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Chapter 2: Traditional and Contemporary Management Perspectives
14 © 2017 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
Teaching Tip: Many students react negatively to the concept of a “theory.” Ask for
opinions about the reasons for the popularity or lack of popularity for a particularly high-
profile politician (such as the president) or other public figure (such as a sports figure or
movie star). Then point out that their explanation is a theory. Go on to stress that theories
are simply frameworks of thought and most people hold a number of different theories.
Management Update: Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel, continued to espouse his
theory of organizations until his retirement in 1990. He gave the theory credit for Intel’s
continued success in the semiconductor business. Grove’s theory is that technology
companies face recurring “strategic inflection points” where radical changes force firms
to completely transform themselves or die. He warned that “only the paranoid survive,”
meaning that firms cannot sit on their success and must adapt continuously.
Extra Example: Construction of ancient wonders (Stonehenge, the Egyptian pyramids
and the Great Wall of China) would not have been possible without effective management.
Global Connection: Use Figure 2.1 as a framework to underscore the fact that
management history has its roots in many different cultures, countries, and eras.
Global Connection: Many Japanese executives today give some of the credit for their
success to a book written in 1645. The book, entitled A Book of Five Rings, was written
by a samurai warrior. The book describes numerous ideas and concepts for successful
competition that can be generalized to management.
LECTURE OUTLINE
I. THE ROLE OF THEORY AND HISTORY IN MANAGEMENT
A. The Importance of Theory and History
1. Why theory?—A theory is simply a conceptual framework for organizing knowledge
and providing a blueprint for action.
Management theories are grounded in reality, used to build organizations and guide
them toward their goals.
2. Why history?—Contributions from past industrialists have molded the American culture,
and managers can benefit from an awareness of these contributions.
B. Precursors to Management Theory
1. Management in antiquity—Although the practice of management can be traced back to
3000 B.C., it was not given serious attention until the 1800s when large organizations
emerged during the Industrial Revolution.
2. Early management pioneers
Robert Owen was one of the first managers to show respect and dignity to workers in his
factory. He implemented better working conditions, raised the minimum age for child
labor, reduced hours, and supplied meals.
Charles Babbage applied mathematical principles to find ways to make the most efficient
use of facilities and materials. He also advocated division of labor.
Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have read any books about history that may help
them be better managers.

Management 12e by Ricky W. Griffin
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 15
Extra Example: Note that the very first introductory management textbook (Principles
of Management, by George Terry) was published in 1953, over 40 years ago.
Extra Example: Andrew Ure was one of the world’s first professors to teach
management principles at Anderson’s College in Glasgow.
Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have ever observed soldiering. Ask them if they
have ever been “guilty” of such behavior themselves.
Extra Example: Frederick Taylor applied many of the concepts of scientific
management to his favorite sports, lawn tennis and croquet.
Discussion Starter: As noted in the text, Taylor apparently falsified some of his results.
In what ways, if any, does this diminish his contributions to the field of management?
Extra Example: Other businesses today that rely heavily on scientific management
concepts include poultry processing plants and recycling centers that sort glasses,
plastics, and papers into different categories.
II. THE CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE
The classical management perspective consists of two distinct branches – scientific management
and administrative management.
A. Scientific Management
Scientific management focuses on ways to improve the performance of individual workers.
Frederick W. Taylor saw workers soldiering, or deliberately working beneath their potential.
He designed a four-step method to overcome this problem—breaking the job into small tasks,
selecting and training the best employees, monitoring to ensure compliance, then replace
employees who do not show high achievement.
The Gilbreths, a husband and wife team, also helped find more efficient ways for workers to
produce output. Frank Gilbreth made his most important contribution in the field of
bricklaying. He changed an 18-step process into a 5-step process and increased productivity by
about 200 percent.
Henry Gantt introduced the Gantt chart, which is a way to schedule work. This type of chart is
still used today.
Harrington Emerson was an advocate of specialized management roles in organizations. He
testified before the Interstate Commerce Commission that the railroad could save $1 million a
day by using scientific management.
Extra Example: Another area in which Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made substantial
contributions was in assisting the handicapped. In particular, they helped develop
vocational training methods for assisting disabled veterans.
Global Connection: Note that many of the early management pioneers were British. One
reason is that the Industrial Revolution advanced in England more quickly than in most
other parts of the world.

Cross-Reference: In addition to Fayol, many other writers over the years have attempted
to develop so-called principles, rules, or guidelines for management. However, these
principles have never been widely applicable for reasons discussed later in the chapter.
Global Connection: Again, note the influence of foreign scholars. For example, Fayol
was French, Urwick was British, and Weber was German.
Cross-Reference: Weber’s work is discussed in more detail in Chapter 12.
Teaching Tip: Table 2.1 summarizes the contributions and limitations of the classical
management perspective.
Global Connection: Again, note the international influence on management as
evidenced by Hugo Munsterberg, a German psychologist.
B. Administrative Management
Administrative management focuses on managing the total organization.
Henri Fayol was the first to identify the four management functions—planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling—and he developed guidelines for managers to follow.
Lyndall Urwick is best known for integrating scientific management with administrative
management.
Max Weber outlined the concept of bureaucracy based on a rational set of guidelines for
structuring organizations in the most efficient manner. His work is the foundation of
contemporary organization theory.
Chester Barnard wrote in a book called The Functions of the Executive about the acceptance
of authority and how managers get employees to do what they ask.
C. The Classical Management Perspective Today
Contributions: (1) Laid the foundation for management theory
(2) Identified key processes, functions, and skills of
managers that are still important today
(3) Made management a valid subject of scientific
inquiry
Limitations: (1) Best used in simple, stable organizations
(2) Provided universal procedures that are not
appropriate in all settings
(3) Most viewed employees as tools rather than as
resources
III. THE BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE
The behavioral management perspective emphasizes individual attitudes and behaviors and
group processes.
Hugo Munsterberg applied psychological concepts to industrial settings, founding the field of
industrial psychology around 1900. He suggested psychologists could make valuable contributions
to managers in the areas of employee selection and motivation.
Another pioneer of behavioral management was Mary Parker Follett.
A. The Hawthorne Studies

Discussion Starter: Recent evidence suggests that important details about the Hawthorne
studies were not reported properly. For example, all the workers in the illumination study
were paid extra for participating. What, if any, implications might be drawn from this?
Teaching Tip: Use Table 2.2 to summarize Theory X and Theory Y.
Cross-Reference: Maslow’s theory is discussed in more detail in Chapter 15.
Extra Example: Many business programs today have separate courses in organizational
behavior. If your school has such a course, identify its number and title for your students
and briefly review its topical coverage (i.e., its course description).
The Hawthorne studies were held at Western Electric and sponsored by General Electric. Elton
Mayo and his colleagues controlled the lighting in one room of workers but not in another.
When the illumination was increased in the experimental group, productivity increased in both
groups. The increase in productivity was attributed to the fact that the workers were having
extra attention paid to them, maybe for the first time.
Other studies found that employees will not work as fast as they can when being paid
piecework wages. Instead, they will perform to the level informally set by the group in order
to be accepted by the group. These two studies, and others, led Mayo to the conclusion that
individual and social processes play a major role in shaping employee attitudes and behavior
at work.
B. The Human Relations Movement
The human relations movement stemmed from the Hawthorne studies. The movement
argued that workers respond primarily to the social context of the workplace, including social
conditioning, group norms, and interpersonal dynamics. A basic assumption is that a
manager’s concern for workers will lead to their increased satisfaction and improved
performance.
The movement includes the need theories of motivation, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
and McGregor’s Theory X, a negative view of workers based on scientific management and
Theory Y, a positive view based on behavioral approaches.
C. The Emergence of Organizational Behavior
The emergence of organizational behavior occurred because of the too-simplistic descriptions
of work behavior by the human relationists. Organizational behavior takes a holistic view of
behavior by addressing individual, group, and organizational processes.
D. The Behavioral Management Perspective Today
Limitations:
(1) Gave insights into interpersonal processes such as motivation and group
dynamics in organizations
(2) Focused managerial attention on these processes
(3) Challenged the view of employees as tools and not resources
(1) Prediction was difficult due to the complexity of human behavior
(2) Managers were reluctant to adopt some of the behavioral concepts
(3) Contributions were often not communicated to the practicing managers
in an understandable form
Contributions:
Teaching Tip: Table 2.3 summarizes the contributions and limitations of the behavioral

Extra Example: Many business programs today have separate courses in management
science and/or operations management. If your school has either or both courses, identify
them by number and title for your students and briefly review their topical coverage.
Cross-Reference: Operations management is discussed in more detail in Chapter 20.
Cross-Reference: Remind your students that we introduced the concept of a system in
Chapter 1 and used it as a framework for our definition of management.
IV. THE QUANTITATIVE MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE
The quantitative management perspective focuses on decision making, economic effectiveness,
mathematical models, and the use of computers. The two branches of the quantitative approach are
management science and operations management.
A. Management Science
Management science focuses specifically on the development of mathematical models. These
models help organizations try out various activities with the use of a computer. Modeling can
help managers determine the best way to do things, saving money and time.
B. Operations Management
Operations management is an applied form of management science that helps organizations
develop techniques to produce their products and services more efficiently.
C. The Quantitative Management Perspective Today
Limitations:
(1) Developed sophisticated quantitative techniques to assist in decision
making
(2) Increased awareness of complex processes and aided in planning and
control
(1) Cannot fully explain or predict behavior of people
(2) Mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other
important skills
(3) Models may require unrealistic or unfounded assumptions
V. INTEGRATING PERSPECTIVES FOR MANAGERS
Integrating perspectives, including the systems and contingency perspectives, bring together aspects
of classical, behavioral, and quantitative approaches.
A. The Systems Perspective
A system is an interrelated set of elements functioning as a whole.
An organization as an open system is composed of four elements: inputs (material or human
resources), transformation processes (technological and managerial processes), outputs
(products or services), and feedback (reactions from the environment).
Open systems interact with their environment.
Closed systems do not interact with their environment.
Group Exercise: Break students up into small groups. Have them select an organization
and diagram its inputs, transformation processes, outputs, and feedback mechanisms.
Contributions:
Teaching Tip: Table 2.4 summarizes the contributions and limitations of the quantitative

