds were to be used to provide support for currencies during
fluctuations in exchange rates and thus provide stability in the foreign currency exchange rates which are so important to
the development of world trade.
The original intention of the IMF was to provide a support system for fixed exchange rates between countries. However,
in 1971, the US abandoned the gold standard and devalued the dollar, the end result of which was the development of
flexible or floating exchange rates instead of the fixed rate system.
The structural problems of developing countries often pose grave difficulties for the IMF in finding acceptable ways to
support the developing country whilst at the same time safeguarding the funds of the IMF. In the 1980s, the IMF had to
cope with severe difficulties experienced by a number of lesser-developed and newly industrialised countries – for
example, Mexico – as a result of their substantial accumulated debts that they were unable to pay. In the 1990s, the IMF
had major new pressures resulting from the collapse of the USSR when many countries in Central and Eastern Europe
needed economic and foreign currency support during their reconstruction.
The World Bank
The World Bank, officially called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, was also founded in 1944.
Its initial role was to assist the redevelopment of countries crippled economically by World War II. Since the completion
of this role, the World Bank has played a major part in developing the economies of the poorer countries – particularly
new countries emerging into independence from their former colonial status, such as Nigeria and India (from the UK)
and Mozambique and Angola (from Portugal).
The World Bank finances several hundred major projects each year. Loans must be repaid, with interest, and are subject
to guarantee by the government of the borrowing country. The projects range from developments in agriculture, to
telecommunications, to population planning, and there are international business opportunities to be gained from World
Bank projects.
The World Bank is also not without its critics. Again, the main criticism is that many of the lesser- developed countries
who have been recipients of World Bank funds in earlier years have effectively been crippled economically by their large
debt repayments and interest charges. In fact, some countries will never be able to repay the interest, let alone the capital
and so their debts will simply accumulate. Recently, steps have been taken to address this problem. Some countries have
had their debts reduced, and more recently, the United States and the United Kingdom have cancelled some of
them completely.
WORLD REGIONAL GROUPS OR TRADING BLOCS
Various groupings of countries have existed throughout the history of the world. These groups, in the past, were based on
empires, for example the Roman Empire. More recently we have seen the grouping of countries into various types of
coalition and federation. The reason why countries should group together is usually to encourage trade between them.
Subsequently, other forms of economic, political and social integration might be sought. Here we shall be looking at
some of the major world regional groups or trading blocs. There are literally dozens of such groups throughout the world
if we consider informal groupings, but we are only concerned with the largest, most powerful and influential. These are
listed in the table below, together with the part of the world in which they operate and their current member countries.

International Marketing (Consolidated Notes)
Major world trading blocs
Page 13 of 17
Abbreviation
NAFTA
Title/Area: Member Countries
North American Free Trade Agreement: Canada, Mexico and USA
EU European Union: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and UK
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand
LAIA Latin American Integration Association: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Mexico,
Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela
MERCOSUR Southern Common Market: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay
APEC Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation: Some 23 Asia Pacific nations including US
Analysing the external environment
Business and marketing strategy, whether it be at home or abroad, can only be effective if it is developed to meet the
specific needs of a target group. The most common form of analysis in marketing is characterised by the initials
“SLEPT” – looking at social (or social/cultural), legal, economic, political and technological factors.
SOCIAL/CULTURAL FACTORS
The social/cultural element is particularly important in SLEPT analysis and plays a considerable part in determining how
the legal, economic, political and technological elements work.
It is important at the outset, though, to raise a word of caution in looking at these factors. There is sometimes a tendency
to treat social and cultural differences in a rather superficial way by thinking about stereotypes – for example, the British
as being reserved, Americans as being loud, Afro- Caribbeans as being colourful and gregarious, etc. This is a dangerous
oversimplification and needs always to be avoided.
We have linked social and cultural factors together because they are so inextricably connected. Social factors are
reasonably straightforward to identify in terms of the concepts of reference groups, social roles and status.
Reference groups are all those groups that have a direct or an indirect influence on a person’s attitude or behaviour. These
include family groups, friendship groups, workplace groups, religious groups and professional groups. The family
probably represents the most important primary reference group that will influence a person’s life.
In each group to which a person belongs (and it is important that we remember that individuals will belong to a number
of groups), his or her actions and influence in that group will be determined by the role and status of the position held.
For example, a woman within a family may have a number of roles – wife, mother, daughter, etc. If she also has paid
employment, her role and position within the organisation in which she works is likely to be very different from that or
those within the family.
But what influences these reference groups? Why do they behave the way they do? Thinking of the family it is easy to
see that this varies a great deal from country to country. The answer is culture.
