IO-PSYCH-ESSENTIAL-DEFINITIONS. BS Psychology
- 1. ESSENTIAL DEFINITIONS & DETAILS Industrial/Organizational Psychology The branch of psychology that is concerned with the study of behavior in work settings and the application of psychology principles to change behavior. Applied Objective of I/O psych The application of psychological principles, and of knowledge gleaned from psychological research, to work behavior. Hugo Munsterberg Experimental psychologist who became interested in the design of work and personnel selection for jobs such as streetcar operator. Frederick W. Taylor Believed that scientific principles could be applied to the study of work behavior to increase worker efficiency and productivity. Felt that there was “one best method” for performing a particular job. Believed he could develop the fastest, most efficient way of performing any task by breaking the job down scientifically into measurable component movements and recording the time needed to perform each movement. Time-and-motion studies – procedures in which work tasks are broken down into simple component movements and the movements timed to develop a more efficient method for performing the tasks. Scientific Management – method of using scientific principles to improve the efficiency and productivity of jobs. Frank and Lillian Gilberth Implemented the principles of scientific management and revolutionized several physical labor jobs by making the accepted work procedures more efficient and productive. Robert Yekes President of the American Psychological Association Worked with the US Army to create intelligence test for the placement of Arny recruits. Army Alpha and Beta Tests – represented the first mass testing efforts and set the stage for future testing efforts. - Alpha – used for those who could read - Beta – for nonliterate recruits Following WW1 psychologists began to be involved in the screening and placement of personnel in industry. 1920s Industrial psych began to take hold: the first doctoral degree in industrial psychology was awarded in 1921, psychologists worked directly with industries as consultants and researchers. First psychological consulting organizations began. Walter Dill Scott Opened a short-lived personnel consulting firm in 1919 James McKeen Cattell Founded the Psychological Corporation in 1921 Harvard Psychologists Conducting a series of experiments at a manufacturing plant of the Western Electric Company in Hawthorne, Illinois.
- 2. Elton Mayo and colleagues – wanted to study the effects of the physical work environment on worker productivity. Concluded that the workers were being affected not by the changes in the physical environment by the simple fact that they knew they were being observed. Workers believed that the studies were being conducted in an effort to improve work procedures, and their positive expectations, coupled with their knowledge of observations, seemed to determine their consistent increases in productivity. Hawthorne effect Changes in behavior occurring as a function of participants’ knowledge that they are being observed and their expectations concerning their role as research participants Human relations movement A movement based on the studies of Elton Mayo that emphasizes the importance of social factors in influencing work performance. “Working morale” – influence work productivity Harmonious work environment, with good interpersonal relationships among coworkers, should be a productive work environment, particularly when the work itself is boring or monotonous. Army General Classification Test Group-administered, pencil-and-paper test, developed to separate recruits into categories based on their abilities to learn military duties and responsibilities. Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Forerunner of today’s CIA – developed intensive assessment strategies for selecting candidates for dangerous espionage positions. Included hands-on situational tests in which candidates had to perform some tasks under difficult and near impossible conditions WW2 Distinct focus on personnel issues such as testing, selection, and the evaluation of employees Personnel Psychology Publication of the journal in 1948 Cold War years 1950s and 1960s Growth of the defense industry further spurred the development of a specialty area called engineering psychology (human factors psychology or ergonomics) Society for Industrial and Organization Psychology – mission To enhance human well-being and performance in organizational and work settings by promoting the science, practice, and teaching of I-O Psychology Trends in I/O psych Changing nature of work Organization are becoming flatter Fewer levels in hierarchy
