Lexical and grammatical categories
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This document provides an overview of lexical and grammatical categories in language. It discusses the categories of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, determiners, auxiliaries, coordinators, and complementizers. For each category, it provides examples and explanations of the syntactic and semantic properties that define the category and distinguish it from other categories. It also notes some exceptions and borderline cases between categories.
Lexical and grammatical categories
- 2. Overview of lecture Lexical Categories Grammatical Categories • Nouns & Verbs • Adjectives & Adverbs • Prepositions • Determiner • Auxialiary • Coordinator and Complimentiser 01 02 Asyura Adnan, 2021 Adapted from the ASU Open Source
- 4. Adverbs and Adjectives are semantically very similar in that both modify another element, i.e. they describe a quality of another word: quick/ly, nice/ly, etc.
- 5. Adjectives and Adverbs The main syntactic difference is: An adjective modifies a noun; An adverb modifies a verb, and (a degree adverb) an adjective, or adverb.
- 6. Since an adjective modifies a noun, the quality it describes will be those appropriate to a noun, e.g. nationality (American, Dutch, Iranian), size (big, large, thin), color (red, yellow, blue), or character trait (happy, fortunate, lovely, pleasant, obnoxious). Adverbs typically modify actions and will then provide information typical of those, e.g. manner (wisely, fast), or duration (frequently, often), or speaker attitude (fortunately). When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they are typically degree adverbs (very, so, too).Some instances of the `correct' use of the adjective nice are given in (1) and (2) and of the adverbs very and quickly in (3) and (4): Adjectives and Adverbs Source: Arizona State University Open Source
- 7. Adjectives and Adverbs 1. The mug is nice. 2. A nice mug is on the table. 3. This porcelain mug is very precious. 4. He drove very quickly. In (1) and (2), nice modifies the noun mug. In (3), very modifies the adjective precious; and in (4), it modifies the adverb quickly, which in its turn modifies the verb drove.
- 8. An adverb is formed from an adjective by adding -ly, as in (4). However, be careful with this morphological distinction: not all adverbs end in -ly and some adjectives end in -ly. Use it in a sentence to see what it modifies. For instance, fast, hard, low are both adjectives and adverbs. In (5), fast is an adjective because it modifies a noun, but in (6), it is an adverb since it modifies a verb: 5. That fast car must be a police car. 6. That car drives fast.
- 9. Most adjectives and adverbs (if they are gradable) can be used to compare or contrast two or more things. We call such forms the comparative (e.g. better than) or superlative (e.g. the best). One way to make these forms is to add -er/-est, as in nicer/nicest. Not all adjectives/adverbs allow this ending, however; some need to be preceded by more/most, as in more intelligent, most intelligent.
- 10. Adjectives Adverbs Morphology a. no -ly in most cases d. ends in -ly in many cases (exceptions fast, now) Syntax b. modifies N e. modifies V, Adj, or Adv Semantics c. describe qualities typical of nouns, e.g. nationality, color, size f. describe qualities of verbs etc., e.g. place, manner, time, duration
- 11. Prepositions Prepositions often express place or time (at, in, on, before), direction (to, from, into, down), or relation (of, about, with, like, as, near). They are invariable in form. In a sentence, they usually occur before a noun (or Noun Phrase, see the next chapter), as (7) shows, where the prepositions are in bold: 7. With their books about philosophy, they went to school.
- 12. Preposition On occasion, prepositions are used on their own, as in (8). In such cases, they are often considered adverbs or particles. Infrequently, they are used as verbs, as in (9): 8. He went in; they ran out; he jumped up. 9. They upped the price. Some other examples of prepositions: during, around, after, against, despite, except, without, towards, until, till, inside Sequences such as instead of, outside of, away from, due to and as for are also seen as prepositions, even though they consist of two words.
- 14. The grammatical categories are: Determiner, Auxiliary, Coordinator, and Complementiser. It is hard to define grammatical categories in terms of meaning because they have very little. Their function is to make the lexical categories fit together.
- 15. The determiner category includes the articles a(n) and the, as well as demonstratives, possessive pronouns, possessive nouns, some quantifiers, and some numerals. So, determiner (or D) is an umbrella term for all of these. Determiners occur with a noun to specify which noun is meant or whose it is. There are four demonstratives in English: this, that, these, and those. Possessive pronouns include my, your, his, her, its, our, and their, as in (10). Nouns can be possessives as well, but in that case they have an -'s (or ') ending, as in (11): 10. Their cat ate my food. 11. Luke's food was eaten by Pam. Determiner
- 16. There is a special class of possessive pronouns that occurs on its own, namely mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs: That book is not mine, but it is yours. These pronouns appear when the noun they specify has been deleted. Thus, the sentence above could be rewritten as: That book is not my book, but it is your book.
- 17. Determiners as in (10) and (11) precede nouns just like adjectives, but whereas a determiner points out which entity is meant (it specifies), an adjective describes the quality (it modifies). 10. Their cat ate my food. 11. Luke's food was eaten by Pam. When both a determiner and an adjective precede a noun, the determiner always precedes the adjective, as in (12). 12. Their irritating cat ate my delicious food.
- 18. Quantifiers such as any, many, much, and all are usually considered determiners, e.g. in much work, many people, and all research. Some are used before the other determiners, namely, all, both, and half. e.g. All the books; half that wealthy man's money; both those problems. These quantifiers are called pre-determiners, and abbreviated Pre-D. Finally, quantifiers are adjectival (e.g. the many problems) 13. The challenges are many/few. Numerals are sometimes determiners, as in two hats, and sometimes more like adjectives, as in my two hats.
- 19. Pre-D D Adj quantifier all, both, half some, many, all, few, any, much, every, etc. many, few article the, a demonstrative that, this possessive my, etc; NP's numeral one, two, etc. one, two, etc. In a table, the determiners can be listed as follows. Adjective is added to the table since some of the words that are clear determiners can also be adjectives. The categories are not always a 100% clear-cut:
- 20. The auxiliary functions to help another verb, but does not itself contribute greatly to the meaning of the sentence. Verbs such as have, be, and do can be full verbs, as in (13), or auxiliaries, as in (14). In (14), have does not mean `possess' or `hold', but contributes to the grammatical meaning of the sentence, namely past tense with present relevance. The same is true for be in (15); it contributes to the grammatical meaning emphasizing the continuous nature of the event: 13. I have a book in my hand. 14. I have worked here for 5 years. 15. Santa may be working on Thanksgiving Day. Auxiliary Source: Arizona State University Open Source
- 21. Because auxiliaries help other verbs (except when they are main verbs as in (x), they cannot occur on their own, as in the example below (which is ungrammatical): *I must X a book.
- 22. Coordinators such as and and or join two elements of the same kind, e.g. the nouns in (16). They are also called coordinating conjunctions, but in this course, we'll use coordinator. Complementisers such as that, because, whether, if, and since are also called subordinating conjunctions or subordinators. We will use complementiser. They join two clauses where one clause is subordinate to the other as in (17): 16. Sally and Holmes went to Madrid and Barcelona. 17. Sally and Holmes left because Ruby was about to arrive. Like prepositions, coordinators and complementisers are invariable, i.e. never change, in English. Coordinator and Complimentiser
- 23. There is a group of words, namely yet, however, nevertheless, therefore, and so, as in (18), that connects one sentence to another: 18. You are late, so I will give you extra work today. Some grammarians see these as complementisers; others see them as adverbs. With the punctuation (comma) as in (18), the complementiser scenario is more obvious since so connects the two sentences. So here means thus or therefore. If so is used as very, it is a degree adverb. That’s the difference between so as a complimentiser and as an adverb.