Teaching Tip: Note the subtle but important distinction between entropy and poor
management.
Group Exercise: Form small groups. Have them identify a problem or opportunity
facing a business or other organization. Then have them identify elements and ideas from
the classical, behavioral, and quantitative perspectives that might be relevant. In addition,
have them discuss how systems and contingency perspectives might affect the situation.
Teaching Tip: Figure 2.5 is a useful mechanism for illustrating the time frames across
which different management perspectives have evolved.
Discussion Starter: Ask students if they have read—or heard of—Theory Z. Since most
will not, use this fact to discuss the faddish nature of many new approaches and ideas.
Cross-Reference: Many of the contemporary management challenges are covered in
detail in other parts of this book. For example, globalization is covered in Chapter 5.
Subsystems are systems within a broader system.
Synergy are units that are more successful working together than working alone.
Entropy is a normal process that leads to system decline.
B. The Contingency Perspective
Appropriate managerial behavior depends on the elements of the situation.
A universal perspective tries to identify the “one best way” to manage organizations.
A contingency perspective argues that universal theories cannot be applied to organizations
because each is unique.
C. An Integrating Framework
Managers need to include the parts from each perspective that are relevant to their situation
and apply them using both the systems and contingency approaches.
The basic premise of the integrative framework is that elements of the classical, behavioral,
and quantitative perspectives may all be relevant. However, none is likely to provide a
complete explanation.
Therefore, managers need to carefully assess situations and then select those elements from
each perspective that can be applied.
VI. CONTEMPORARY MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
A. Contemporary Applied Perspectives
The Theory Z model and the concern for excellence were important seminal work in the early
1980s. More recent advancements have been made by Peter Senge, Stephen Covey, Tom
Peters, Michael Porter, John Kotter, and Gary Hamel.
B. Contemporary Management Challenges
1. Sluggish economy
2. Globalization
3. Ethics, social responsibility, and corporate governance
4. Quality
5. Shift to service economy
6. The role and impact of social media

END OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Questions for Review
1. Briefly describe the principles of scientific management and administrative management.
What assumptions are made about workers?
Scientific management uses techniques such as time-and-motion studies and piecework pay systems
to increase the productivity of individual workers. Scientific management calls for observation,
development of improved procedures, training, and motivating workers. Administrative
management is also based on rational and scientific methods, but it focuses on the organization as a
whole. Principles of administrative management include the specialization of managerial work, the
development of bureaucracy, and theories about authority and control. Both scientific management
and administrative management assume that workers are interchangeable and identical, that rational
processes govern most behavior, and that money is the best motivator.
2. What are the differences between the contingency and the universal perspectives on
management? How is the contingency perspective useful in the practice of management
today?
Contingency perspectives prescribe different approaches for different situations, while universal
perspectives focus on one “best” approach. For the most part, contingency perspectives are preferred
by today’s managers, because they are often better able to accommodate changes in the people, the
organization, and its environment. As the environment in which businesses operate becomes ever
more complex, uncertain, and dynamic, contingency perspectives are likely to be employed more
and more.
3. Describe the systems perspective. Why is a business organization considered an open system?
The systems perspective tells us that organizations are systems composed of various elements that
interact in different ways. The system transforms inputs into outputs and receives feedback from its
environment. Open systems interact with their environment, and therefore businesses are considered
to be open systems because they interact with customers, the government, local communities, and
other external elements.
4. For each of the contemporary management challenges, give at least one example other than
the examples found in the text.
An acute labor shortage is manifested in the health care industry today, where nurse and technician
shortages are driving up labor costs. How to handle an aging workforce is one issue in the
management of diversity. The current generation of workers is showing an increased interest in
religion, as compared to older generations. Change continues to accelerate as product innovations
rise sharply. Instant messaging is a fairly new form of information technology, as are personal
digital assistants (PDAs). New ways of organizing include increase reliance on teamwork and
virtual workplaces. Globalization continues to impact businesses—one example is the expanding
membership of the European Union and the subsequent changes in those markets. Corporation’s
ethics are under increased scrutiny, following the scandals at Enron and other firms. Quality is an
important challenge as businesses seek to attract a shrinking market of consumers. The U.S. and
other developed countries are continuing their shift to a service economy.

Questions for Analysis
5. Young, innovative, or high-tech firms often adopt the strategy of ignoring history or
attempting to do something radically new. In what ways might this strategy help them? In
what ways might this strategy hinder them?
This strategy can be useful because it completely jettisons older systems, eliminating some of the
problems they had. For example, the virtual firm is a radically different way of organizing that
allows the company to call upon the best talent anywhere in the world, eliminate the expenses of
maintaining a headquarters facility, and give creative workers the freedom to work in whatever way,
place, and time works best for them. However, the strategy also throws out what was best about the
traditional ways of doing business, which can lead to problems. For example, many virtual firms are
finding that employees prefer to spend at least some time in face-to-face interaction.
6. Can a manager use tools and techniques from several different perspectives at the same time?
For example, can a manager use both classical and behavioral perspectives? Give an example
of a time when a manager did this, and explain how it enabled him or her to be effective.
As noted in the text, any given management problem may be addressed by using elements and ideas
from the three major perspectives on management. The answer to this question should be based on
the logic and rationale used to link the perspectives in a coordinated fashion that seems to make
sense for a given situation. For instance, an example might be a manager who is more effective
because he uses operations management techniques to design an efficient production line, but he
also uses techniques from the behavioral management perspective to motivate his workers.
7. Visit Amazon.com. Select the tab that reads “See All 32 Product Categories,” and then choose the
link for “Books.” Next select the link for “Bestsellers,” and click on “Business & Investing” from
the categories listed down the left side of the screen. Look at Amazon’s list of best-selling business
books. What ideas or themes do you see in the list? Which business leaders do you see?
A current bestseller at the time of publication of this Instructor’s Manual was Toyota Kata by Mike
Rother. This book explains the Improvement Kata, which is a means for making creative work
teachable. Teams using the Improvement Kata learn as they reach targets and adapt based on what
they are learning. Other themes include developing your management skills, identifying your
strengths, and motivating people. The biography of Elon Musk is a hot seller. Musk is the
entrepreneur and innovator behind SpaceX, Tesla, and SolarCity. Musk sold one of his internet
companies, PayPal, for $1.5 billion. A perennial best seller is Dale Carnegie’s How to Win Friends
and Influence People, originally published in 1936. A ‘new’ perennial favorite is Outliers by
Malcolm Gladwell. Written in 2008, this book explores the most famous and the most successful,
asking the question: what makes high-achievers different?
Questions for Application
8. Go to the library or go online and locate material about Confucius. Outline his major ideas.
Which seem to be applicable to management in the United States today?
Students should emphasize the strong ethical base of Confucius’s teachings. Specific teachings
include personal virtue, devotion to family, and the pursuit of justice. Some students may look at the
use of individual motivators in organizations to ensure true work devotion for personal
enhancement. Other students may use the Japanese management style, which fosters a family
atmosphere in business with mutual dedication by workers and mangers.

9. Find a company that has laid off a significant number of workers in the last year. (Hint: Use
the word layoff as a search term on the Internet.) Investigate that company. Why did the firm
make the layoffs? In your opinion, is the company likely to accomplish its intended goal by
laying off so many workers? Why or why not?
Companies are usually conducting layoffs, so examples will be easy to find. For example, Intel is
currently laying people off due to ‘lackluster sales’. Disney ABC Television Group drew criticism
after announcing (then reversing) layoffs of 35 tech workers. The dig here was the company laid off
as many workers earlier and had the workers train their foreign replacements in sessions now known
as “knowledge transfer” sessions. The article does not say why Disney ABC TG was making the
changes but if the reason was to cut expenses, they may have accomplished that goal but ultimately
lost customers as a by-product.
10. Read about management pioneer Frederick Taylor at www.cftech.com/BrainBank/TRIVIABITS/
FredWTaylor.html or another source. Describe Taylor’s background and experience. How does
an understanding of Taylor’s early career help you to better understand his ideas about
scientific management?
Taylor was born into an affluent family, who didn’t understand his interest in applying scientific
principles to the study of manual labor. He worked as a factory worker, which was very unusual for
a wealthy gentleman. His observations of workers, therefore, are probably quite accurate. Given the
combination of wealth and education on one hand, and practical experience in factory work on the
other hand, Taylor’s interests and drives become more clear.
END OF CHAPTER EXERCISES
Building Effective Decision-Making Skills
I. Purpose
This exercise is designed to help students develop their decision-making skills, emphasizing the
importance of system interdependencies in organizations.
II. Format
This exercise is designed so that it can be effective when done individually or in small groups.
Answers could be written or presented to the class for evaluation. It should take less than a half
hour.
III. Follow-up
A. Carefully examine each of your three options. In what ways might each option affect other
parts of the organization?
The option to buy lower-grade materials will require changes in purchasing, but it will also
impact workers because they will have to work harder to make a good quality product from
inferior materials. It may also have a major impact on sales, if the decline in quality is
recognized by buyers. The lay-off option will create anxiety and resentment in those workers
remaining in the firm, and it will probably raise overall wage expense, because the less-skilled
workers will not work as efficiently as those who have better training. The option to purchase
new equipment requires the most up-front investment, but it has the greatest potential for cost
savings later.
B. Which is the most costly option in terms of impact on other parts of the organization, not in
terms of absolute dollars? Which is the least costly?
Both lay-offs and inferior materials will be very costly for the organization. The use of inferior
materials may be the “most costly” because it could cause customers to buy competitors’