Defining Culture
Culture is the shared values and beliefs of a society – its “design for living”. However, with such anall-embracing issue
as this, precise definitions rarely give usable meanings. Thus, within the culture of most societies, there are almost
always a variety of different “subcultures” – for example youth culture, student culture and so on.
Culture is learnt and the main force for transmission of whatever type of culture is the reference groups to which
individuals belong. In this way, therefore, culture may also be thought of as the way in which people interact with each
other in a group that shares some common sense of belonging.
One of the reasons that culture is so difficult to define is because it has so many elements that interrelate and change over
time. One way of analysing it is to seek categories of significant elementsas in the following diagram.

Elements of culture
Language Religion
Spoken
Written
Official
Hierarchy
International
Mass media
Colloquialisms
Sacred objects
Philosophicalsystems
Beliefs and norms
Prayer
Taboos
Holidays
Rituals
Values and Attitudes
Towards:
Time
Achievement
Work
Wealth
Change
The scientific
Risk-taking
Possessions
Aesthetics
Beauty
Good taste
Design
Colour
Music
Architecture
Brand names
Education
Formal
Vocational
Primary
Secondary
Higher
Literacylevel
Human resources
Planning
Technology
and Material Culture
Transportation
Energy systems
Tools and objects
Communications
Urbanisation
Science
Social Organisation
Family structures
Social institutions
Interest groups
Social mobility
Social stratification
Class systems
Law and Politics
Home country law
Foreign law
International law
Regulation
Political risk
Ideologies
National interests
Invention
LEGAL FACTORS
The legal environment within which international business operates comprises three elements:
Home country law – this defines what is considered by the home culture to be acceptable behaviour both at home and in
dealings with a foreign country.
Host country law – this defines acceptable behaviour within the country in which you wish to trade
International law – there is no international legislative body but there are a series of conventions, agreements and
treaties, the enforcement of which relies on national sovereignties.
In light of this the international business must be aware of which jurisdiction will apply. Inevitable conflicts will emerge
which may give rise to not only practical problems, but also moral issues as the legal environment in a foreign market
conflicts with the cultural values of the home country.
There are also three main types of legal system operating in the world – common law, civil or code law and Islamic law.
Common law – This system of law, used in the UK, the United States and Canada, is based upon tradition and on legal
precedents. Laws are passed by government, but are then interpreted by the courts. The interpretation of the law then
becomes the legal precedent for similar cases in the future.
Civil or code law – Civil or code law is based upon laws that are written down. It is usual for there to be three different
written types of law – commercial, civil and criminal. The aim in code law is to develop an inclusive set of written codes
that will cover all possible situations.
Islamic law – This type of law, based upon the Koran, incorporates social and religious obligations in addition to legal
duties. An important element in Islamic law is the achievement of social justice. One feature of Islamic law that shows
the difference between it and common and civil law is that it is unlawful to charge interest on loans.
The Law and Business
Legal factors provide the regulatory framework within which international business must operate and the legal system
applying to business in a particular country has an important influence on many
aspects of international trade – for example:
Elements of
CULTURE

(a)Regulation of contracts
The establishments of the legal rights of the buyer and the seller. The establishment of the terms and conditions between
agent and principals.
The mechanisms for the resolution of disputes regarding both the appropriateness of the quality of the merchandise (and
so on) in respect of exported goods and responsibilities of agents.
(b)Regulation of the business environment
Legislation can condition what companies can and cannot do, including:
 export/import controls, tariff/non-tariff barriers and competition controls;
 pricing controls – for example, resale price maintenance and price increases
 the registration and enforcement of trade marks, brand names and patents;
 product liability and product safety;
 advertising and sales promotions – what can be promoted and how it can be promoted;
 labelling;
 environmental issues – for example, Germany has strong laws regarding excess packaging which makes
manufacturers responsible for the responsible disposal of extra packaging materials.
It goes without saying that businesses must be careful to operate within the laws and regulations of the countries in which
they are trading. This is particularly important when the business is trying to establish a global approach and, therefore,
wishes to standardise operations and marketing as much as possible. So, for example, in some countries certain types of
advertising may be illegal and the business cannot apply an approach used elsewhere in the world. Countries often differ
considerably with regard to, for example, competition policy and price legislation. In the same way there is
considerable difference throughout the world with respect to what is considered legal when offering “gifts” to
organisational and government buyers.
