Mapuche indians

Mapuche Indians
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of present-day
Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and
economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their influence once extended from the Aconcagua
River to the Chiloé Archipelago and spread later eastward to the Argentine pampa. Today the collective group makes up 80% of the indigenous
peoples in Chile, and about 9% of the total Chilean population They are particularly concentrated in Araucanía. Many have migrated to the
Santiago area for economic opportunities. The term Mapuche is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche (people of the north), Huilliche
(people of the South) and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía.
The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction
of a lonko or chief. In times of war, they would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe, axe-bearer") to lead them. They are
known for the textiles woven by women, which have been goods for trade for centuries, since before European encounter. The Araucanian
Mapuche inhabited at the time of Spanish arrival the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers. South of it, the Huilliche and the Cunco lived
as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago. In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and pampas,
fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche. At about the same time, ethnic groups of the pampa regions, the Puelche,
Ranquel and northern Aonikenk, made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted the Mapuche language and some of their culture,
in what came to be called Araucanization. Historically the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to the Mapuche people as Araucanians
(araucanos). However, this term is now mostly considered pejorative by some people. The name was likely derived from the placename rag ko
(Spanish Arauco), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa, meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano. Some
Mapuche mingled with Spanish during colonial times, and their descendants make up the large group of mestizos in Chile. But, Mapuche
society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until the Chilean Occupation of Araucanía and the Argentine Conquest of the Desert
in the late 19th century. Since then Mapuches have become subjects, and then nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many
Mapuche and Mapuche communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and in
Chile.
Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader)
Toqui (Mapudungun for axe or axe-bearer) is a title conferred by the Mapuche (an indigenous Chilean people) on those chosen as leaders
during times of war. The toqui is chosen in an assembly or parliament (coyag) of the chieftains (loncos) of various clans (Rehues) or
confederation of clans (Aillarehues), allied during the war at hand. The toqui commanded strict obedience of all the warriors and their loncos
during the war, would organize them into units and appoint leaders over them. This command would continue until the toqui was killed,
abdicated (Cayancaru), was deposed in another parliament (as in the case of Lincoyan, for poor leadership), or upon completion of the war for
which he was chosen. Some of the more famous Toqui in the Arauco War with the Spanish introduced tactical innovations. For example Lautaro
introduced infantry tactics to defeat horsemen. Lemucaguin was the first Toqui to use firearms and artillery in battle. Nongoniel was the first
Toqui to use cavalry with the Mapuche army. Cadeguala was the first to successfully use Mapuche cavalry to defeat Spanish cavalry in battle.
Anganamón was the first to mount his infantry to keep up with his fast-moving cavalry. Lientur pioneered the tactic of numerous and rapid
malóns into Spanish territory. The greatest of the Toqui was the older Paillamachu, who developed the strategy, patiently organized and trained
his forces and then with his two younger Vice Toqui, Pelantaro and Millacolquin, carried out the Great Revolt of 1598-1604 which finally
expelled the Spanish from Araucania.
List of Mapuche Toquis (Leaders)
Kurillanka was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Mapuche people of Chile and the Inca Empire of Peru in what is now the Maule River, Chile.
Warakulen was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Lonkomilla was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Futahuewas the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the Mapuche
people of Chile and the Inca Empire of Peru in what is now the Maule River, Chile.
Yankinao was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the late 15th century who was involded in the Battle of the Maule between the
Malloquete was Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) that led an army of Moluche from the region north of the Bio Bio River against Pedro de
Valdivia in the 1546 Battle of Quilacura.
Ainavillo, Aynabillo, Aillavilu or Aillavilú, (in Mapudungun, ailla, nine and filu, snake) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) of the
Mapuche army from the provinces of "Ñuble, Itata, Renoguelen, Guachimavida, Marcande, Gualqui, Penco and Talcaguano." They tried to stop
Pedro de Valdivia from invading their lands in 1550. He led about twenty thousand warriors in the surprise night attack on Valdivia's camp in
the Battle of Andalien. After his defeat in that battle he gathered more warriors from the allied regions of Arauco and Tucapel, south of the Bio-
Bio River, for an attack on Valdivia's newly constructed fort of Concepcion at what is now Penco. Leading an army of sixty thousand warriors in
three divisions against the fort in the Battle of Penco. Ainavillo's command that had been previously defeated at Andalien, was recognized by the

Spaniards and Valdivia picked it out for a vigorous charge by all their cavalry following a softening up by volleys of their firearms. It was
broken at the first onslaught and fled with the Spanish in pursuit, followed by the retreat of the other two divisions of the Mapuche upon seeing
the spectacle.
Lincoyan (c. 1519 Arauco - 1560 Cañete) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) that succeeded Ainavillo in 1550 after the defeat at the
Battle of Penco and reigned unril 1553. He tried to stop Pedro de Valdivia from invading and establishing fortresses and cities in their lands
between 1551 and 1553 at the beginning of the Arauco War with no success. In 1551 he attacked Valdivia on the banks of the Andalien, but the
neighboring fort resisted his assaults. During part of that year and in 1552 he continued fighting against Valdivia along Cauten River. In 1553,
he was replaced by Caupolicán, but he was given the command of a division. In this year he took part in the capture of the fortresses of Arauco
and Tucapel. Soon after this battle he defeated a strong Spanish force that came to protect Imperial. He followed Caupolicán in all his victories
and in all his battles until the death of that chief in 1558. Afterward he continued the war against the Spaniards until he was killed in the Battle
of Cañete.
Caupolicán (died 1558 in Cañete) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader), who commanded their army during the first
Mapuche rising against the Spanish conquistadors from 1553 until his death in 1558. Following the successful campaign of
conquest by Pedro de Valdivia in Araucanía and the failure of the toqui Lincoyan to stop them, the Mapuche were persuaded
by Colocolo to choose a new supreme war leader in response to the Spanish threat. Caupolicán as an Ulmen of Pilmayquen
won the position of Toqui by demonstrating his superior strength by holding up a tree trunk for three days and three nights.
In addition to proving his physical power, he also had to improvise a poetical speech to inspire the people to valor and unity.
Caupolicán's death came in 1558, at the hands of colonizing Spaniards as their prisoner. He was impaled by making him sit
on a stake while his wife was forced to watch. After his death he was replaced by his son Caupolicán the younger.