products and eventually lead to the failure of the firm. The least costly option is the purchase
of new equipment. (See reasons under item 1, above).
C. What are the primary obstacles that you might face in trying to implement each of your three
options?
The option to use inferior materials may cause dissatisfaction from the workers, and will
certainly cause customers’ dissatisfaction if it is detected. The lay-off option will encounter
resistance from workers, and the best, most experienced workers may leave the company for
other employment. The purchase of new equipment will likely encounter resistance from the
CEO or other financial personnel, based on the increase in up-front costs.
D. Can you think of other options for accomplishing your goal of reducing costs?
Students may suggest cost-cutting ideas, such as better inventory control or improved use of
information systems. They may also suggest a closer integration with suppliers or use of a
less-expensive distribution channel. There are possibilities for cost savings in every functional
area of the firm.
Building Effective Interpersonal Skills
I. Purpose
This exercise asks you to examine your attitudes about how people regard work and how they
should behave in the workplace.
II. Format
This in-class exercise involves looking at 8 items that consists of two related statements and
responding to the statements in terms of how each statement reflects your attitude about how people
regard work and behave in the workplace.
Student responses vary depending on their attitude toward how people regard work.
MANAGEMENT AT WORK
Customer Delight
The case discusses how Wells Fargo emerged from the banking crisis in better shape than competitors
even though the CEO believes shareholders come last. This position runs counter to conventional wisdom
of maximizing shareholder value. Steve Denning believes this same principle and offers a program for
change called “Radical Management.” This program is a new way of managing that generates high
productivity, continuous innovation, deep job satisfaction, and customer delight. The key to Denning’s
five interlocking principles of Radical Management is “customer delight”. Denning believes delighting
customers is the true bottom line of any business and the key to an enduring future. The text then applies
Denning’s principles to Wells Fargo who he feels has taken a few steps toward Radical Management but
is a long way from “radical.” He concludes Wells Fargo is satisfying their customers without yet
delighting them.
1. Case Question 1: In general, what sort of criticisms would Denning level at the behavioral
management perspective? At the quantitative management perspective?
Denning may say that both perspectives focus internally when the focus should be on the customer.
The behavioral management perspective focuses on behavior of individuals and groups. If using
radical management’s “self-organizing teams”, individual problem behaviors would arise naturally
to the attention of the manager holding the team accountable. Focus on decision making, economic
effectiveness and mathematical models describe the quantitative management perspective. Denning
may use tools from each perspective but only if it furthers the organization toward the ultimate goal
of delighting the customer.

2. Case Question 2: If your school announced that it was thinking about adopting the management
goal of “delighting customers,” what changes in its current management practices would you
recommend? What sort of (reasonable) practices would “delight” rather than merely satisfy you?
Student’s recommendations will vary widely. Examples could include free food in the dorm
cafeterias, reduced or free textbooks, and ability to enroll in classes earlier.
3. Case Question 3: Consider the following perspectives on management practice: the quantitative
perspective, the systems perspective, and the contingency perspective. Let’s say that you’re asked to
develop a plan for shifting your company’s management model from one of the above models to
one in which the company’s goal is “delighting customers.” What sort of recommendations for
change would you probably make, given the nature of your company’s current management
practices? Which current practices might be good springboards for making the shift? Which might
be probable impediments to making the shift?
Denning points out on his website that Radical Management depends on adopting all changes in
order to make the process work. One change without the other will not work. If in a company using
quantitative management perspective, students may suggest shifting the role of managers from
controlling individuals to enabling self-organizing teams. A shift from bureaucracy to dynamic
linking is another suggestion. Teams with freedom to create may produce better efficiency. This
system, with its focus on efficiency, would hinder creativity through bureaucratic red tape. If
advising a company using the systems perspective approach, suggestions may include shifting the
goals from making money for shareholders to delighting customers through continuous innovation.
This would have to include a change in values from money to innovation. The systems perspective
already looks at the company as a whole, which is more conducive to Radical Management. The
feedback loop, already in place, is the beginning of customer delight. In order to make the many
changes needed to introduce Radical Management, an organization must be flexible. A company
using contingency perspective must have flexibility and could be a good candidate for a shift to
Radical Management. Suggestions may include a shift from top-down to horizontal communication
and enabling of self-organizing teams.
4. Case Question 4: Denning likens a manager who manages in the interest of shareholder value to a
football coach who coaches to beat the point spread instead of winning the game. Explain the
analogy in more detail. In particular, Denning claims that “in such a world, it is hardly surprising
that the corporate world is plagued by scandals.” Why might the management practice of
maximizing shareholder value lead to questionable ethical (and even illegal) behavior among top
managers?
A coach who only wants the team to beat the point spread is only serving those who gamble on the
team, not the team itself. If a manager only wants to increase shareholder profit (the gamblers) then
the company (team) may actually lose. If managers are only concerned with maximizing
shareholder value it could lead to unethical, and even illegal, behavior. Managers may treat their
employees badly in order to make short-term gains, for example. The motivation to cheat and lie is
greater when those managers consider themselves accountable only to shareholders and not to their
employees.

TWELFTH EDITION
MANAGEMENT
Ricky W. Griffin
Part One: Introducing
Management
Chapter Two: Traditional and
Contemporary Management Perspectives
© 2017 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted
in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
2 - 1

Learning Outcomes
1. Justify the importance of history and theory to
management, and discuss precursors to modern
management theory.
2. Summarize and evaluate the classical perspective
on management, including scientific and
administrative management, and note its relevance
to contemporary managers.
3. Summarize and evaluate the behavioral
perspective on management, including the
Hawthorne studies, the human relations
movement, and organizational behavior, and note
its relevance to contemporary managers.
2 - 2

Learning Outcomes
4. Summarize and evaluate the quantitative
perspective on management, including
management science and operations
management, and note its relevance to
contemporary managers.
5. Discuss the systems and contingency
approaches to management, and explain their
potential for integrating the other areas of
management.
6. Identify and describe contemporary
management issues and challenges.
2 - 3

2 - 4
Theory
A conceptual framework for
organizing knowledge and
providing a blueprint for action.
Theory
Importance of Theory and History
A conceptual framework for
organizing knowledge and
providing a blueprint for action.

2 - 5
Importance of Theory and History
 Management theories are grounded in
reality.
– Theories are used to build organizations and
guide them toward their goals.
 Understanding the historical context
provides a sense of heritage and helps
managers avoid mistakes of others.

2 - 6
Figure 2.1 Management in Antiquity
This simple time line shows a few of the most
important management breakthroughs and
practices over the last 4,000 years.

2 - 7
Early Management Pioneers
 Robert Owen
– One of the first managers to recognize the
importance of human resources.
– He raised working age for children, reduced
hours, and supplied meals.
 Charles Babbage
– Mathematically focused on efficiency of
production.
– Believed in division of labor.

2 - 8
Classical Management Perspective
Consists of two branches –
scientific management and
administrative management.
Classical
Management
Perspective
Focuses on ways to
improve the
production of
individual workers.
Scientific
Management
Administrative
Management
Focuses on managing
the total organization.

2 - 9
Figure 2.2 Steps in Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor saw workers soldiering, or
deliberately working below their potential.
He devised this four step method to
overcome the problem.

2 - 10
Scientific Management
 Frank and Lillian Gilbreth
– They developed numerous techniques and
strategies for eliminating inefficiency.
 Henry Gantt
– Introduced the Gantt chart for scheduling work.
 Harrington Emerson
– An advocate for specialized management roles.

2 - 11
Administrative Management
 Henri Fayol
– First to identify the four management functions.
 Lyndall Urwick
– Integrated scientific and administrative
management.
 Max Weber
– Studied efficient organizational structure.
 Chester Barnard
– Wrote about acceptance of authority.

2 - 12
Classical Management Today
 Contributions
– Laid the foundation for management theory.
– Identified key processes, functions, and skills.
– Made management a valid subject of study.
 Limitations
– Best used in simple, stable organizations.
– Universal procedures may not be appropriate
in some settings.
– Employees not viewed as resources.

2 - 13
Table 2.1 Classical Management Perspective

2 - 14
Behavioral management perspective
Emphasizes individual attitudes
and behaviors and group
processes.
Behavioral Management
Perspective
Hugo Munsterberg applied psychology to the industrial
setting, founding the field of industrial psychology.
Mary Parker Follett was an early pioneer of this theory.

2 - 15
Behavioral Management
Perspective
 Conducted the Hawthorne Studies
– Found increased productivity in both control and
experimental group.
• Later attributed to heightened employee morale due to
extra attention.
 Later studies identified:
• “rate busters” (overproducers) and “chiselers”
(underproducers).
 Their conclusion:
• Human behavior was much more important in the
workplace than previously believed.

2 - 16
Human Relations Movement
Human
relations
movement
• Argued that workers respond
primarily to the social context of
the workplace.
 Stemmed from the Hawthorne studies.
 A basic assumption is that a manager’s
concern for workers will lead to increased
satisfaction and improved performance.

2 - 17
Human Relations Movement
Theory X
• A pessimistic and negative view of
workers consistent with the views of
scientific management.
Theory Y
• A positive view of workers; it represents
the assumptions that human relations
advocates make.
Includes Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and
Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.

2 - 18
Theory X and Theory Y
Source: D. McGregor and W. Bennis, The Human Side Enterprise: 25th Anniversary Printing, 1985.

2 - 19
Organizational behavior
Emergence of Organizational
Behavior
• Contemporary field focusing on behavioral
perspectives on management.
Organizational behavior takes a holistic view of
behavior and addresses individual, group, and
organization processes.