Even countries which, in all other respects, appear to be very similar and are even supposedly bound by trading
agreements because they are members of a trading bloc can in fact be very different when it comes to legislation. So, for
example, Germany has much stronger legislation with regard to green issues than many other members of the European
Union. For example, all packaging in Germany must be recyclable and the supplier is responsible for any pollution
caused. This is very different to legislation operating in, say, the UK or France.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
The economy of any country is the end result of the production and the distribution of wealth. As we know this is a
continually moving feast, but whereas in some countries the fluctuations are small over a prolonged period of time, in
others changes can be great and almost overnight.
Economic Indicators
These are factors which provide information about the economic development and conditions in a country.
(a)Income
When we consider the economic factors, the distribution of wealth is perhaps the key consideration in the selection of
target markets. Countries can be considered in terms of their total income, or gross national product. Using such a league
table, the US, Japan and Germany have the top positions. Indeed, the concept of the importance of the Triad is based
upon the large size of the GNPs of the US, Japan and Europe.
From an individual company point of view, the total income figure for a country can be used as a rough guide to a
specific market size. Thus, a country might already be in the maturity phase with its markets reliant upon low levels of
replacement sales. In other less developed countries, with lower levels of GNP, the market might be growing rapidly with
initial purchasing. For example, the electricity supply industry in the top GNP countries is well established, but in
countries with lower levels of GNP but with high growth rates, the demand for electricity might be increasing rapidly –
this would create a strong growth in the market for electricity supply equipment and transmission in those countries.
In most instances companies are more concerned with market segment(s) rather than the total market in any one country.
Because of this, companies will be more interested in the GNP per person or per capita than the grand total. Breaking
down GNP per capita further, companies will be interested in the level of disposable income after various commitments
of taxes, health and social security payments and other major payments have been made. This is usually a better indicator
of available expenditure, in the majority of consumer markets, than GNP per capita. If this approach is used, considerable
market segments can be identified in countries that are often thought to be quite poor. For example, in India there is an
affluent middle class with a considerable disposable income. The total size of this segment is larger than the populations
of most other countries in the world. Certain general relationships exist between income levels and expenditure patterns.
For example, the amount of income spent on food, expressed as a percentage of income, is higher in poor families and in
poor countries than it is in richer countries. There are variations in the general rule. For example, in Japan, almost 20% of
consumer spending is allocated to food, compared with 15% in the US, 13% in Germany and 11% in Britain. The
explanation for the high spending on food in Japan is partially based upon the high prices of food there, caused by
protectionist economic policies in Japan to support local agricultural products. In part, though, expenditure on food is
influenced by culture – food in Britain is given a comparatively low priority, whereas in Japan and France food is seen to
be more important. This results in higher consumer expenditure on food.

(b)Inflation
This is a major influence in most countries. In some countries, one of the main reasons explained by government for
economic decisions is a desire to control inflation to a particular target level. In other countries, inflation rates are so high
that pricing and other decisions have to take account of the constantly increasing price of goods and services.
The Asian countries of China, India, South Korea and Taiwan have all achieved rapid growth during the past decade with
inflation rates usually below 10%. Latin and South America is different and here there are several stories to tell. Some
countries, for example Brazil which has sometimes experienced inflation rates in the order of 2,000%, have a long
history of uncontrolled inflation. Argentina had very high inflation rates in the 1980s but has now brought the rate down
to 11%. Mexico, whilst never as out of control as Argentina, has succeeded in bringing its inflation rate down from over
100% to under 10%. Chile has maintained the best record – its inflation rate never increased much above 20% in the
1980s and is now down to around 12%.
(c)Capital investment
This is associated with economic growth. Recently, countries in Asia have been spending a higher proportion of their
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on fixed capital investment than other countries around the world. At the beginning of
the 1990s, financed mainly by the high level of domestic savings, the Asian countries of South Korea, Thailand,
Singapore, China, Malaysia and Indonesia all invested 30% or more of their GDP into fixed capital. Latin American
countries typically invested around 20 – 25%.
(d)Government policies
Other economic influences that can be important are the level of government budget deficit or surplus.
The level of official reserves of foreign currencies and gold and special drawing rights in the International Monetary
Fund shows a country’s ability to meet its external obligations. If reserves are going down rapidly, this will have an
almost certain downward effect on the value of that country’s currency. Declining official reserves shows a decline in
confidence in the country’s economy. It could be linked to deteriorations in the country’s balance of trade and the balance
of payments.
Government decisions taken to influence economic performance by, for example, reducing inflation or to stabilise the
foreign exchange rate, will affect the level of personal and corporate taxation. If taxation increases, other factors
remaining constant, market sizes will decrease in the consumer and most business markets. On the other hand,
government markets will increase to reflect the higher influence of the government in the total market-place of that
country.