- 3. Broken up into smaller subunits with greater emphasis on work teams I/O psychologists will assist organizations in redesigning jobs for greater efficiency, creating new and more flexible organizational structures and work teams, and helping workers become more engaged, motivated, and better able to deal with stresses that results from all the changes. Organizational downsizing – strategy of reducing an organization’s workforce to improve organization efficiency and/or competitiveness. Outsourcing – contracting with an external organization to accomplish work tasks Expanding focus on human resources Organizations have become more and more concerned about and responsive to the needs of workers. Realize that skilled and creative workers are the keys to success. Talent management – is a frequent buzzword heard in organizations – important because it reflects the emphasis on the value of the worker and the need to select, care for, and develop workers’ talents. Meant that organizations will have to compete ferociously to attract and keep the best workers. a. Greater emphasis will need to be given to employee recruitment and selection procedures. b. Entice benefit programs to attract and retain the best workers – including family friendly policies such as employer-sponsored childcare and extended family leaves c. Continuing advancements in work tech and the ever-increasing body of knowledge needed by workers to perform their jobs mean that older workers will be retrained often to remain contributing members of the workforce. I/O psych looks more and more at individual development, addressing topics such as the process by which workers become engaged in their work, how they cope with stress, adapt to changes, and understanding the role of emotions in the workplace, and the overlap between employees’ work life and home life. Increasing diversity and globalization of the workforce Increasing number of women and ethnic minorities (US) Diversity of cultures in workplaces as workers become more internationally mobile. Advantage – opportunity for different viewpoints and perspectives that will lead to organizational creativity and innovation. Increasing relevance of I/O psychology in policy and practice I/O psych has had an important impact in how we select, train, develop, and motivate employees, there is huge potential for I/O psych to play an even bigger
- 4. part in helping to improve work performance and make the conditions for workers better, more rewarding, and more healthy. Job Analysis Personnel Psychology Specialty area of I/O psychology focusing on an organization’s human resources; concerned with the creation, care, and maintenance of a workforce, which includes the recruitment, placement, training, and development of workers; the measurement and evaluation of their performance; and the concern with worker productivity and well-being. Involved in activities such as employee recruitment and selection, the measurement of employee performance and the establishment of good performance review procedures, the development of employee training and development programs, and the formulation of criteria for promotion, firing, and disciplinary action. Well-versed in employment laws and regulations. May establish programs for employee compensation and benefits, create incentive programs, and design and implement programs to protect employee health and well-being. Job Analysis Systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform it. Starting point for nearly all personnel functions. Critical in developing the means for assessing personnel. Involves the objective measurement of work behavior performed by actual workers. Helps outline performance criteria. Expertise in measurement techniques to perform an accurate job analysis. Job Description A detailed description of job tasks, procedures, and responsibilities; the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service Job Specification Information about the human characteristics required to perform the job such as physical and personal traits, work experience, and education. Job evaluation Assessment of the relative value or worth of a job to an organization to determine appropriate compensation, or wages.
- 5. Job Analysis Methods Observational techniques, examination of existing data on jobs, interview techniques, surveys Observations Gathering of information about a particular job; taking detailed notes on the exact tasks and duties performed; observes the job incumbent at work for a period of time. May also may use of videos to record work behavior for more detailed analysis. Participation Job analyst performs a particular job or job operation to get a firsthand understanding of how the job is performed. Existing data Using available information or records such as a previous job analysis of a related job. Interviews Open-ended/structured or standards questions of more than one source of information – job incumbent, incumbent’s supervisor, subordinates. Survey Administration of a pencil-and-paper questionnaire that the respondent completes and returns to the job analyst. SMEs (Subject Matter Experts) an individual who has detailed knowledge about a particular job; provide job analysis information via interviews or through survey methods Job Diaries Have job incumbents record their daily activities in a diary; provides a detailed, hour-by-hour, day-by-day account of the worker’s job. Difficulty: time consuming