Caupolicán the Younger(died 1858) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1558. According to Juan Ignacio Molina was the son of
the toqui Caupolicán. He was made toqui following the capture and execution of his father in 1558. He continued the first Mapuche rising
against the Spanish conquistadors in 1558 and commaned the Mapuche army in constructing a pukara at Quiapo to block García Hurtado de
Mendoza from rebuilding a fort in Arauco completing the chain of forts for suppression of their rebellion. In the Battle of Quiapo the Mapuche
suffered a terrible defeat and there Caupolicán the younger died. His successor as toqui was Illangulién. The earlier historian Diego de Rosales
says the toqui that led at Quiapo was Lemucaguin.
Lautaro (Mapudungun: Lef-Traru "swift hawk") (1534-April 29, 1557) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1553
until his death on April 29, 1577 who achieved notoriety for leading the indigenous resistance against Spanish conquest in
Chile. Lautaro begun his career as a captive of Pedro de Valdivia but escaped in 1551. Back among his people he was declared
toqui and led Mapuche warriors into a series of victories against the Spanish culminating in the Battle of Tucapel in
December 1553 where Pedro de Valdivia was killed. The outbreak of a typhus plague, a drought and a famine prevented the
Mapuches from taking further actions to expel the Spanish in 1554 and 1555. Between 1556 and 1557 a small group of
Mapuches commanded by Lautaro attempted to reach Santiago to liberate the whole of Central Chile from Spanish rule.
Lautaros attempts ended in 1557 when he was killed in an ambush by the Spanish. Today Lautaro is revered among Mapuches and non-
Mapuche Chileans for his resistance against foreign conquest, servitude and cruelty. Lautaro was the son of a Mapuche lonko (a chief who holds
office during peacetime). He is thought to have been born in 1534. In 1546, he was captured by some Spanish colonizers. He became the
personal servant of Don Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish conqueror of Chile and then its captain general. Lautaro learned the military ways and skills
of the Spaniards' army by observation. He was witness to atrocities committed by the Spanish on captive Mapuche warriors. According to the
Chilean novelist Isabel Allende in her historical novel, Inés del Alma Mía, the boy Lautaro had deliberately allowed himself to be captured by
the Spanish in order to learn their secrets, and made no attempt to escape until he felt he had learned enough. In any case, he fled twice, first in
1550 and for good in 1552. In 1553 (the year Lautaro turned 19), the Mapuches convened to decide how to respond to the Spanish invasion. The
convention decided upon war. The toqui Caupolicán chose Lautaro as vice toqui because he had served as a page in the Spanish cavalry, and
thereby possessed knowledge of how to defeat the mounted conquistadors. Lautaro introduced use of horses to the Mapuche[citation needed]
and designed better combat tactics. He organized a large, cohesive army a military formation unfamiliar to the Mapuche. With 6,000 warriors
under his command, Lautaro attacked Fort Tucapel. The Spanish garrison couldn't withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized
the fort, sure that the Spaniards would attempt to retake it. That is exactly what Governor Valdivia tried to do with a reduced force, which was
quickly surrounded and massacred by the Mapuches on Christmas Day, 1553. The Battle of Tucapel would be Pedro de Valdivia's last, as he was
captured and then killed. After the defeat at Tucapel, the Spanish hastily reorganized their forces, reinforcing the defenses of Fort Imperial and
abandoning the settlements of Confines and Arauco in order to strengthen Concepción. However, Mapuche tradition dictated a lengthy victory
celebration, which kept Lautaro from realizing his desire to pursue the military advantage he had just gained. It was only in February 1554 that
he succeeded in putting together an army of 8,000 men, just in time to confront a punitive expedition under the command of Francisco de
Villagra. Lautaro chose the hill of Marihueñu to fight the Spanish. He organized his forces in four divisions: two charged with containing and
wearing down the enemy, a third held in reserve to launch a fresh attack as the Spanish were about to crumble, and the last charged with
cutting off their retreat. Additionally, a small group was sent to destroy the reed bridge the Spanish had erected across the Bío-Bío River, which
would further disrupt any attempted retreat of Villagra. The Spanish attack broke the first Mapuche lines, but the quick response of the third
division maintained the Mapuche position. Later, the wings of this division began to attack the Spanish flanks, and the fourth division attacked
from behind. After hours of battle, only a small group of Spanish managed to retreat. Despite this fresh victory, Lautaro was again unable to
pursue the opportunity due to the celebrations and beliefs of his people. By the time he arrived at Concepción, it was already abandoned. He
burned it, but his remaining forces were insufficient to continue the offensive, so the campaign came to an end. In Santiago, Villagra
reorganized his forces, and that same year of 1554, he departed again for Arauco and reinforced the strongholds of Imperial and Valdivia,
without any interference from the Mapuches, who were dealing with their first epidemic of smallpox, which had been brought by the Spanish.
In 1555, the Real Audiencia in Lima ordered him to reconstruct Concepción, which was done under the command of Captain Alvarado. Upon
learning of this, Lautaro successfully besieged Concepción with 4,000 warriors. Only 38 Spaniards managed to escape by sea the second
destruction of the city. After the second rout at Concepción, Lautaro desired to attack Santiago. He found scant support for this plan from his
troops, who soon dwindled to only 600, but he carried on. In October 1556 his northward march reached the Mataquito River, where he
established a fortified camp at Peteroa. In the Battle of Peteroa he repulsed attacking Spanish forces under the command of Diego Cano, and

later held off the larger force commanded by Pedro de Villagra. Being advised that still more Spaniards were approaching, Lautaro retreated
towards the Maule River. With the Spaniards in hot pursuit he was forced to retire beyond the Itata River. From there he launched another
campaign towards Santiago when Villagra's army passed him by on the way to the save the remaining Spanish settlements in Araucanía.
Lautaro had chosen to give Villagra's force the slip and head for the city to attack it. Despite the Mapuches' stealth, the city's leaders learned of
the advance and sent a small expedition to thwart it, buying time for word to be sent to Villagra to return to the city from the south. The
Spanish forces met in the field, and from a member of the local ethnos, the Picunche, they learned the disposition of Lautaro's camp. At dawn,
on April 29, 1557 the conquistadors launched a surprise attack from the hills of Caune, obtaining a decisive victory in the Battle of Mataquito in
which Lautaro was killed early in the fighting. After the defeat of his army, his head was cut off and displayed in the plaza of Santiago. Alonso
de Ercilla, an officer in the Spanish forces during the Araucanian war (and as it happened, only one year older than Lautaro), in the following
decade composed the masterpiece of Spanish literature, the historical epic poem, La Araucana, which became a major literary work about the
Spanish conquest of America. Ercilla made Lautaro its protagonist. Lautaro has come to be acclaimed by Chileans as the first Chilean general
for his revolutionary strategies and his achievements in uniting the dispersed Mapuche people. He inflicted many crushing defeats on Spanish
armies armed with lances, muskets and horses even though his own army was armed with only spears and axes. His name was used by Francisco
de Miranda when he founded the Logia Lautaro (Lautaro Lodge), a Latin American independence society of the end of 18th century and the
beginning of the 19th century. In the 20th century, Chilean author Pablo Neruda, the future Nobel Literature Prize laureate, wrote a poem
about him.