POLITICAL FACTORS
In an ideal world, companies would like to have a political climate that does not change and is supportive to business
interests. They would like to see policies which lead to:
 Low inflation rates
 Steady market growth
 Low taxes on company profits
 No restrictions on the ability to repatriate profits
 No restrictions on local content
 Support for a market economy
 A lack of government intervention, for example no controls on price levels or profit levels
 The encouragement of inward investment by foreign companies.
However, it is unlikely that this situation would persist in any country.
From a business point of view, the major political problem is likely to be instability. Instability may arise through
frequent changes in the ruling political party or elite, and/or through frequent changes of policy by a stable ruling
political party. If the political situation is one in which the environment surrounding the company is predictable,
companies can develop and implement international business plans with some confidence. If the government changes
direction frequently, medium- and long-term planning becomes very difficult and companies will feel forced to adopt
short-term, highly pragmatic approaches.
Note that, even in politically stable countries, democratic elections which could change the ruling political party take
place every five years or so. When a new party takes power, there is likely to be a measure of uncertainty whilst it settles
into the job of running the country and the effect of new policies is awaited. Even if the same political party is in power
for many years, there will be a variety of political and economic issues that will cause it to make changes in political and
economic directions, and most governments pass laws which affect market opportunities from time to time.
Other forms of stable government may create problems for business – for example:
 where the political party in power does not support business interests, as was the case in most of the ex-
COMECON countries from the end of World War II to 1989; and
 where the ruling power base is autocratic and is not subject to various checks and balances to prevent the abuse
of power – the regime of Idi Amin in Uganda was an unfortunate example of the excess that can result from
autocratic political power.

Stability, though, is not the only issue of interest to business. It is also concerned that governments take political and
economic decisions that do not cause the economy to decline or become less profitable for companies. For example,
many Latin American countries were not able to prevent runaway inflation in the 1980s, and other governments have
acted in ways which conflict with business interests by such policies as increasing corporate taxation or using price
controls to try and control inflation.
There have been various attempts to identify the level of risk inherent in a country. One such approach is the Business
Environment Risk Index (BERI) which was started in the US in 1972. In the BERI ratings, countries are evaluated on 15
economic, political and financial factors on a scale from zero to four. The factors that relate most strongly to political
areas are political stability, attitudes to foreign investors, nationalisation, bureaucratic delays, and currency convertibility.
Scores on the BERI scale are calculated out of 100 and a score of 80 or more indicates an acceptable level of risk.
However, scores of 40 or less suggest that the level of risk is probably unacceptable and companies should think
carefully before commencing business in countries with this sort of score.
TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
You will be well aware that there has been a rapid growth in the speed of technological advancement over the recent
decades. One of the remarkable features of this has been the way in which access to advanced technology has spread
from one or two countries to many countries around the world. It is now not unusual to see people, without what many
cultures would perhaps consider the essentials for existence, using computers in offices and shops, communicating by
mobile telephone and watching television programmes via satellite. Wide variations in technology between countries are
less a feature of the international environment than is the case with legal, economic and political factors.
This has partly been the result of the development of multinational and transnational companies and partly the result of
government intervention.
 The practice of multinational companies basing their operations in those countries around the world that provide
the best returns has increasingly meant that countries with low costs for
labour and for factory and office sites are being used to produce components and sometimes the final assembled
product. As part of this process, a great deal of technology transfer takes place. Many NICs and LDCs have
benefited from the acquisition of technological and production-process know-how.
 In addition, governments in many countries have encouraged the development of “high-tech” industries and
investment in education and training to ensure a competent, skilled workforce as a means of accelerating
economic growth and to reduce levels of unemployment..
The availability of technology is, therefore, less based on a few countries, although it would be true to say that some
countries have a much wider range of advanced technology than others.
DECIDING ON THE MARKETING PROGRAM – Marketing Mix Elements
PRODUCT and PROMOTION
Warren Keegan has distinguished five adaptation strategies of product and communications to a foreign market.
Product
Do not change product Adapt Product Develop New Product
Straight Extension Product Adaptation Product Invention
Dual Adaptation
Communications
Do not change
Communications
Adapt
Communications
Communication
Adaptation
PRICING
Multinationals must deal with several pricing problems – price escalation, transfer prices, and dumping charges.
Companies have three choices for setting prices in different countries:
 Set a uniform price everywhere
 Set a market-based price in each country
 Set a cost-based price in each market
DISTRIBUTION
Seller Seller's International
Marketing
Headquarters
Channels
Between
Nations
Channels
Within
Foreign Nations
Final Buyers

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