- 6. Specific Job Analysis Techniques Job Element Method Job analysis method that analyzes jobs in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform the jobs. Critical Incidents Technique (CIT) Technique that relies on instances of especially successful or unsuccessful job performance; records the specific worker behaviors that have led to particularly successful or unsuccessful job performance. Position Analysis Questionnaire Job analysis technique that uses a structured questionnaire to analyze jobs according to 187 job statements, grouped into six categories: a. Information input – where and how the worker obtains the information needed to perform the job b. Mental process – kinds of thinking, reasoning, and decision making required to perform the job c. Work output – the tasks the worker must perform and the tools or machines needed d. Relationships with other persons – kinds of relationships and contacts with others required to do the job e. Job context – the physical and/or social contexts in which the work is performed f. Other job characteristics – other relevant activities conditions or characteristics necessary to do the job Functional Job Analysis A structured job analysis technique that examine the sequence of tasks in a job and the processes by which they are completed Three broad categories representing job’s typical interaction with data, people, and things a. Data – information, knowledge, and conceptions; jobs are evaluated with an eye to the amount and type of interaction the person performing the job has with data – numbers, words, symbols, and other abstract elements b. People – the amount of contact with others that a job requires. c. Things – worker’s interaction and inanimate objects such as tools, machines, equipment, and tangible work products Dictionary of Occupation Titles (DOT) Reference guide that classified and gave general descriptions for over 40, 000 different jobs Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth Job evaluation – product of job analysis; process of assessing the relative value of jobs to determine appropriate compensation;
- 7. wages paid for a particular job should be related to knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics it requires; Dimensions: Compensable factors – the job elements that are used to determine appropriate compensation for a job; physical demands for a job, the amount of training or experience required, the working conditions associated with the job, the amount of responsibility the job carries Comparable worth – the notion that jobs require equivalent KSAOs should be compensated equally; equal pay for equal work Exceptioning – the practice of ignoring pay discrepancies between particular jobs possessing equivalent duties and responsibilities Glass Ceiling Limitations placed on women and minorities preventing them from advancing into top-level positions in organizations Employee Recruitment Human Resource Planning Best organizations continually evaluate their human resource needs and plan their hiring and staffing in order to meet their companies’ business goals. Begins with the strategic goals of the organization. Considerations in HR planning: - What are the organization’s goals and strategic objectives? - What are the staffing needs required for the organization to accomplish its goals? - What are the current human resource capacities and existing employee skills in the organization? - Which additional positions are needed to meet the staffing needs (sometimes referred as gap analysis) - Critical issues: changing nature of work and the workforce, increased competition, assuring that there is good “fit” between workers and organizations, and increasing workforce diversity - Short- and long-term timeframes – training needs of employees, how to competitively recruit the highest potential employees, how competitive the compensation and benefit programs, finding employees who are a “good fit” for company and its culture HR Planning – focus on 4 interrelated processes (Cascio, 2003) - Talent Inventory – assessment of the current KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics) of current employees and how they are used - Workforce forecast – plan for future HR requirements (i.e., the number of positions forecasted, skills those positions will require, etc.) - Action plans – development of a plan to guide the recruitment, selection, training, and compensation of the future hires - Control and evaluation – having a system of feedback to assess how well the HR system is working, and how well the company met its HR plan
- 8. Employee Recruitment Process by which organizations attract potential workers to apply for jobs - Start point – understanding the job and kind of worker characteristics are required to perform the job Realistic job preview (RJP) An important factor in the recruitment process to help alleviate potential misperceptions An accurate description of the duties and responsibilities of a particular job; presentation of the prospective job and organization made to applicants Can take the form: - oral presentation from recruiter, supervisor, or job incumbent - visit to job site - discussion in a brochure, manual, video, or company Web site Advantage: - lower unrealistically high expectations about the job and may provide an applicant with information that will later be useful in dealing with work-related problems and stress Employee Screening Process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for jobs - data sources: resumes, job applications, letters of recommendation, employment tests, hiring interviews – used to screen and select potential employees Employee Selection and Placement Actual process of choosing people for employment from a pool of applicants Criteria Measures of job success typically related to performance; e.g. performance criteria Predictors Any pieces of information that we are able to measure about job applicants that are related to the criterion – job-related knowledge and expertise, education, and skills Employee Selection Decisions False-positive errors – erroneously accepting applicants who would have been unsuccessful False-negative errors – erroneously rejecting applicants who would have been successful Multiple