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different content

Teach me, O God! to Thee my voice to raise
In meek submission, and in humble praise;
In all events, thy gracious will to see,
In all misfortunes, to behold but Thee.
To feel, in want and anguish, all thy love,
The tender father’s discipline to own;
To know that sorrow comes, my heart to prove,
To feel the warning of thy awful frown.
O! make me grateful, that I’m timely tried,
And forced from earthly cares to love Thee, Lord!
That, by thy chastisement, thus purified,
I live in Thee, and in Thy holy word.
As lightning clears the sky, by clouds o’ercast,
So shall adversity my heart revive;
When worldly joy is gone, and sorrow past,
My humbled heart in faith and hope shall live.
The sun behind our western hills declines,
But gilds the evening clouds with golden ray:
Thus when the morn of life no longer shines,
Still Christian hope illumes our fading day.
And as the rising sun dispels the night,
So shall we wake with joy in Gospel light.
15th.—Mr. Lumley said the other day, that the inhabitants of the
Apennines were like the people of Auvergne in their manners; so I took an
opportunity this morning of asking my aunt some questions about them.
She told me, that Auvergne has been very little known till lately; even the
remarkable fact, that the whole district is a collection of extinct volcanoes,
has not been very long discovered. It has been visited by few travellers, and
the people seem to have had but little intercourse with their neighbours.
Bakewell’s Travels were in the room, and she gave me the following
passages to read.
“It was market day, and we met a long train of carts with wood, each
drawn by four oxen, coming to Clermont. The dress and appearance of the
mountaineers who were conducting the carts, were very striking; with
immense broad-brimmed hats, long, lank hair, gaunt features, and striped

cloth cloaks, that reached nearly to their feet, they bore no resemblance to
Frenchmen, and they spoke a different language. I believe they are the
descendants from the same race who resisted Cæsar, for whatever changes
may have taken place in other parts of France, none of the warlike hordes
who ravaged the more fertile parts of the country in succeeding ages, would
have wished to take possession of the sterile mountains of Auvergne, or to
undertake the task of driving out the original inhabitants. I was much
surprised, on entering some of the houses, to observe that the lamps,
waterpots, and other earthenware vessels, were of the same form as the
Etruscan vessels from Herculaneum; they are doubtless made after models
transmitted from very remote antiquity, as vessels of these forms are not
found in any other parts of France that I have visited. The music of the
Auvergnats is the bagpipe.
“Many of the families in the lower or middle rank of life, have small
vineyards, and make wine for their own use. A freehold vineyard, which
costs two hundred francs, or about eight pounds sterling, produced wine,
more than sufficient for a family of five persons, as we were informed by
one of these little proprietors. They cultivate the vineyards themselves; and
seem to live in contented and obscure independence, relying on their own
industry for every thing, and preserving the customs of their remote
ancestors.”
16th. Sunday.—The history of our first parents, and the nature of their
transgression, was the subject of our conversation this morning. Towards
the end of it, my uncle said, “It is a strange error, though some sensible
people seem to have fallen into it, to doubt the truth of this early part of
sacred history, because the eating of a certain fruit was apparently too
trifling to be considered a trial of obedience. But there is one circumstance
which they do not seem to have sufficiently considered; that, if it was
necessary to lay Adam under some small restraint, to remind him, that
notwithstanding his dominion over all things, he was still the servant of the
Most High; a trial of his obedience to any moral precepts could scarcely
have been made, for there was no opportunity at that time of violating them.
For instance, there was nothing to tempt him to idolatry, when every recent
circumstance must have carried with it a conviction of the single power of
the Almighty; and when the impression of the Creator’s beneficent agency
was kept alive by the frequent visits of his glorious presence. Highly

favoured creatures, the voice of their God was a sound familiar to their
ears!
“As there were no other inhabitants in the world, it was impossible to
steal, murder, covet, or commit any crime against society. It had been,
therefore, vain indeed, to forbid that which could not be done. There could
be no virtue in abstaining from crimes to which there was no temptation.
But there would have been virtue in submitting to the commands of God,
who required only this simple abstinence, in token of their subjection; and
no matter how small the trial, it was their part to have obeyed. It pleases
God to try our virtue sometimes with very small temptations, and the
weakness with which we transgress in the least things, may convince us that
we are not very capable of resisting great temptations.
“Insignificant creatures that we are, with narrow views and limited
perceptions; we are always ready to arraign the decrees of the Supreme
Disposer of all, and to wonder why things are not otherwise. I have read a
good remark, made by Philo a learned Jew, which may apply to this
presumptuous disposition of mankind. In treating of the plagues of Egypt,
he says, ‘Some inquire why God punished the country by such minute and
contemptible animals, as flies and frogs, rather than by lions, leopards, or
other savage beasts that prey on man. But let them reflect, that God chose
rather to correct, than to destroy the inhabitants—if he had desired to
annihilate them utterly, he had no need to have made use of any auxiliaries.
Let them remember, also, that when God—the source of all power—who
stands in need of no assistance, chooses to employ instruments, as it were,
to inflict chastisement; instead of the strongest, he selects the mean and the
despicable—but which, in his service, are endowed with irresistible
force.’ ”
17th.—As my uncle saw how much I was interested about the
Laplanders, and their reindeer, he was so good as to read to us, last night, an
account of them, from De Capell Brooke’s travels, a very entertaining book,
which has been lately published. I will transcribe a little of it here, as I
know Marianne will like to see it.
“My landlord having received intelligence that the Laplanders, with their
reindeer, were within a mile of Fugleness, I was anxious to avail myself of
the opportunity of seeing them. After an hour’s walk, we found the tent and
its owner, Per Mathison; and inside the tent, into which we crept, Marit, his

wife, was busy preparing the utensils for milking the deer, and making the
cheese. She was not more than four feet nine inches high, and of a brown
complexion, which seemed more the result of habitual dirt, and of living
constantly in smoke, than of nature. She had on her summer dress of dirty
white cloth, girt round by a belt, to which was suspended a small knife; and
her komagers, or shoes, were of strong leather, forming a peak at the toes.
On her head she wore a high cap, made partly of cloth, and partly of bits of
coloured calico. This cap is peculiar to the Norwegian Lapland, and is
rather elegant in its shape. Though wild and uncouth, her manners did not
betray the surliness so conspicuous in her husband. The latter was dressed
in reindeer fawn skins, which, being thin and pliable, were not likely to be
too warm.
“Another Laplander and his wife lived in the same tent. This man
seemed to be a partner of Per Mathison; their deer were mixed together, but
the superior number belonged to the latter, and he was evidently head of the
family, which was easily perceived, from his idleness and inactivity, mixed
with a kind of gruff independence, that bespoke a laird of the mountains. He
had, for the last two summers, brought his herd of deer to the mountains of
Whale Island, from the interior of Norwegian Lapland—a distance of more
than two hundred miles. Here he remained between two and three months;
and, before the approach of winter, again returned to his native forests.
“In about two hours, the distant barking of the dogs indicated the coming
of the deer, which we at last discerned winding slowly along the mountains,
at the distance of near a mile, appearing like a black moving mass. They
now approached the fold, which was a large space that had been cleared of
the brushwood, and inclosed by branches of dwarf birch and aspen, stuck
around to prevent the deer from straying. As the herd came up to it, the deer
made frequent snortings; and a loud crackling was heard, produced by their
divided hoofs striking against each other. These animals, being endued with
an exquisite sense of smelling, soon perceived there were strangers near;
and our appearance, so different from the dress of the Laplanders to which
they had been accustomed, alarmed them to such a degree, that it was
necessary for us to retire till they had entered the fold. After some difficulty,
the whole herd were at length collected within the circle; and the women,
bringing their bowls from the tent, began the operation of milking, which,
as some hundreds of deer were assembled, was likely to take up a
considerable time. In this both the men and women were busily employed.

Before each deer was milked, a cord with a noose was thrown round the
horns, by which it was secured and kept steady. The Laplanders are
extremely expert at this; and it was surprising to see the exactness with
which the noose was thrown from a distance; hardly ever failing to light
upon the horns of the deer for which it was intended, though in the thickest
of the herd. The cord for this purpose was made of the fibres of the birch,
very neatly plaited together, and exceedingly strong. During the short time
the animal was milking, this cord was either held by one of the women, or
made fast to a birch shrub; some of the thickest having been stripped of
their leaves, and left standing for this purpose. Many of the deer, instead of
being tractable, as I had imagined, were very refractory, frequently even
throwing the women down, and hurting them with their horns. They seemed
very little to mind this; but, strong as the Laplanders are, they appeared to
have little power over these animals, for when one had the cord round its
horns, and refused to be milked, it dragged the holder with ease round the
fold. The quantity of milk that each deer gave scarcely exceeded a tea-cup
full; but it was extremely luscious, of a fine aromatic flavour, and richer
than cream. Of this we eagerly partook, after we had permission; which,
however, Per Mathison did not at first seem willing to grant, but his sullen
nature was soon softened by brandy.
“In the middle of the herd of deer, suspended to the branches of a low
birch, was a child about a year old, enclosed in a kind of cradle, or case
covered with leather. The Laplanders, when obliged to go any distance from
their tents, frequently leave their children thus suspended on a tree, by
which they are secured from the attack of any ravenous animal.
“It was past midnight before the whole of the herd was milked. The sun
had left the heavens about an hour, but a deep orange tint, on the verge of
the horizon, shewed that it was not far below it. The deer were at length
turned out from the fold; and, spreading themselves along the sides of the
mountains, were quickly lost to our view. The Laplanders now collecting
the milk, which amounted to a considerable quantity, proceeded with it to
the tent, inviting us to supper. We crept in, and seated ourselves on reindeer
skins, which were strewed on the ground. The business of making cheese
now commenced: and Marit, emptying the milk from the bowls into a large
iron pot, placed it over a fire, in the centre of the tent, the smoke of which
annoyed us much. In a short time, the milk assumed the appearance of curd;
and, being taken off, was placed in small moulds, made of beech wood, and