Turcupichun (died 1558) was the Mapuche Aillarehues Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the vicinity of Concepcion, Chile and the Bio-Bio River
valley from 1557 until his death in 1558. García Hurtado de Mendoza landed in early June 1557 on the island of La Quiriquina at the mouth of
the bay of San Pedro. Soon afterward he sent out messengers to the local Aillarehues to come and submit to the Spanish. Turcupichun gathered
them in a great coyag where he advocated resistance to the death and elected him as their toqui replacing the dead Lautaro. Turcupichun led
his army to build a pucara on the height of Andalicán five leagues south of Concepcion covering the approach down the coast to Arauco and
posted detachments to cover the crossing points on the Bio Bio River. Governor Mendoza deceived him by having a detachment build rafts at
one of these crossing points but using the boats of his fleet to carry his army across at the mouth of the river. Turcupichun then engaged and
was defeated by the army of Mendoza in the Battle of Lagunillas. Following this defeat his army fell back and joined with Caupolicán to fight in
the Battle of Millarapue. Following the battle Turcupichun was blamed by Caupolican, for the defeat when his third division marching to attack
the Spanish rear did not arrive in time. Angry at the accusation he withdrew to defend his own lands. Following the execution of Caupolican,
Turcupichun attempted to organize a new revolt and an attack on Concepcion, but the Spanish Corregidor of the city, Gerónimo de Villegas
discovered his attempt and sent Juan Galiano with some soldiers to attack him first. Moving to where he was lodged at night Galiano captured
him and some of his companions and returned with them to the city where he was hung in the plaza. After his death his army elected
Lemucaguin as his successor.
Lemucaguin (died 1558) was the Mapuche Aillarehues Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the vicinity of Concepcion, Chile and the Bio-Bio River
valley in 1558. He was a native of Andalicán was the successor to Turcupichun as toqui of the Moluche Butalmapu north of the Biobío River in
1558. He organized a detachment of arquebusiers from weapons captured in the Battle of Marihueñu. He continued the war against García
Hurtado de Mendoza after the executions of Caupolican and Turcupichun. Establishing pucaras at Quiapo and other locations to block Spanish
access to the Arauco region. He was the first toqui to use firearms and artillery in the Battle of Quiapo. However he was killed in this battle and
was replaced by Illangulién. The later historian, Juan Ignacio Molina, calls the toqui that led at Quiapo Caupolicán the younger, son the
executed toqui Caupolican.
Illangulién, Quiromanite, Queupulien or Antiguenu (died 1564) was Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected to replace Lemucaguin or
Caupolicán the younger in 1559 following the Battle of Quiapo to his death in battle in the Battle of Angol in 1564. After the campaign of
García Hurtado de Mendoza that culminated in the Battle of Quiapo, many of the Mapuche warriors were dead or wounded and the population
had been decimated by the effects of war, starvation and epidemic disease. Elected to by the remaining leaders shortly after the battle of Quiapo,
Illangulién decided to let the nation offer apparent submission to the Spanish while he and a few warriors secretly retreated into the marshes of
Lumaco. There they constructed a base where they would gather their strength and train a new generation of warriors for a future revolt. After
the murder of the hated encomendero Pedro de Avendaño in July 1561 triggered a new general rising of the Mapuche greater than the previous
ones. Illangulién after several years of hiding his activities in the swamps began to lead his forces out on raids on Spanish territory to season his
newly trained warriors and live off the lands of their enemy. His forces clashed with those of the Spanish Governor Francisco de Villagra and
defeated them several times in the next few years. After the death of Francisco de Villagra they fought the forces of his successor Pedro de
Villagra around the city of San Andrés de Los Infantes. During the Battle of Angol in a series of moves and counter moves between Illangulién
and the garrison commander Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado, the Toqui was able to blockade the town from impregnable fortresses as he moved
his blockade closer and closer to the town. At last the garrison commander was able to catch a detachment of his opponents army in an
awkward position along the bank of a nearby river and by driving them over a steep slope into the river killed over a thousand of them
including the toqui Illangulien in 1564.
Millalelmo or Millarelmo (died 1570) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the second great Mapuche rebellion that began in 1561
during the Arauco War. Probably the toqui of the Arauco region, he commanded the Mapuche army of that area at the siege of Arauco from
May 20 to June 30, 1562. Later in 1563, he led his army to defeat Captain Juan Perez de Zurita at a crossing of the Andalién River near
Concepcion. This cut off reinforcements to the city of Concepcion and led to the 1564 Siege of Concepcion in cooperation with the Mapuche
forces from north of the Bio Bio River under the vice toqui Loble. In 1566, Millalemo led the attack on the recently rebuilt Cañete. In 1569, he
was a leader under Llanganabal in the Battle of Catirai. He is said to have died in 1570 and ordered his body to be burned, so that he might rise
up into the clouds and keep up the war against the dead Spaniards whom he expected to find there.
'Loble, also known as Lig-lemu or Lillemu (died around 1565) was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of the Moluche north of the Bio-
Bio River from 1563 until his death around 1565 who led the second Mapuche revolt during the Arauco War. After a brief fight Loble defeated
the troops of captain Francisco de Vaca in the Itata River valley who were coming with reinforcements from Santiago. After Millalelmo
ambushed Spanish reinforcements coming from Angol under Juan Perez de Zurita, at a crossing of the Andalién River the Mapuche had cut off
the city and garrison of Concepcion from outside aid by land. Millalelmu and Loble besieged Concepcion with 20,000 warriors in February 1564.
The siege lasted until at the end of March two ships arrived bringing food that would permit the siege to continue for a much longer time. On

the other side the Mapuche had used up local sources of food and were finding it difficult to maintain their large force. With the harvest season
coming and with the news of their defeat in the Battle of Angol they were nervous that their families might starve or their undefended homes
might be attacked from Angol or Santiago. They raised their siege on April 1, and dispersed to their homes for the winter. The governor Pedro
de Villagra left Santiago in mid January 1565 with 150 Spaniards and 800 Indian auxiliaries and marched south to the Maule River. During the
seven months Villagra was in Santiago, Loble had built a strong pucara on the Perquilauquén River, blocking the road south to Concepcion and
in the Second Battle of Reinohuelén Villagra rapidly took it and destroyed the Mapuche army holding it. Soon afterward as Loble was bringing
up reinforcements but unaware of the defeat of his army he was ambushed, defeated and captured. In the next few months Villagra brought an
end to the Mapuche revolt north of the Bio-Bio.