regression model An employee selection method that combines separate predictors of job success in a statistical procedure - the ability of each of the predictors to predict job performance can be added together and that there is a linear relationship between the predictors and the criterion. - Compensatory type of model – high scores on one predictor can compensate for low score on another. - Ex. Applicant’s lack of previous job-related experience can be compensated for by test scores that show great potential for mastering the job Multiple cutoff model Uses a minimum cutoff score on each of the predictors. - An applicant must obtain a score above the cutoff on each of the predictors to be hired - The main advantage of the multiple cutoff strategy is that it ensures that all eligible applicants have some minimal amount of ability on all dimensions that are believed to be predictive of job success Multiple hurdle model - An employee selection strategy that requires that an acceptance or rejection decision be made at each of several stage in a screening process - Uses an ordered sequence of screening devices
- 9. - At each stage in the sequence, a decision is made either to reject an applicant or to allow the applicant to proceed to next stage Employee placement Process of assigning workers to appropriate jobs - Process of deciding to which job hired workers should be assigned - Employee placement typically only takes place when there are two or more openings that a newly hired worker could fill - Reassigning workers to other positions within the organization - In placement, the worker has already been hired - Find the best possible fit between the worker’s attributes (KSAOs) and the requirements of the job openings Equal Employment Opportunity in Selection and Placement Protected groups – groups including women and certain ethnic and racial minorities that have been identified as previous targets of employment discrimination Adverse impact – when members of a protected group are treated unfairly by an employer’s personnel action Affirmative action – the voluntary development of policies that try to ensure that jobs are made available to qualified individuals regardless of sex, age, or ethnic background Bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQ) Real and valid occupational needs required for a particular job Methods for Assessing and Selecting Employees Employee Screening and Assessment Process of reviewing information about job applicants to select individuals for jobs Evaluation of Written Materials First step in the screening process - Standard application forms are used for screening lower-level positions - Main purpose of the application form and resume is to collect biographical information such as education, work experience, and outstanding work and school accomplishment s - Such data are believed to be among the best predictors of future job performance - First impressions play a big role in selection decisions - Written materials are usually the first contact a potential employer has with a job candidate, the impressions of an applicant’s credentials received from a resume or application are very important - Research has shown that applications influenced impressions of applicants in their subsequent interviews - Employer: the difficulty with application forms is in evaluating and interpreting the information obtained to determine the most qualified applicants Weighted application forms Forms that assign different weights to various pieces of information provided on a job application References and Letters of Recommendation Provide 4 types of information: 1. Employment and education history 2. Evaluations of the applicant’s character 3. Evaluations of the applicant’s job performance 4. Recommender’s willingness to rehire the applicant Employment Testing Used to measure a wide range of characteristics that are predictive of successful job performance
- 10. Types of Employee Screening Tests Test formats - Individual versus group tests – individual administered to one person at a time. Test administrator is usually more involved than in group tests. Requires some kind of sophisticated apparatus or constant supervision. Group tests are designed to be given simultaneously to more than one person, with the administrator usually serving as only a test monitor. - Speed versus power tests – speed tests have a fixed time limit. Important focus is the number of items completed in the time period provided. Power test allows the test-take sufficient time to complete all items. Have difficult items, with a focus on the percentage of items answered correctly. - Paper-and-pencil versus performance tests – refers to both paper versions of test and online tests which require some form of written reply, in either forced choice or open-ended, essay format. Performance tests, such as typing tests and tests of manual dexterity or grip strength, usually involve the manipulation of physical objects. Biodata Background information and personal characteristics that can be used in employee selection Cognitive ability tests Range from tests of general intellectual ability to tests of specific cognitive skills - Research indicates that such general tests are reasonably good predictors of job performance across all types and categories of jobs - Argued that general intelligence tests may underestimate the intellectual abilities and potentials of members of certain ethnic minorities Mechanical