pressed together. The number of cheeses thus made amounted to about
eight, of the size of a common plate, and barely an inch in thickness. The
whey and curds that remained were for our supper, though the dirty habits
of the people much diminished my appetite.
“After supper was finished, and the bowls and other utensils removed to
a corner of the tent, fresh wood was placed on the fire, which again
enveloped us in smoke. On its burning up, the flames reached the cheeses,
which had been placed on a board directly over the fire, that the smoke
might harden them. Their richness and the heat caused large drops of oil to
trickle from them, which the men licked up with evident relish.
“The whole group was a curious one. Opposite to us, around the fire,
were the uncouth figures of the Laplanders, squatting on their haunches. In
one corner were two children asleep in deer-skins; and more than twenty
small dogs were also reposing about us. It was soon time for the men to
commence their nightly employment of watching the deer, and accordingly
one of them left the tent. On making a signal, about half the dogs, whose
turn it was to commence the watch, started suddenly up, and followed their
master to the mountains. I was greatly surprised to find the rest take no
notice of the summons, and remain quietly stretched on their deer-skins,
well aware, singular as it may seem, that it was not their turn.”
18th.—Mary is reading Waddington’s Visit to Ethiopia and Dongola, and
she shewed me an account in it of the mirage, that most curious deception
of the sight.
In crossing the immense sandy plain near Askán, in Dongola, Mr. W.
says they had a good view of the mirage. It assumed at first the appearance
of a broad winding stream, which he mistook for the Nile. It then changed
rather suddenly from a river to a sea, covering the whole of the horizon in
front of the party; while castles, trees, and rocks seemed to stand in the
middle of the water, in which those objects were most distinctly reflected.
The apparent distance of the nearest part was continually changing from
one quarter to three quarters of a mile.
At Bakkil Mr. W. saw another beautiful mirage; and he remarks that the
two or three places where he had seen this phenomenon in the greatest
perfection, were peculiarly frequented by the antelope, as if she loved the
banks of that fairy sea, and delighted to gaze upon its fugitive waters. It is a

singular coincidence with this observation, that the mirage is called by the
Arabs of the Desert,—the lake of the gazelles.
I was anxious to learn something further on this curious subject, and not
knowing what books to consult, I applied to my uncle. He tells me that a
species of mirage is very common at sea; distant ships seem grotesquely
caricatured by it either in length or in height; and sometimes, over the real
vessel, an inverted picture of it appears suspended in the sky, with the masts
of each prolonged, so as to unite. A similar effect was observed in the desert
by the French, in their Egyptian expedition; the villages appearing distorted,
or raised above their natural level, or as if built on an island in the middle of
a lake. As they approached, the apparent surface of the water became
narrower and narrower, till it disappeared; and the same deceptive
appearance began again at the next village. But all travellers through sandy
plains, in hot climates, mention this kind of optical deception, and
particularly that of its having the appearance of water. Some of them, after
having travelled for hours in a burning desert, faint and exhausted, have had
their spirits revived by the sight of water, and have eagerly pushed on to
refresh themselves and their poor camels; you may judge of their
disappointment when they perceived that it was all illusion.
Another very remarkable instance of mirage, my uncle says, has been
more than once seen at Reggio, in the straits of Messina, where it is called
the Fata Morgana. When the rays of the sun form an angle of about 45° with
the sea, and that the bright surface of the water in the bay is not disturbed
by wind or current, if the spectator be placed with his back to the sun, there
suddenly appears on the water the most incomprehensible variety of objects
—pilasters, arches, and castles, lofty towers and extensive palaces, with all
their balconies and windows—or perhaps trees, vallies, and plains, with
their herds and flocks—armies of men, on foot and on horseback, and many
other strange objects; all in their natural colours, and all in action, passing
rapidly in succession along the surface of the sea. But if, besides the
circumstances before described, the atmosphere happens to be loaded with a
dense vapour, which the sun had not previously dispersed, the observer will
behold a representation of the same objects in the air, as if traced there on a
curtain; though not so distinct or well defined as those on the sea. These
curious appearances were fancifully called by the Italians, the castles of the
Fairy Morgana.

My uncle says that the celebrated Dr. Wollaston has proved, by some
very ingenious experiments, that they arise from the irregular refraction of
the rays of light, in passing through contiguous portions of air, of different
densities. One of these experiments he was so good as to shew us; and as it
is so simple, that Marianne can easily try it, I will endeavour to describe it
here.
He put a little clear syrup into a square phial, and then poured about an
equal quantity of water into it, over the syrup. The phial was set on the
table, and having placed a printed card about an inch behind it, he made us
observe that when we looked through the syrup, or through the water, the
letters on the card appeared erect; but, that when they were seen through
that part where the two fluids were gradually mixing together, the letters
were equally distinct, but inverted. A similar effect, he said, may be
produced with hot and cold water, or even by two portions of cold and
heated air; and to shew us this, he performed another very easy experiment.
He placed two of the library chairs back to back, and about a foot apart; he
connected the tops of the chairs with two bits of strong wire, and on the
wires he laid the kitchen poker, the square end of which he had made red
hot. Exactly in the direction of the poker he pinned a large printed A upon
the wall, which was about ten feet distant; and then desired us to look at it
along the heated poker. We did so, and we all distinctly saw three images of
the A, the middle one being inverted, and the two others erect.
Dear mamma, how this reminded me of the day when you first explained
to us the meaning of refraction, and shewed us the pretty little experiment
of the stick, which appeared to bend just at the surface of the water. How
often I now feel the benefit of all your patient instruction, and how often I
wish I had your excellent memory, which enabled you to teach us so many
things, without having any books to assist you!
20th.—My cousins like Eastern tales just as much as I do—and my uncle
speaks of the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments as if he was still a boy. He
thinks that they are not only very ingenious, but that many of the apparent
wonders, which are related as supernatural, may be easily explained, by
means of the chemical and philosophical knowledge which is too generally
supposed to be the result of late discoveries. I should like to read over all
my favourite tales with him, for the benefit of his explanations. What

brought them into my mind now, was a pretty little anecdote which I once
heard him tell Grace, and which she has just been repeating to me.
In Khorasân, there was a certain old caravanserai, called Zafferounee,
which was once so very extensive, as to contain seventeen hundred
chambers, besides baths and shops, and besides accommodation for
thousands of cattle within its walls. It is said to have been erected by one of
those wealthy Eastern merchants, who delighted in perpetuating their names
by acts of public utility. While it was building, and a large quantity of straw
and clay were mixing up for that purpose on the road near it, a cafilah,
consisting of a hundred camels, loaded with saffron, chanced to pass; and
one of them, slipping into the clay, fell, and was disabled. Their owner
inveighed bitterly against those who by so carelessly doing their work on
the public road, had occasioned such a serious loss to him. The merchant,
who was himself superintending the progress of the building, on hearing
these complaints, inquired what might be the value not only of the camel,
which had been disabled, but of all the rest; and purchasing the whole on
the spot, ordered the saffron to be tumbled into the clay, and worked up
with it, instead of chopped straw. It was from this that the caravanserai
obtained the name of Zafferounee, or Saffron.
This rich merchant, however, fell afterwards into difficulties, as might
have been expected, from his extravagance, and at last became a beggar.
Travelling in search of subsistence, into foreign countries, he happened to
visit the place where the camel-driver, now grown immensely rich, lived in
splendour. It came to the ears of the latter, that a stranger, in poverty, who
spoke of his former riches in Khorasân, was living wretchedly in the town;
and suspecting that this might be his old benefactor, he invited him to his
house; and after feasting him superbly, induced him to relate his history:
when, in concluding it, the unhappy Khorasânee described his destitute
condition, the other interrupted him, saying, “How can you call yourself
poor, when you are, in reality, a man possessed of great riches?” “Ah! no,”
replied the other; “once, indeed, I had much wealth, but all is gone; and I
am now a beggar!” On this his host carried him to a secret chamber, which
was full of money—“This,” said he, “is all yours; it is the price of the
saffron which you so liberally purchased from me: I have traded upon it and
become rich, but the original sum I have always reserved as belonging to
you; take it now, and live happily.”

Grace is always encouraged to repeat to others the little stories which are
told to her: I wish you could have heard her relating this to us before tea.
22d.—Well, I am in actual possession of the old quarry. Having settled
all my plans, I at once set to work, and my uncle was so good as to let me
have one of the workmen to help me, because he said my ideas were
rational. The opening of the quarry fronts the south-west; the rock at the
back is high and steep, and a spring, which trickles from it, keeps the part
which had been most deeply worked constantly full of water. In this I have
put several pretty water-plants—Mr. Biggs, I know, lays a quantity of peat
compost in his pond; but though I have not been able to obtain that yet, I
have planted the white and the yellow water lily, which the gardener found
for me a few miles off. A thick skreen of shrubs has been planted by my
uncle’s directions, above the rocks to the north, but no forest trees, for in a
short time they would outgrow the place which they ornament only while
young.
The middle and southern parts of the quarry are to be sloped and
dressed; all the briars have been already taken out, and the loose splinters of
the quarry are spread on the surface of the bank. Upon these, the gardener
has laid a mixture of peat earth and sand, which he had to spare; and here I
intend to have an incomparable bed of strawberries.
South of these, and where the rocky bank sinks, I am filling up the
hollow and uneven spots with the same mixture and rotten leaves; for Mr.
Biggs says that the natural soil of the beautiful North American shrubs is
chiefly formed of decayed vegetables.
Groups of rhododendron, azalea, kalmia, and many more, which, as I
have learnt from that delightful book, Miller’s dictionary, are suited to that
soil and aspect, are to flourish there; and by Mary’s advice, they are to be
mixed with some of the Scotch roses. These are rather scarce here; but Mr.
Biggs has been so generous as to send me a small piece of the root of each
of his own rose bushes. There are a few fibres on them, and he assures me
they will sprout in spring—so it will be a good experiment at least. I shall
also have a little grass plat, with a few small beds for choice flowers, which
I expect will blossom very early in this little snug spot.
I have planted some of the lobelia fulgens, and a hydrangea, which is a
native of marshy ground, near the edge of the pond—and when spring
comes, I hope to execute many other grand plans which I have formed,