Paillataru (died 1574) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1564 until his death in 1574. He succeaded Illangulién in 1564 following
his death in the Battle of Angol. Paillataru was said to be the brother or cousin of Lautaro. During the first years of his command he led raids
from time to time to ravage and plunder the possessions of the Spaniards, always avoiding a decisive conflict. In 1565, Paillataru with a body of
troops harassed the neighborhood of the city of Cañete. The Real Audiencia of Chile that had taken control of the government of Chile,
attempted to make peace with Paillataru. He conducted negotiations but with the aim to delay the conflict not end it. During the negotiations
Paillataru took the opportunity to build a pukara in a naturally strong position within two leagues of Cañete. When it became known in
Concepción of Paillataru's activity, the court lost their hopes for peace, and appointed captain Martin Ruiz de Gamboa to head an army of 100
Spaniards and 200 Indian auxiliaries with Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado as his Maestro de Campo. Gamboa's force stormed the fortress and after a
long fight captured it after setting it afire, and dispersed Paillataru's army killing 200 of them and capturing some others. Following the battle
Pedro Cortez with a party of cazadores harassed the country immediately around the city so well that for a long time the Mapuche could not
gather to conduct operations of significance. In 1568 Paillataru had collected a new army and occupied the heights of Catirai. Immediately, the
new governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia marched against the toqui with three hundred Spanish soldiers and a large number of Indian
auxiliaries. There Paillataru gave the Spaniards a defeat and the governor escaped with the remnant of his troops to Angol, where he resigned
the command of the army, appointing Gamboa as its general. Intimidated by his defeat, he ordered Gamboa to evacuate the fortress of Arauco,
leaving large numbers of horses to be captured by the Mapuche. Paillataru, who had moved from Catirai to destroy the Spanish fort at Quiapo,
marched afterward against Canete, which he attempted to besiege. However Gamboa advanced to meet him with all the troops he could raise
and in a long bloody battle compelled Paillataru to retreat. Gamboa followed up by invading Araucanian territory, intending to ravage it as they
had before but Paillataru with fresh levies returned and compelled Gamboa to retreat. Paillataru was succeeded on his death by the toqui
Paineñamcu the Mapuche name of the mestizo Alonzo Diaz.
Llanganabal was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) who led the Mapuche army that defeated the Spanish led by Martín Ruiz de Gamboa
in the Battle of Catirai in 1569. In 1560 Llanganabal is listed as one of the caciques heading an encomienda along the Bio Bio River. Shortly after
began the outbreak of the 1561 Mapuche revolt. By 1569 Llanganabal had risen to command the Araucan army with Millalelmo and other
captains as his subordinates. To resist the Spanish who had been burning the fields and houses on the south bank of the Bio Bio, Millalelmo had
built a strong fortress on a hill in Catirai in a difficult position on steep wooded slopes. Despite the warnings of Lorenzo Bernal del Mercado who
had reconoitered the position, Spaniards new to Chile and the Arauco War prevailed on Governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia to order Martín
Ruiz de Gamboa to take his command and attack the place. Meanwhile Llanganabal had gathered all his army there to resist the attack.
Gamboa's force was badly defeated while attempting to attack up the steep thickly wooded hill into Llanganabal's fortified position.
Pailacar or Paylacar was a Mapuche Toqui (Military Leader) of Purén, who led a force of 2000 warriors in the defeat of the Spanish army of
Don Miguel Avendaño de Velasco in the Battle of Purén in September 1570.
Paineñamcu or Paynenancu or Alonso Diaz (died 1584) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1574 until his death in 1584. Alonso
Diaz was a mestizo Spanish soldier offended because the Governor of Chile did not promote him to the officer rank of alféres, who subsequently
went over to the Mapuche in 1572. He took the Mapuche name of Paineñamcu and because of his military skills was elected toqui in 1574
following the death of Paillataru. He was captured in battle in 1584 and saved his life when he betrayed to his captors the location of a renegade
Spaniard and a mulato that were leaders in the Mapuche army. He was executed later that same year in Santiago, Chile when the Spanish
believed he was communicating with the rebellious Mapuche. Cayancaru succeeded him as toqui after his capture.
Cayancura or Cayeucura was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1584 until 1585. He was the Mapuche native to the region of
Marigüenu, chosen as toqui (leader) in 1584, to replace the captured Paineñamcu. His one great operation was an attempted siege of the fort at
Arauco that failed, leading to his abdication of his office in favor of his son Nangoniel in 1585.
Nangoniel was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1585, and son of the previous toqui Cayancaru. He was the first Toqui to use cavalry
with the Mapuche army. Following the failure of his siege of Arauco, Cayancura, retired, leaving the command of the army to his son
Nangoniel. He collected some infantry, and a hundred and fifty horse, which from then on began to be part of Mapuche armies. Nangoniel
returned to invest the Arauco fortress again, and with his cavalry it became so closely invested, that the Spaniards were unable to supply it and
were forced to evacuate it. Following this success he moved against the fort of Santísima Trinidad which protected the passage of Spnish
supplies via the Bio-bio River but clashed with a division of Spanish troops, under Francisco Hernández, where he lost an arm and had other
dangerous wounds. He retreated to a neighbouring mountain, where he was ambushed by a Spanish force and slain with 50 of his soldiers. The
same day Cadeguala was proclaimed Toqui by the Mapuche army.
Cadeguala or Cadiguala (died 1586) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1585 following the death in battle of the
previous toqui Nangoniel. Cadeguala was a noted warrior and the first Mapuche toqui known to have used cavalry successfully in battle. He was
killed in a duel with the garrison commander of the Spanish fort at Purén in 1586. While very young he entered the Mapuche army as a private,
although he was a nobleman, and gradually won promotion to the grade of general. The toqui, Cayancaru, gave him command of a strong
army to attack the city of Angol, which he did without success, but then marched to the city of Arauco, besieged and entered it. Afterward he
intended to attack Fort Trinidad, this fortress commanding the passage from Bio-bio River, but a body of Spanish troops under Francisco
Hernandez came out and defeated Cadeguala, who lost an arm and was otherwise severely wounded. This forced him to retire to the mountains.