ability tests Measure abilities in identifying, recognizing, and applying mechanical principles - Effective in screening applicants for positions that require operating or repairing machinery, for construction jobs, and for certain engineering positions Motor and sensory ability tests Measure specific motor skills or sensory abilities - Include tests of hearing, visual acuity and perceptual discrimination - May be timed performance instruments that require the manipulation of small parts of measure the fine motor dexterity in hands and fingers required in jobs Job skills and knowledge tests Work sample tests – which measure applicants’ abilities to perform brief examples of some of the critical tasks that the job requires. Sample tasks are constructed as tests, administered under standard testing conditions, and scored on some predetermined scale Job knowledge tests – instruments that assess specific types of knowledge required to perform certain jobs Personality tests Designed to measure certain psychological characteristics of workers - Used to assess characteristics deemed to be important for the performance of certain jobs Emotional intelligence Ability to understand, regulate, and communicate emotions and to use them to inform thinking Polygraphs Instruments that measure physiological reactions presumed to accompany deception, also known as let detector Integrity tests Measures of honest or dishonest attitudes and/or behaviors
- 11. Test battery A combination of employments tests used to increase the ability to predict future job performance Validity generalization The ability of a screening instrument to predict performance in a job or setting different from the one in which the test was validated Test utility The value of screening test in determining important organizational outcomes Faking Purposely distorting one’s responses to a test to try to beat the test Assessment center A detailed, structured evaluation of job applicants using a variety of instruments and techniques Situation exercise Assessment tools that require the performance of tasks that approximate actual work tasks Hiring interviews Snap Judgment – arriving at a premature early overall evaluation of an applicant in a hiring interview Evaluating Employee Performance Performance appraisals The formalized means of assessing worker performance in comparison to certain established organizational standards Objective performance criteria Measures of job performance that are easily quantified Subjective performance criteria Measures of job performance that typically consist of rating or judgments of performance Criterion relevance The extent to which the means of appraising performance is pertinent to job success Criterion contamination The extent to which performance appraisal contain elements that detract from the accurate assessment of job effectiveness Criterion deficiency The degree to which a criterion falls short of measuring job performance Criterion usefulness The extent to which a performance criterion is usable in appraising a particular job Sources of performance ratings Supervisor appraisals Self-appraisals Peer appraisals Subordinate appraisals Customer appraisals 360-degree feedback 360-degree feedback A method of gathering performance appraisals from a worker’s supervisors, subordinates, peers, customers, and other relevant parties. Methods of Rating Performance Comparative Methods – performance appraisal methods involving comparisons of one worker’s performance against that of other workers Individual Methods – performance appraisal methods that evaluate an employee by himself or herself, without explicit reference to other workers Rankings Performance appraisal methods involving the ranking of supervisees from best to work Paired comparison Performance appraisal method in which the rater compares each worker with each other worker in the group Forced distributions Assigning workers to established categories of poor to good performance with fixed limitations on how many employees can be assigned to each category Graphic rating scales Performance appraisal methods using a predetermined scale to rate the worker on important job dimensions Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) Performance appraisal technique using rating scales with labels reflecting examples of poor, average, and good behavioral incidents
- 12. Behavioral observation scales (BOS) Performance appraisal methods that require appraisers to recall how often a worker has been observed performing key work behaviors Checklists Performance appraisal methods using a series of statements about job performance Narratives Open-ended written accounts of a worker’s performance used in performance appraisals Problems and Pitfalls in Performance Appraisals Leniency error – tendency to give all workers very positive performance appraisals Severity error – tendency to give all workers very negative performance appraisals Central tendency error – tendency to give all workers the midpoint rating in performance appraisals Halo effect – an overall positive evaluation of a worker based on one known positive characteristic or action Recency effect – tendency to give greater weight to recent performance and lesser weight to earlier performance Causal attribution – process by which people assign cause to events or behaviors Actor-observer bias – tendency for observers to overattribute cause to characteristics of the actor and the tendency for the