from hearing Mr. Biggs. My cousins approve of them, and all help me, and
Mary wonders she never thought of adorning the old quarry before.
I am now very busy in making a bed for ixia, gladiolis, lachenalia, and
oxalis—they are usually in a greenhouse, but I hear that, if planted late in
October, in a soil composed of peat earth, and sharp sand, and over this, if a
layer of peat, eight inches thick, be laid, to prevent the frost from reaching
them, they will be in beautiful blossom in spring. I will try this—my uncle
encourages experiment; he says it is the high road to truth—and he assists
all who wish to travel on it.
23rd., Sunday.—I asked my uncle this morning to tell me the meaning of
Noah’s prediction, “God shall enlarge Japhet, and he shall dwell in the tents
of Shem.” In reply, he told us the opinions of a very learned person, for
whose writings he has a high respect; and I will endeavour to give you the
substance of what he said.
“The most obvious meaning of the expression is, that Providence would
bless Japhet with a numerous progeny, which should not only spread over
an ample tract of country, but that they would afterwards encroach on the
territory of Shem’s descendants. And this sense of the words is supported by
history; for the whole of Europe, and a considerable part of Asia, was
originally peopled, and has been always occupied, by Japhet’s offspring,
who, not contented with their own possessions, have repeatedly made
encroachments on the sons of Shem; as, for instance, when Alexander the
Great, with an European army, attacked and overthrew the Persian
monarchy; when the Romans subjected a great part of the East; and still
more, when the Tartar conquerors of the race of Genghis Khan destroyed
the empire of the Caliphs, took possession of their country, and made
settlements in all parts of Asia. Tamerlane also led his Moguls, who were
another branch of Japhet’s progeny, into Hindostan; and their descendants
gradually obtained possession of that immense country, a part of Shem’s
original inheritance. These events, and others of the same nature, may be
considered as the accomplishment of that prophecy; not only because they
answer to the natural import of its terms, but because they have had great
influence on the state of true religion in various parts of the world; so that in
this interpretation we find the two circumstances which are the
characteristics of a true interpretation,—an agreement with the facts

recorded in history, and a connection of the particular prediction with the
general system of the prophetic word.
“It would seem, however, that some amicable intercourse between parts
of those two great families is implied by the expression, ‘Japhet’s dwelling
in the tents of Shem’; for the settlements made by the Portuguese, English,
Dutch, and French in different parts of India, which was a part of Shem’s
inheritance, may be taken in this sense. And consequences cannot but arise
of great importance, from such numerous and extensive settlements of
Christians, in countries where the light of the Gospel has been for ages
extinguished.
“There is still a third sense: but in order to make it more apparent, it will
be proper to consider the precise meaning of Shem’s blessing—a blessing
obliquely conveyed in this emphatic ejaculation, ‘Blessed be Jehovah, the
God of Shem!’ This evidently implied that Jehovah was to be more
peculiarly the God of Shem; and in the same sense that he afterwards
vouchsafed to call himself the God of one branch of Shem’s progeny—of
Abraham, Isaac, and of Jacob, and of their descendants the Jewish people.
Although the universal Father of all the nations of the earth, he may be said
to have more particularly adopted the descendants of Shem, in choosing
them to be the depositaries of the true religion, while the rest of mankind
were sunk in idolatry and ignorance. Among them he preserved the
knowledge and worship of himself, by a series of miraculous dispensations;
to them he confided the representative priesthood, the type of the Messiah;
and when the destined season came, he raised the Messiah himself from
among the offspring of that chosen family.
“But the expression, ‘the tents (or tabernacles) of Shem,’ alludes to the
Jewish tabernacle, which was one of the external means of preserving the
worship of the true God. The word in Hebrew is the same for both tent and
tabernacle. This holy tent was Shem’s tabernacle, because it was entrusted
to his descendants, and because none but them might bear a part in its
sacred service. Now this tabernacle, and this service, were undoubtedly
emblems of the Christian church and Christian worship. It appears, then,
that in the mention of the tents of Shem, Noah was inspired to make
allusion to the Jewish tabernacle, as the symbol of the Christian
dispensation; and that the dwelling of Japhet in those tents of Shem, took
place when the idolatrous nations of Japhet’s line became converted to the

faith of Christ, and worshipped the God of Shem in Shem’s tabernacles; that
is, worshipped God in the truth and spirit of revealed religion.
“This prediction, therefore, bears directly upon the general object of all
the prophecies—the union of all nations in the faith of Christ. And the fact
is notorious, that the Gospel has, from the beginning to the present time,
made the greatest progress in Europe, where the early and wide-spreading
conversions of the idolaters of Japhet’s line (among whom were our own
ancestors) soon led to encroachments on the territory of Shem.
“How grateful should we be,” my uncle added, “to those learned men
who thus elucidate the difficult passages in Scripture, and shew the
beautiful harmony of the whole prophetic system!”
24th.—I am reading “Bartram’s Travels in North America.” It is not a
late publication, but very interesting to me, as I like to compare the
productions of North and South America.
Among all the beautiful trees of our Southern regions, I do not recollect
having seen or heard of the deciduous cypress, the majestic grandeur of
which, he says, is surprising. It generally grows in low flat grounds, that are
covered, part of the year, with water. The lower part of the stem, which is
frequently under water, enlarges into prodigious buttresses; and they project
on every side to such a distance, that several men might hide in the recesses
between them. The stem is generally hollow as high as the buttresses reach,
where it forms, as it were, another beginning, and rises, in a straight
uninterrupted column, to the height of 80 or 90 feet. There it throws out its
noble branches like an umbrella; eagles securely build their nests in them;
they are the abode of hundreds of parroquets, who delight in shelling the
seeds; and even the hollow stem is not untenanted, as it affords spacious
apartments for the wild bees.
The trunks supply excellent timber; and, when hollowed out, make large
and durable canoes. When the planters fell these mighty trees, they erect a
high stage round them, so as to reach above the buttresses; and on these
stages eight or ten men can work together, with their axes.
Another curious fact which I found in this book is, that the inhabitants of
East Florida prepare, from the root of the China briar, a very agreeable sort
of jelly, which they call conti. They chop the root in pieces, which are
afterwards pounded in a wooden mortar; and, when washed and strained,

the sediment that settles to the bottom dries into a reddish flour. A small
quantity of this, mixed with warm water and sweetened with honey,
becomes a delicious jelly, when cool; or, mixed with corn flour and fried in
fresh bear’s oil, it makes very nice cakes.
26th.—I have just found, in “Bartram’s Travels,” some particulars that I
do not think we knew before, of that curious species of the Tillandsia,
commonly called long moss.
It grows on all trees in the southern regions of North America; and any
part of the living plant, torn off and caught on the branches of another tree,
immediately takes root. Wherever it fixes, it spreads into long pendent
filaments, which subdivide themselves in an endless manner, waving in the
wind like streamers, to the length of twenty feet. It is common to find the
spaces between the boughs of large trees entirely occupied by masses of this
plant, which, in bulk and weight, would require several men to carry. In
some places, cart loads of it are found lying on the ground, torn off by the
violence of the wind. When fresh, cattle and deer eat it in the winter season;
and when dry, it is employed for stuffing chairs, saddles, and beds; but to
prepare it properly for these purposes, it is thrown into shallow ponds of
water, where the outside furry substance soon decays: it is then taken out of
the water and spread in the sun; and, after a little beating, nothing remains
but a hard, black, elastic filament, resembling horse-hair.
There is a curious anecdote about the name of this plant, in “Harry and
Lucy concluded;” but I need not mention it here, because my uncle has sent
that delightful little book to you, and I am sure Marianne will have run
through it with as much eagerness as I did.
28th.—I have just found some more instances of those strange optical
deceptions, which seem to be of the same nature as the Fata Morgana. My
aunt thinks that the term mirage only applies to the deceitful waters of the
desert.
Mr. Dalby writes in the Philosophical Transactions that, ascending a hill
in the Isle of Wight, he observed that the top of another hill, of about the
same level, seemed to dance up and down as he advanced; and on bringing
his eye down to within two feet of the ground, the top of the hill appeared
totally detached, or lifted up from the lower part, the sky being seen under
it. This he repeatedly observed; and he adds, that as the sun was rather

warm for the season, with a heavy dew, there was a great deal of
evaporation going on.
Another very singular example of these extraordinary appearances in the
atmosphere, is given by Dr. Buchan. Walking on the cliff, about a mile east
of Brighton, in the latter end of November, just as the sun was rising, he
saw the face of the cliff on which he was standing represented precisely
opposite to him, at some distance in the sea; and both he and his companion
perceived their own figures standing on the summit of the apparent cliff, as
well as the picture of a windmill near them. This phenomenon lasted about
ten minutes, when it seemed to be elevated into the air, and to be gradually
dissipated; and he remarks, that the surface of the sea was covered with a
dense fog many yards in height, which slowly receded before the sun’s rays.
How frequently it happens, when the curiosity has been awakened by
any new subject, that chance leads one to some circumstance in books, or
conversation, that exactly applies to it! By mere accident, I opened
Scoresby’s voyage at the following passage, which I have just time to
transcribe.
After describing the amusing spectacle of some distant ships, which
were either curiously distorted, or inverted in the air, by means of this
wonderful kind of refraction, he says, “When looking through the telescope,
the coasts of ice, or rock, had often the appearance of the remains of an
ancient city, abounding with the ruins of castles, churches, and monuments,
with other large and conspicuous buildings. The hills often appear to be
surmounted with turrets, battlements, spires, and pinnacles, while others,
subjected to another kind of refraction, seem to be large masses of rock,
suspended in the air, at a considerable elevation above the actual
terminations of the mountains to which they refer. The whole exhibition is a
grand and majestic phantasmagoria; scarcely is the appearance of any
object fully examined and determined, before it changes to something else;
it is perhaps alternately a castle, a cathedral, or an obelisk,—and then
expanding and coalescing with the adjoining mountains, it unites the
intermediate vallies, though they may be miles in width, by a bridge of a
single arch, of the most magnificent appearance.”
29th.—We have been visiting Franklin’s farm to-day, and have had a
very pleasant walk, late as it is in the year. He is so diligent, that he has
done a great deal to it since we were last there. Between it and the next land