He was followed thither by the lieutenant-governor of Chili, who attempted an ambush, only to be discovered, defeated, and killed, with 50 of
his men, November 14, 1586. On the same day Cadeguala was elected toqui by acclamation. Following his election, Cadeguala began operations

against the Spanish and then attacked Angol breaking into the city with the aid of sympathetic Indians that set fires within the town. However
the arrival of the governor Alonso de Sotomayor inspired a counterattack by the residents that had fled to the citadel driving the Mapuche back
out of the town. Deprived of success there he followed with a siege of the Spanish fort at Purén the following year with 4,000 warriors. After
driving off a relief force led by Governor Sotomayor with his 150 lancers he offered the garrison a chance to withdraw or join his army which
was refused by all but one. He next challenged the commander of the fort, Alonso García de Ramón, to single combat to decide the fate of the
fortress. The two leaders fought on horseback with lances, and Cadeguala fell, killed by his opponent's weapon in the first tilt. Even when dying,
the Mapuche warrior would not admit defeat, and tried in vain to mount his horse again. His army raised the siege but after electing Guanoalca
as toqui returned to successfully drive the poorly supplied Spanish from Purén.
Guanoalca(or Huenualca) (died 1590) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1586 following the death in battle of the
previous toqui, Cadeguala, killed in a duel with the garrison commander of the Spanish fort at Purén in 1586 and ruled until his death in 1590.
He returned to continue the siege and forced the Spanish to evacuate the fort, which he then destroyed. He then directed his army against the
Spanish fort newly built on the heights of Marihueñu but finding it too strongly held to attack he diverted his attacks against the newly
established fort of Espíritu Santo, in the valley of Catirai where the Tavolevo River meets the Bio Bio River and the fort of Santísima Trinidad on
the opposite shore. The governor Alonso de Sotomayor, evacuated Trinidad in 1591. While he was toqui in the south near Villa Rica, the female
leader Janequeo led Mapuche and Pehuenche warriors against the Spanish. The old toqui Guanoalca died at the end of 1590, and in 1591,
Quintuguenu was his successor.
Quintuguenu (died 1591) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in the Arauco War elected in 1591 following the death of the old toqui
Guanoalca. He was killed in battle the same year. Paillaeco was elected as his successor in 1592.
Paillaeco (died 1592) was the was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1592 in place of Quintuguenu after his defeat and death. He did not
think his forces were now sufficient to oppose the Spanish in the open field and decided to draw them into an ambush. The Spanish turned the
tables on them drawing his army out of their ambush and destroyed it killing Paillaeco. Paillamachu was elected to succeed him later the same
year 1592.
Paillamachu (died 1604), was the Mapuche toqui (leader) from 1592 until his death in 1604. Paillamachu replaced the slain Paillaeco, then
organized and carried out the great revolt of 1598 that expelled the Spanish from Araucanía south of the Bío Bío River. He was succeaded upon
his death by Huenecura in 1604.
Pelantaro or Pelantarú (from the Mapuche pelontraru or "Shining Caracara") was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Paillamachu,
the toqui or military leader of the Mapuche people during the Mapuche uprising in 1598. Pelantaro and his lieutenants Anganamon and
Guaiquimilla were credited with the death of the second Spanish Governor of Chile, Martín García Óñez de Loyola, during the Battle of
Curalaba on December 21, 1598. This disaster provoked a general rising of the Mapuche and the other indigenous people associated with them.
They succeeded in destroying all of the Spanish settlements south of the Bio-bio River and some to the north of it (Santa Cruz de Oñez and San
Bartolomé de Chillán in 1599). After this disaster, the following Governor, Alonso de Ribera, fixed a border and took the suggestions of the
Jesuit Luis de Valdivia to fight a defensive war. At one point, Pelantaro had both the heads of Pedro de Valdivia and Martín Óñez de Loyola and
used them as trophies and containers for chicha, a kind of alcohol. As a demonstration of peaceful intentions, he gave them up in 1608.
Pelantaro was captured in 1616 and held for a year and a half until after the death of the governor Alonso de Ribera. He was released by his
successor Fernando Talaverano Gallegos in a vain attempt to establish a peace with the Mapuche.
Millacolquin was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Paillamachu, the toqui or military leader of the Mapuche people during the
Mapuche uprising in 1598.
Huenecura or Huenencura was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1604 until 1610. He replaced Paillamachu who died in 1603. He
was replaced by Aillavilu in 1610.
Aillavilu, Aillavilú II, Aillavilu Segundo was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1610 until 1612.
Anganamón, also known as Ancanamon or Ancanamun, was a prominent war leader of the Mapuche during the late sixteenth and early
seventeenth centuries and Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1612 until 1613. Anganamón was known for his tactical innovation of
mounting his infantry to keep up with his cavalry. Anganamón is said to have participated in the Disaster of Curalaba on December 23 of 1598,
which killed the Governor of Chile Martín García Oñez de Loyola. In April 1599 he led the attack on Boroa near La Imperial, where six Spanish
soldiers and indigenous auxiliaries were killed. With Pelantaro and Aillavilú he fought a pitched battle with the troops of Governor Alonso
García de Ramón in late 1609. Ramón was victorious but not without great effort. Within two years a new Spanish policy prevailed "Defensive
War" inspired by the Jesuit Luis de Valdivia who believed it was a way to end the interminable war with the Mapuche. The Toqui at that time was
Anganamón. Valdivia's bid to end the war with the Mapuche foundered following the Martyrdom of Elicura in December 1612, an event in
which the spears of Anganamón's men killed priests Horacio Vechi and Diego de Montalvan, Valdivia's emissaries to the Mapuche, in an act of
revenge when the Spanish did not return his two wives and two daughters that had escaped to Spanish territory.
Loncothegua was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1613 until 1620.
Lientur was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1618 until 1625. He was the successor to Loncothegua. Lientur with his vice toqui
Levipillan was famed for his rapid malóns or raids. Because of his ability to slip back and forth over the Spanish border between its fortresses
and patrols and raid deep into Spanish territory north of the Bio-Bio River without losses he was called the Wizard by the Spanish. In 1625 his
successor Butapichón was elected when he resigned his office when he felt himself to be too old and tired to continue as before. However a
cacique named Lientur continued to lead troops in the field. He was present leading troops at the Battle of Las Cangrejeras. A cacique of that
name also participated in the Parliament of Quillin in 1641.

Levipillan was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) of Lientur, Toqui (leader) from 1618 until 1625.