actor to overattribute cause to situational characteristics Personal biases – personal biases of any particular appraiser can distort accuracy of assessments; such as sex, race, age, physical characteristics, disabilities Performance feedback Process of giving information to a worker about performance level with suggestions for future improvement Employee Training and Development Employee training Planned organizational efforts to help employees learn job- related knowledge, skills and other characteristics - New employee orientation and training - Retraining and continuing education programs - Retirement planning and preparation - Employee career development - Training for international assignments - Training in diversity issues, harassments, and ethical behavior - Team training Transfer of training Concept dealing with whether training is actually applied in the work setting Trainee readiness Individual’s potential for successful training Model for successful training programs 1. Assessing training needs – organizations must first have some idea of what workers need to know to perform their jobs 2. Establishing training objectives – goals for what the training is supposed to accomplish 3. Development and testing of training materials 4. Implementation of the training program – when and how often the training will take place, who will conduct the training, the assignment of trainees to sessions and where the training will be conducted
- 13. 5. Evaluation of the training program – to determine if the training was effective Assessing training needs 1. Organizational analysis – considers issues such as the long and short-term organizational goals and their implications for training, the available training resources, and the general climate for training 2. Task analysis – concerned with KSAO that a worker requires to perform a specific job effectively 3. Person analysis – examines the current capabilities of the workers themselves to determine who needs what sort of training. Relies on worker deficiencies outlined in performance appraisal for incumbent workers and information derived from employee selection data. 4. Demographic analysis – involves determining the specific training needs of various demographic groups On the job training An employee training method of placing a worker in the workplace to learn firsthand about a job Apprenticeship A training technique usually lasting several years, that combines on-the-job experience with classroom instruction Vestibule training Training that uses a separate area adjacent to the work area to simulate the actual work setting Job rotation A method of rotating workers among a variety of jobs to increase their breadth of knowledge Seminar A common training method in which an expert provides job- related information in a classroom-like setting Audiovisual instruction Use of films, video-tapes, and other electronic media to convey training material Behavior modeling training A training method that exposes trainees to role models performing appropriate and inappropriate work behaviors and their outcomes and then allows trainees to practice modeling the appropriate behaviors Simulation Training that replicates job conditions without placing the trainee in the actual work setting Web-based training Training done through web-based, interactive programs Programmed instruction Self-paced individualized training in which trainees are provided with training materials and can test how much they have learned Computer-assisted instruction Programmed instruction delivered by computer that adapts to the trainee’s learning rate Problem-solving case study A management training technique that presents a real or hypothetical organizational problem that trainees attempt to solve Role-playing A management training exercise that requires trainees to act out problem situations that often occur at work Management games A management training technique using scaled-down enactments of the operations and managements of organizations Conference An unstructured management training technique in which participants share ideas, information, and problems, also called group discussion Action learning Teams assembled to work on a company-related problem or issue to learn by doing Mentoring Training program in which an inexperienced worker develops a relationship with an experienced worker who serves as an advisor Coaching One-one relationship where a consultant helps an executive improve performance Evaluation of the training program Reaction criteria – measures of the impressions of trainees, including their assessments of the program’s value, the amount of learning they received, and their enjoyment of the program
- 14. Learning criteria – measures of the amount of learning that has take place. Behavioral criteria – measures of the amount of newly learned skills displayed once the trainee has returned to the job Results criteria – measures the outcomes that are important to the organization, such as increased trainee work output as expressed by production rates, quality of work. Posttest-only design Program evaluation that simply measures training success criterion following completion of the training program Pretest-postest design Design for evaluation a training program that makes comparisons of criterion measures collected before and after the introduction of the program Solomon four-group design Method of program evaluation using two treatment groups and two control groups