he has made a ditch, with a high firm fence of flat stones placed edgeways,
in three rows, each row sloping a little, and all supported by a bank of earth
behind them; between the two upper rows of stones, he has planted quick-
thorns, and on the top of the bank a few young oak and elm trees. The deep
ditch will serve to carry off the water from some drains that are to be made
in a part of the ground which is wet and marshy. These drains are to be
covered with earth; and something must be done to keep them from filling
up. Some people line them with stone, but that is too expensive; and as he
has just clipped some of his hedges, he intends, I believe, to put the
branches of the thorn-bushes into the bottom of the drains, which will also
prevent the sides from falling in.
Springs are formed in the bosom of the earth, my uncle says, by the rain
water which sinks through the surface, and which, gently oozing, or
percolating, as he calls it, through the sand or gravel, or through other
porous strata, continues to descend till it is intercepted by some bed of clay
or rock. No longer being able to descend, it follows the course of this
impassable bed, and if thus conducted to the outside of the ground, lower
down the hill, it forms then a spring. But if prevented by any obstacle from
flowing freely out of the ground, it diffuses itself under the surface, and
produces swamps and marshes. My uncle has been of great use to Franklin,
not only by teaching him how to discover from the form of the ground
where it is most likely to meet with and tap these concealed springs, but by
laying out the drains for him with a levelling instrument, so that they should
have sufficient fall into the main ditch, or into a little rivulet which skirts
his farm. I could not have conceived that science might be made so useful
even in common agriculture.
Franklin is also ploughing a field for wheat—and is going afterwards to
plough up another field that looks all rough and ugly—but which is to be
left unsown the whole winter; he intends to plough it two or three times,
and then in Spring, after it has lain fallow in this way, he will sow it with
barley. Another grand operation is the preparing a piece of ground for an
orchard; my uncle has promised him some nice young fruit-trees for it; and
Franklin, very prudently, brought over some American apple-trees, which
he says are very productive.
The blind basket-maker sometimes walks to the farm with the assistance
of Bessy’s arm; and it is impossible to see the happiness of the whole
family without feeling the strongest interest in their welfare. She now looks

quite blooming and healthy; and she is so industrious that besides her in-
door occupations, she has persuaded her husband to give her an acre of
ground for flax, with which she hopes to do a great deal. This will be a very
uncommon crop in this country, but I am sure, from what my uncle says,
that it will be very profitable.
30th., Sunday.—We had a conversation this morning on the character of
Joseph, which my uncle thinks a fine example of all the Christian virtues.
“If we follow him,” said my uncle, “from his youth to the height of his
preferment, we see him, in every part of his life, virtuous and religious;
patient and courageous under misfortune; modest and temperate in the
greatest success. He suffered injustice from his master who imprisoned him,
though he had been just and faithful; but under this great trial he had the
comfort of knowing that he was innocent. He had the still greater comfort
of confiding in the support of God, who, in his own good time, delivered
him from prison, and permitted him to be raised to a high situation, where
his integrity might be made manifest. Then, if we consider his generous
forbearance towards his brethren, how highly does it raise our admiration of
his truly amiable disposition! When they were in his power—in just
resentment of their former cruelty, he thought it right to mortify and humble
them—but no sooner did he see that they were penitent, than his anger
ceased.—And when he discovered himself to them, with what kindness and
magnanimity he endeavoured to make them less dissatisfied with their
former conduct!
“ ‘Be not grieved nor angry with yourselves, that ye sold me hither; for
God did send me before you to preserve life: to preserve you a posterity in
the earth. So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God.’
“Can any thing be more touching,” added my uncle, “than his generous
anxiety to make his brethren forgive themselves, by shewing the advantages
that were ultimately produced by their conduct to him?”
“There is one thing,” said Wentworth, “that I do not understand—why
does Joseph say there shall be neither earing nor harvest, as if he meant two
separate things?”
“The word earing,” replied my uncle, “sounds as if it meant gathering
ripe ears of corn: but it is an old English term for ploughing, and is used in
that sense in two other parts of scripture.”

“I had imagined,” said Caroline, “that earing was mentioned in that
particular manner, in allusion to some blight, through which the corn should
no longer give such an astonishing produce as seven ears to one stalk.”
“No;” said my uncle, “nor was that an unusual produce. A species of
wheat still grows in Egypt, which generally bears this number of ears, and
the stem is solid, that is, full of pith, in order to support so great a weight.
The stem of our own wheat is, you know, a mere hollow straw. You see how
necessary it is, my dear children, when you do not perfectly understand
what you read or hear, to have courage enough to confess your ignorance,
and to ask for explanation.
“Before we finish the subject of Joseph,” he continued, “I will explain
another small circumstance, of which perhaps Bertha at least may not be
aware. The ancient manner of eating was for each person to have one or
more dishes to himself; they were all first set before the master of the feast,
who distributed to every one his portion; and as a mark of affection for
Benjamin, Joseph sent him five dishes, while he only sent one to each of the
others. In Persia and Arabia, every dish that is set before the master of the
house is divided into as many portions as there are guests, but those of the
greatest rank have by far the largest shares.”
31st.—Mr. R——, a friend of my uncle’s, has been here for a few days,
and has amused us very much.
Yesterday he shewed us a Proteus kind of substance; it had at first a
milky transparency, and reflected a bluish white light, but when we looked
through it, it was yellow. He slightly wetted it, and then it lost all
transparency, appearing like chalk. He immersed it completely in water, and
the edges became more transparent than before, and at the same time a little
gas seemed to escape from it. A small white ball appeared in the centre, but
it gradually diminished in size, and the transparency extended through the
whole mass.
He afterwards put some of this substance into oils of different colours—
the colours it quickly acquired—and when it had completely absorbed the
oil it became transparent, but when partially it was opaque. When steeped in
oil, coloured with alkanet-root, it had quite the tints of the ruby; from a
preparation of copper it imbibed the colour of the emerald; and from some
acid exactly that of a Brazilian topaz. He then shewed us that all these

brilliant colours could be discharged along with the oil, by exposing the
substance to a strong heat.
Fortunately for us, when Mr. R. called here he was on his way home
from London, where he had provided himself with these curiosities, and he
was so good-natured as to unpack some of his treasures for our
gratification.
I was much surprised at these cameleon-like changes; and at last I
learned that this substance is the tabasheer, of which I had read something
before. It is found in the cavities of the bamboo; while the plants are young,
it is fluid, but as they advance in size it hardens. Mr. R. shewed us three
specimens; the first was almost transparent, and so tender, that in carelessly
taking it up, I crushed it. He was so kind as to say it did not signify, as he
had some more; but I determined in future to see without the help of my
fingers, as you have often advised me, dear mamma. The second piece was
harder and more opaque, having only a little transparency at the edges. The
third specimen was perfectly opaque, and looked like a bit of stucco; it was
on this piece that he shewed us the curious experiments I have mentioned.
Mr. R. endeavoured to make us comprehend the causes of all those
changes which have appeared so contradictory. “In the first place,” said he,
“tabasheer is a remarkably porous substance; now if one of the pores be
filled with air, a ray of light in passing through it suffers very little
refraction, and is therefore so little scattered, that the tabasheer appears
transparent, and objects can be partly seen through it. This arises from the
small difference between the refractive power of air and of tabasheer.
Next,” said he, “suppose a very small quantity of water introduced into this
pore, so as not to fill it, but merely to line it with a film; then the light, in
passing through the tabasheer, the film of water, the air within, the film
again, and lastly the tabasheer, is so much scattered by these six refractions,
that the substance appears opaque. But when by complete immersion the
pores are filled with water, the multiplied refractions caused by the films
and the portions of air within, cease, and the light is more freely
transmitted.”
My uncle and Mr. R. talked a long time on the subject, and tried several
other experiments, explaining to us the reasons for each step they took; but
I have said enough to shew you that I endeavoured to understand what they
were doing, and this I am sure will give you pleasure. Indeed the

advantages of being able to comprehend something of the conversation of
such people is so great, that I cannot sufficiently thank you for having given
me a little taste for science. You used to say that there was great danger of
making girls conceited by giving them a smattering of science; but I assure
you that I shall keep a careful watch over myself in that respect; the little
knowledge I have is only a peep-hole through which I see the boundless
stores that I can never hope to possess—and surely this can only make me
more humble.
Nov. 1st.—I had not time yesterday to say any thing of the plant which
produces the tabasheer; and perhaps Marianne might like to have the
particulars that we were told.
It is the bamboo-cane, which is of the same natural order as the grasses;
it grows in both hemispheres, almost anywhere within the tropics, and very
abundantly in the East Indies. The main roots are thick and jointed, and
from these joints spring several stems, which are sometimes eighteen inches
in circumference at the bottom. These stems or culms are round, hollow,
and shining; they grow quite straight, and often to the height of sixty feet;
and they are articulated, or knotted; the knots being about a foot apart, and
each armed with one or two sharp spines. The leaves are narrow, eight or
nine inches long, and supported on short foot stalks; and the flowers grow
in large panicles, three or four together, from the joints of the stem.
The stalks of the bamboo, while young, are filled with a spongy
substance which contains a sweetish milky juice; but they become hollow
as they grow old, except at the joints, where they are crossed by a woody
membrane—such as I believe there is in the knots of all culms. Upon that
membrane the liquor rests, and concretes into the substance called
tabasheer, or sugar of Mombu—which was held in such esteem by the
ancients, that it was valued at its weight in silver. It had long been used as a
medicine all over the east, but was first made known in Europe by Dr.
Russell in 1790.
The young shoots are dark green; and, while tender, make a good pickle;
but the old stalks are of a shining yellow colour, and prodigiously hard and
durable: they are used in buildings, in all the farming tools, and in all sorts
of household furniture. By piercing the joints they are often converted into
water-pipes, and they make excellent poles by which the porters carry
casks, bales, and palanquins. In the island of Java, a sort of palanquin is