Butapichón or Butapichún or Putapichon was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1625 until 1631, as successor to Lientur. After the
death of Quepuantú in 1632 he became toqui once again from 1632 to 1634. Butapichón as toqui lead the Mapuche in successful malones and
battles against Spanish forces. On January 24, 1630 he managed to ambush the Maestro de Campo Alonso de Córdoba y Figueroa in Pilcohué.
After Quepuantú succeaded him as Toqui the two fought the Spanish led by the very competent Governor Francisco Laso de la Vega who finally
defeated them in the pitched battle of La Albarrada on January 13, 1631. Thereafter he refused to engage in open battles against Laso de la
Vega, reverting to the Malón strategy of Lientur. The toqui Huenucalquin succeeded Butapichón.
Quepuantú (died 1632) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) 1631 until his death in 1632. He was known for his leadership in the Arauco
War and succeaded Butapichón in commanded the Mapuche army against the Spanish as Toqui, from 1631 to 1632. On January 13, 1631 he
commanded the Mapuche army with Butapichón against Spanish forces led by the very competent Governor Francisco Laso de la Vega who
defeated them in the pitched battle of La Albarrada. He died in 1632 in a duel with the cacique Loncomilla his rival for dominance in the
command of his tribe. Butapichón succeaded him as Toqui for a second time from 1632 to 1634.
Huenucalquin (died 1635) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1634 until his death in 1635.
Curanteo (died 1635) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1635.
Curimilla (died 1639) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1635 until his death in 1639.
Lincopinchon (died 1641) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1640 until his death in 1641.
Clentaru was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1655.
Alejo , Ñancú (1635-1660) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1655 until his death in 1660. He was a Chilean mestizo, who fought
in the Arauco War. He was the son of the Mapuche cacique Curivilú and the Spanish Isabel de Vivar y Castro who was captured during a
Mapuche raid. Isabel and Alejo were rescued five years later and rejoined the Spanish society. Alejo enlisted the Spanish army, but the system of
castas prevented his promotion. As a result, he deserted from the Spanish army and joined the Mapuches, being appointed toqui. Instructed in
Spanish military strategy, he posed a serious threat to his former masters, but he died in a crime of passion: after he had sex with a captured
Spanish woman his two wives murdered him. Alejandro Vivar, Isabel's father, was a Spanish soldier in the Captaincy General of Chile during the
Arauco War against the Mapuches. He led an incursion into Mapuche territory and was ambushed by them. Isabel was captured and engaged to
the cacique Curivilú. She had a son with him, known as "Alejandro de Vivar" by the Spanish and "Ñancú" by the Mapuche; but he used the
diminutive form of the name "Alejo" instead. Isabel and Alejo were rescued by the Spanish five years after Isabel's capture and returned to
Concepción. However, the caste system of the local population meant they were looked down on: Alejo was rejected as a mestizo, and Isabel for
having a son with a Mapuche. To avoid the social criticism, Isabel became a nun and lived inside a convent. Alejo was raised by Franciscans and
eventually joined the military. Alejo trained as arquebusier, but he was denied any promotion as he was a mestizo. As a result, he deserted from
the Spanish army in 1657 and joined the Mapuche. Alejo returned to the tribe of his father. The Mapuche had a more welcoming attitude
towards mestizos than the Spanish, and accepted him. Alejo was valuable to the Mapuches as he had close knowledge of the Spanish military
strategy. He informed his father about his life among the Spanish (known as "huincas" by the Mapuches), and expressed his willingness to serve
with the Mapuche against them. As the new toqui, Alejo increased espionage activity and intensified the raids of malones to steal cattle,
weapons and capture hostages. He introduced the use of incendiary devices to Mapuche warfare, which proved deadly against the city of
Concepción. To prevent the complete destruction of the city, the Spanish sent Isabel to parley with him. Alejo agreed to stop the attack because
of his love for his mother, but said "Mother, it will be very difficult for those arrogant huincas to look you in the eyes. They are haughty enough
to humiliate mestizos, but they are cowards incapable of defending themselves and have to resort to using a woman to parley with the enemy in
their name, while they are surely trembling behind those walls. The other Mapuche were unwilling to stop the attack, but Alejo quickly silenced
the objections by splitting open the head of one of the enraged Mapuche with an axe. Alejo continued his march and destroyed the forts of
Conuco and Chepe completely. He then massacred the populations of Talcamavida and Santa Juana. He celebrated one of his victories by
getting drunk and having sex with a captured Spanish woman. This angered his Mapuche wives who attacked and killed him while he was
sleeping, and then escaped to a Spanish fort. The Spanish welcomed them and gave them asylum. Víctor Hugo Silva wrote a historical novel
about Alejo, "El mestizo Alejo y la Criollita". The life of Alejo was portrayed in a Chilean historical comic written in 1973, as part of a number of
historical comic books about the history of Chile from the colonization to the Patria vieja. The episode "El mestizo Alejo" was published in issues
178 to 184, with art and scripts by Luis Ruiz Tagle. The actor Diego Ruiz took part in the documentary film Algo habrán hecho por la historia de
Chile, playing Alejo. The documentary was produced during the Bicentennial of Chile.
Misqui (died 1663) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1661 until his death in 1663.
Colicheuque (died 1663) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) in 1663.
Udalevi (died 1665) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1664 until his death in 1665.
Calbuñancü (died 1665) was the Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) for Udalevi, Mapuche toqui (leader) from 1664 until his death in
1665.
Ayllicuriche or Huaillacuriche (died 1673) was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1672 until his death in 1673.

Millalpal or Millapán was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1692 until 1694.
Vilumilla was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) elected in 1722 to lead the Mapuche Uprising of 1723 against the Spanish for their
violation of the peace and ruled until 1726. The Mapuche resented the Spanish intruding into their territory and building forts, and also the
insolence of those officials called capitan de amigos (Captain of Friends), introduced by a clause in the Parliament of Malloco for guarding the
missionaries, but that had sought to exercise surveillance and authority over the native Mapuche which they used to establish a monopoly of the
trade in ponchos which the Mapuche found unbearable. For these grievances, they met and determined, in 1722, to create a Toqui, and have
recourse to war. Vilumilla was chosen, despite being a man of low rank, because he was one who had acquired a high reputation for his
judgment, courage and his larger strategic view of the war to come. Vilumilla set out to attack the Spanish settlements in 1723. However he was
careful to warn the missionaries to quit the country, in order to avoid any being ill treated by his army. The capture of the fort of Tucapel was
his first success and the garrison of the fort of Arauco, fearing the same fate, abandoned it. Having destroyed these two places he marched
against the fort of Purén, but the garrison commander Urrea, opposed him so effectively that he was forced to besiege it. However in a short
time the garrison was reduced to desperation from thirst, for the Mapuche had cut the aqueduct which supplied them with water. The
commander made a sortie in order to procure some water and was slain together with his soldiers. At this critical point, the governor Gabriel
Cano arrived with an army of five thousand men. Vilumilla, expecting battle immediately drew up his troops in order of battle behind a
torrential river. Seeing this position Cano, though repeatedly provoked by the Mapuche, thought it advisable to abandon Purén, and retire with
the garrison. The war afterwards became reduced to minor skirmishes, which was finally ended by the Parliament of Negrete of 1726, in which
both sides signed the Peace of Negrete, where the Treaty of Quillan was reconfirmed, a system of regulated fairs were established and the hated
title of Captain of Friends was abolished.
Curiñancu or Curignancu was the Mapuche Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1766 until 1774 who led the Mapuche Uprising of 1766. Captain
General, Antonio de Guill y Gonzaga, undertook a fantastic scheme to gather the Araucanians into cities, despite their well known loathing of
city life. The outcome of this scheme was a renewal of the war with the Mapuche. They elected Curiñancu toqui and prepared for hostilities in
case the Spaniards should persist in this course. Two or three cities were begun, but the Mapuche demanded tools with which to work, offered
all manner of excuses for the purpose of delaying the enterprise, and finally, these efforts failing to dissuade the Spaniards from the
undertaking, they slew their superintendents and besieged the quartermaster in his camp. Governor Guill y Gonzaga retaliated by forming an
alliance with the Pehuenches. Curiñancu, ended this treasonous alliance with a sudden assault on the Pehuenches, routing them in battle. He
captured their leader, Coliguna, Curiñancu executed him. Gonzaga soon died, following the failure to accomplish his scheme, and Juan de
Balmaseda y Censano Beltrán governed for a short time until Francisco Javier de Morales y Castejón de Arrollo succeeded to the governorship.
The war with the Araucanians continued. Curiñancu and his vice toqui, Leviantu, constantly raided in Spanish territory, defeating the Spaniards
occasionally. By 1773, the war with the Mapuche had cost Spain over a million and a half dollars. Agustín de Jáuregui y Aldecoa finally agreed
to a treaty in the Parliament of Tapihue (1774) which reaffirmed the old treaties of Quillin and Negrete, and Curiñancu exacted a further
concession, that the Araucanians would be permitted to keep an embassy in Santiago, like any other independent nation.
Lebian (Lebiantu) (died September 1776) was Mapuche Vice-Toqui (Miltary Leader) from 1769 until 1774, who led the Pehuenche against the
Spanish Empire in Chile following the Mapuche Uprising of 1766 during the Arauco War. During the war, in 1769 Lebian led a malón against
the region of Laja River and Los Ángeles taking cattle and destroying every estancia in their path. Spanish troops sent against him were
defeated and forced to retire to Los Ángeles. Encouraged by the victory Lebian attacked fort Santa Bárbara two days later, although repulsed
with some losses, they managed to set fire to the town and to take the cattle found in the area. At the end of the war he was part of the
delegation sent to Santiago to make peace in 1774. The same year he was also involved in a feud against the toqui Ayllapagui. In September
1776, according to Gov. Agustín de Jáuregui's policy of rewarding loyalty, Lebian was named distinguished soldier of the Spanish Army, and
travelled to the city of Los Angeles for a meeting with the Maestro de Campo Ambrosio O'Higgins. As he was returning to his country, a band
of Spaniards ambushed and killed him. One of the suspects was a captain Dionisio Contreras, but nothing was proved against him. It was
rumored that O'Higgins had arranged the death as part of a policy of eliminating by such means hostile or strong Mapuche leaders in
preference to open warfare, but O'Higgins denied responsibility for the ambush, persecuted the assassins and hanged one of them.
Lonco (Tribal Chief) of the Mapuches
A lonco or lonko (from Mapudungun longko, literally "head") is a tribal chief of the Mapuches. These were often Ulmen, the wealthier men in
the lof. In wartime, loncos of the various local rehue or the larger aillarehue would gather in a koyag or parliament and would elect a toqui to
lead the warriors in battle. "Lonco" sometimes forms part of geographical names such as the city of Loncoche (mapudungun: head of an
important person).
List of Mapuche Chiefs ("cacique lonco")
Caloande, Moyande was a Cacique (Chief) of Promaucaes, also spelled as Promaucas or Purumaucas (quechua purum awqa: wild people),
indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River basin of Santiago, Chile
and the Itata River around 1542.
Topocalma y Gualauquén was a Cacique (Chief) of Promaucaes, also spelled as Promaucas or Purumaucas (quechua purum awqa: wild
people), indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River basin of Santiago,
Chile and the Itata River around 1544.
Maluenpangue was a Cacique (Chief) of Promaucaes, also spelled as Promaucas or Purumaucas (quechua purum awqa: wild people) in
Taguatagua territories, indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River
basin of Santiago, Chile and the Itata River around 1549.

Quinellanga, Itinguillanga was a Cacique (Chief) of Promaucaes, also spelled as Promaucas or Purumaucas (quechua purum awqa: wild
people), indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River basin of Santiago,
Chile and the Itata River around 1549.
Tabón y Culimaulén was a Cacique (Chief) of Promaucaes, also spelled as Promaucas or Purumaucas (quechua purum awqa: wild people),
indigenous pre-Columbian Mapuche tribal group that lived in the present territory of Chile, south of the Maipo River basin of Santiago, Chile
and the Itata River during late 1540s.
Michima Lonco (fl. mid-16th century) (michima means "foreigner" and lonco means "head" or "chief" in Mapudungun language) was
Mapuche chief, born in the Aconcagua Valley and educated in Cusco by the Inca Empire.[citation needed] He presented himself to the
Spaniards, naked and covered by a black pigmentation.He had seven wives and lived between the Jahuel Valley and Putaendo Valley. On
September 11, 1541, Michimalonco attacked the newly founded Spanish settlement of Santiago, Chile after seven caciques were taken hostage
by Spaniards following an uprising. Michimalonco was said to lead 8,000 to 20,000 men. The defense of the outnumbered town was led by Inés
de Suárez, a female conquistador, while commander Pedro de Valdivia was elsewhere. Much of the town was destroyed when Suárez decapitated
one of the caciques herself and had the rest decapitated to surprise the natives. The natives were then driven off by the Spanish. After fighting
the Spaniards, he fled to the Andes mountain valleys. There he hid for a couple of years but feeling homesick he came back to the valley and
allied his forces with the Spaniards and went to fight the Mapuches on the south. He was reputedly raised in Cuzco and acquired a Quechua
accent when speaking his native language, therefore he was named the "Foreigner Chief".