formed of bamboos, resembling a small house in shape, and called a dooly.
In short there are few plants which have such a variety of uses.
2nd.—This last summer is said by every one to have been remarkable for
the quantity of seed produced by almost all plants; and acorns were
particularly plentiful. Some were gathered for the purpose of sowing; but an
immense number remained under the oak trees in the lawn, till within these
few days, when they all disappeared, and what fell from the trees in the
course of one day, had vanished before the next. After much puzzling about
what could have become of them, Wentworth discovered that the sheep eat
them; he caught them in the act to-day. He also observed that chaffinches
and other birds eat beech-masts—but I do not wonder at that, for I think
them excellent; and my aunt tells me that on some parts of the continent
they are very much used as food by the poor inhabitants. The oil which is
previously expressed from them is of the finest quality; and in Alsace, as
well as all along the borders of France and Germany, the peasants make a
sort of cake with the remainder.
I saw the jay to-day for the first time; Mary shewed me several of these
pretty birds under a hedge. We watched them for some time, and I actually
saw one raise and depress the bunch of black and white feathers on his
forehead repeatedly; the wing coverts are beautiful. Jays are very
affectionate to their young, who remain with their parents during all the
autumn and winter months, instead of separating early, as most birds do. In
winter they are to be seen continually under high hedges, or on the sunny
side of woods and copses, seeking for acorns, crab-apples, or for the grubs
and worms to be found in fields where cows have pastured. They are timid
and watchful, and feed in silence; but timid as they are, they are very
destructive in summer to the gardens.
The Lumleys, you know, live in a very sequestered part of the forest, and
the jays seem to have established themselves in that undisturbed spot. Miss
Lumley told me that they make great havoc among the beans in June; and
though in general cautious and wary, at that season their boldness is quite
remarkable, and nothing seems to intimidate them. She has frequently seen
one of the parent birds descend from a tree into the bean rows—they soon
announce their discovery by a low but particular scream, and then all the
family hastened to join in the plunder.

Their throat is so wide that they can swallow beans, acorns, and even
chesnuts whole; and it is said they can imitate various sounds, such as the
bleating of a lamb, the hooting of an owl, the mewing of a cat, and even the
neighing of a horse.
They appear to be fond of each other, but to other birds they are very
troublesome, destroying their nests and eggs, and sometimes pouncing on
the young ones, to the great vexation of the Lumleys.
4th.—Those poor travellers, whom more than a month ago I told you
that good Mrs. Ando had so generously taken into her own house, have
been obliged to continue there ever since; and my aunt has two or three
times driven to Newnham to visit them. They have, you know, one little
child, but the man seems to be dying, and his wife, a foreigner, nurses him
with the most tender care. They have told their history to my aunt, and she
has given me leave to relate it to you.
The young woman is a Swiss, her name is Madeleine, and her father was
a merchant of Geneva, where they lived in comfortable affluence till his
wife died. His affliction on this occasion was so violent that he resolved to
quit Geneva for ever, and remove to a city in the south of France, where he
might continue his business; but Madeleine was tired of a town life, and
persuaded her father to give up commerce and retire to a little property he
possessed in the district of Beaufort, in Savoy. She had formed delightful
pictures in her imagination of the occupations of the farm, the vineyard, and
the dairy, and she longed to realise them.
Her indulgent father yielded to her wishes, and they removed from all
the comforts of Geneva to that remote and mountainous district. When they
arrived, and that she saw the change which she had persuaded her father to
make, she felt severe regret for having interfered; and would then have
persuaded him to return, but he had arranged every thing for his residence
in Savoy—he had made his decision, and he would not let it be again
shaken.
His activity in a short time made the house comfortable, and he
employed his time and his money in forming a garden and an extensive
vineyard. The industry which he had devoted to trade, he now directed to
the cultivation of the vine, and his unwearied assiduity was rewarded in a
few years by a profusion of grapes, of which he made excellent wine. Every
thing seemed to prosper, and Madeleine dearly loved a place where they

had conquered so many difficulties, and where they had seen comfort and
plenty rise out of a bare and rocky valley; a place which, with their
endeavours to shelter and beautify it, and with the ornament of a remarkable
group of fine old walnut trees on the hill behind the house, was now quite
picturesque. The poor around them had also reason to like the change, for
many a distressed family were now employed, and many an ignorant child
was taught as well as clothed by Madeleine. But her father had laid out all
his ready money on the vineyard and on a large stock of cattle; so that every
thing depended on the success of his plans.
According to the custom of the country, their cattle were sent every
summer with those of the neighbours, to the fresh air and sweet pasture of
the mountains. They were all intrusted to the care of one person, who
during the season lived on the top of the mountain, in a little wooden hut,
called a chalet. There the milk of the cattle was collected; and in eight days
after the cows had been driven up to the common pasture, the owners
assembled, and the quantity of milk from each cow was weighed. The same
thing was repeated once in the middle of summer; and at the end of the
season the whole quantity of cheese and butter was divided in due
proportion. The cattle were then driven back to the vallies, when there was
a general festival, in which the whole commune joined. All the young
people used to assemble at the chalet on this occasion in their holiday
dresses, decorated with Alpine flowers; and with all the gaiety of youth, and
with songs and dances, they attended the descent of their herds, which were
also decked with ribbons, and bells, and garlands. At intervals the party
sung together the touching song of the Ranz des vaches, or some of the
pretty Savoyard airs.
On the morning of one of these festivals a traveller, who had missed his
way in crossing the mountain, happened to apply at the chalet for
assistance. The youthful crowd were actually setting out—the song which
announced the general movement had already commenced—when seeing
that the traveller was faint and in want of assistance, they stopped and
hastened to relieve him. They gave him such refreshment as they could,
and, unmindful of their own interrupted pleasures, they delayed their march
to give him time to recover. When he was sufficiently revived by their
hospitality, he accompanied the gay party to the village; and, charmed by
their simple manners, he joined as well as he could in their happy and
innocent festivity.

The traveller was an English officer, who had been wounded. He was
then enjoying the bracing air and wild scenery of Savoy; and though he
intended to winter in Italy, he wished to loiter a little longer among the
glens and mountains of this picturesque country. Madeleine’s father was
interested by his appearance of ill health, and pleased by the manner in
which he expressed his gratitude for the kindness he had received, and
therefore invited him, whenever his wanderings should lead him that way,
to take up his quarters at Beaufort. He came more than once in the course of
the autumn, and was always welcomed with warmth and hospitality by the
good old Swiss and Madeleine.
At length he bade them adieu, and pursued his way to Italy, leaving them
in happiness and prosperity. At the end of two years he again returned, and
found them sunk into poverty and misery. The overflowing of the Doron,
early in spring, had caused universal destruction in the valley: houses,
gardens, and vineyards were swept away, and even the cattle, which were to
have gone in a few weeks to the hills, were included in the general ruin. All
was gone—a few hours had reduced these amiable people from affluence to
absolute want. He who had been master there—whose active head and
industrious hands had planned so well and executed so much, was now the
passive object of his daughter’s cares. The shock had irreparably injured his
mind, for he had spent his whole fortune in making this place for her, and
he had now the melancholy consciousness that both were beggars. But
Madeleine’s energy rose above misfortune. She turned her whole thoughts
to the comforts of her father and the means of procuring them; and she
earnestly prayed for the blessing of Heaven on her exertions.
As soon as they were settled in a very small cottage in the
neighbourhood, she determined again to try the cultivation of the vine—but
considerably higher on the side of the hill—so as to be secure from a
second inundation. She intended to have laboured at this new plantation
herself, with the assistance of one old and attached servant, but numbers of
people from the neighbouring villages, who loved her and were grateful to
her, insisted on being allowed to help. It is a common custom in
Switzerland to plant vines on very steep hills, with alternate rows of dry
stone walls, to preserve the soil about the plants; and Madeleine resolved to
accomplish such a vineyard. By the assistance of these good-natured
people, a small plantation was made: while some were digging, others built
the little walls; and Madeleine herself guided the donkies which were laden

with earth to make a sufficient soil, or with her own hands disposed it round
each vine plant, and dressed the whole.
Though the vineyard was small, she hoped to derive an additional
benefit from it for her father, by planting a few useful vegetables, which
might perhaps interest him in his favourite occupation of gardening. But
when she tried to rouse his mind to this, he only wept at the loss of their
former pretty garden, for which they had both done so much.
The group of walnut-trees still remained; and, fortunately, they bore
remarkably well. The gathering of the fruit and the pressure of the oil is one
of the most important occupations of the Savoyards, and Madeleine was
again assisted by her kind neighbours. The walnut harvest commences
about September; the fruit is beaten off the trees with long poles, and the
green husks are taken off as soon as they begin to decay; the walnuts are
then laid in a chamber to dry, where they remain till the end of Autumn,
when the process of making the oil commences. The first operation is of
course to take out the kernel, and for this the neighbouring peasantry
collect. They are usually placed round a long table; a man at each end of it
cracks the nuts with a mallet, by hitting them on the point; and as fast as
they are cracked they are distributed to the persons round the table, who
take out the kernels and remove the inner part. The Savoyards are so lively,
that this employment is in general accompanied by songs and various
amusements. The day that Bertram, their English friend, returned,
Madeleine was thus occupied; while her poor old father, placed in a chair
beside her, was gazing vacantly at what they were doing.
Though changed so much in circumstances, she did not appear dejected
—she had not sunk into despair, and though her countenance, as he told my
aunt, no longer expressed gaiety, yet even in her tears she had the smile of
hope and cheerfulness. He had always esteemed her, and was now so
charmed by her various merits, and so anxious to assist and protect her, that
he persuaded her to accept his hand. He wrote to his father, who is a
clergyman in Wales; he obtained his consent, and for a few years lived
happily with Madeleine in her cottage, enjoying those pleasures that follow
laborious industry, and taking part in all the tender cares she bestowed on
her poor father. His half-pay added to their comforts, but still he was
obliged to work—to labour sometimes for the pleasure of making
Madeleine’s father comfortable at the close of his life, and he was rewarded
by the success of their exertions.

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Management 12th Edition Griffin Solutions Manual

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