Colocolo (from Mapudungun "colocolo", mountain cat) was a Mapuche leader ("cacique lonco") in the early period of the
Arauco War. He was a major figure in Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga's epic poem La Araucana, about the early Arauco War. In the
poem he was the one that proposed the contest between the rival candidates for Toqui that resulted in the choice of Caupolicán.
As a historical figure there are some few contemporary details about him. Stories of his life were written long after his lifetime
and display many points of dubious historical accuracy. Pedro Mariño de Lobera listed Colocolo as one of the caciques that
offered submission to Pedro de Valdivia after the Battle of Penco. Jerónimo de Vivar in his Chronicle of the Kingdom of Chile
(1558), describes Colocolo as one of the Mapuche leaders with 6,000 warriors and one of the competitors for Toqui of the whole
Mapuche army following the Battle of Tucapel. Millarapue also a leader of 6,000 men, but old and not a candidate for the leadership, was the
one who presuaded them to quit arguing among themselves and settle the matter with a contest of strength between them which resulted in the
victory of Caupolicán who became Toqui. Lobera later says Colocolo and Peteguelen were the leaders that discovered the advance of the army
of Francisco de Villagra and summoned all the people who could fight from the neighboring provinces to oppose the Spanish in the battle of
Battle of Marihueñu. He was one of the commanders under Lautaro at the second destruction of Concepción on December 4, 1555. He also lists
Colocolo as one of Caupolicán's lieutenants in the battle of Battle of Millarapue against García Hurtado de Mendoza. Lobera also says he was
one of the major leaders of the Arauco area to submit to Mendoza after the Battle of Quiapo and the reestablishment of the fortress of San
Felipe de Araucan in 1559. He is also said to have given Mendoza warning of the assassination plot of Mecial. Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo in
his History of All the Things that Have happened in the Kingdom of Chile mentions Colocolo in 1561 as a principal leader in Arauco and is said
to be a friend until death to the Spanish. He was consulted by Pedro de Villagra about the way to defeat the first outbreak of the second great
Mapuche revolt that began that year. It says he advised them to storm a fortress the rebels had built and that such a defeat would end the
rebellion. Later, in the following year after Villagra had evacuated the city of Cañete revealing Spanish weakness, Colocolo was prevailed on by
the rebellious Mapuche in Arauco to take command of their army. At his order Millalelmo laid siege to the fort of Arauco and other leaders the
fort of Los Infantes. Juan Ignacio Molina follows Ercilla's account of Colocolo as the wise elder, in his The Geographical, Natural and Civil
History of Chili, Vol. II, (1808). He claims Colocolo was killed in the 1558 Battle of Quiapo. Claims are Colocolo held the position of "Toqui de la
Paz" (Peace Chief) but took over strategic duties when Spanish conquest began, becoming the head of the native Mapuche forces against these
invaders. Some others believe his death happened during the great famine and typhus epidemic in 1554-1555. Colocolo, is a symbol of heroic
courage, bravery, and wisdom who fought and never surrendered to the Spaniards. Remembered as Ercilla's 60-something elder widely
respected by mapuche people, among his captains we can find headchiefs whose names are part of Chile's present geography: Paicaví, Lemo,
Lincoyán, Elicura and Orompello, just to name a few. One of the most popular Chiliean football clubs, Colo-Colo, was named after this warrior.
Lemolemo was Chief (Lonko) of Mapuche people during 1550s. Epic poem La Araucana of Alonso de Ercilla, characterized him as "head of
6000 fighting men", who commands in the early stages Arauco war, during the conquest of Chile, against the Spanish in the second half of the
decade of the 1550s.
Huepotaén was a Lonco (Chief) of Mapuche people of Llifén during 1580s, who died under torture by order of the governor Alonso de
Sotomayor.
Janequeo, Yanequén was a Lonco (Chief) of Mapuche people of Llifén during 1580s, her husband Huepotaén died under torture by order of
the governor Alonso de Sotomayor.
Juan Francisco Mariluan was a lonko and toqui (Chief) Mapuche people who fought in the so-called "War to the Death", one of the last
stages of the War of Arauco during the early 1820s.
Ignacio Coliqueo (Boroa, 1786 - Los Toldos, February 16, 1871) was a Lonco (Cacique) of Mapuche people who led a community from
Araucanía to install in 1861 in the area that later would be called Los Toldos, in the province of Buenos Aires in Argentina.
Calfucurá also known as Juan Calfucurá or Cufulcurá (late 1770-1873), was a leading Mapuche lonco and military figure in
Patagonia in the 19th century. He crossed the Andes from Chile to the Pampas around 1830 after a call from the governor of
Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de Rosas, to fight the Boroanos tribe. Calfucurá succeeded in ending the military power of the
Boroanos when he massacred a large part of them in 1834 during a meeting for trade. In 1859 he attacked Bahía Blanca in
Argentina with 3,000 warriors. The decision of planning and executing the Conquest of the Desert was probably triggered by the
1872 assault of Calfucurá and his 6,000 followers on the cities of General Alvear, Veinticinco de Mayo and Nueve de Julio, where

300 criollos were killed, and 200,000 heads of cattle taken.
Mañil or Magnil was a Mapuche chief who fought in the 1851 Chilean Revolution and led an uprising in 1859. He was the main chief of the
Arribanos and the father of Quilapán who led Mapuche forces in the Occupation of Araucanía.
José Santos Quilapán or simply Quilapán was a Mapuche chief active in the Mapuche resistance to the Occupation of
Araucanía (1861-1883). He was the main chief of the Arribanos and inherited his charge as chief from his father Mañil.
Venancio Coñuepan or Coñuepán (also Coihue Pan, Coyhuepán and Benancio) (died 1836) was the Lonco (Cacique) of Mapuche people in
Lumaco area and Chol Chol in Chile who participated in the War of Independence of Chile. He spoke Spanish and collaborated with the patriot
army during the War of Independence. He is considered a personal friend of Bernardo O'Higgins from the days when he administered his estate
of Las Canteras.
Marimán was the Chief (Lonco) of Mapuche people in the late nineteenth century.
Marcelino Chagallo or Chagayo, known as Utraillán (died 1912) was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of
Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina since the death of Cacique Chocorí in 1834 until 1850s when Sayhueque assuming command during 1850s.
Foyel was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second
half 19th century.
Rayel was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second half 19th
century.
Valentine Sayhueque (around 1818 - September 8, 1903) was the Mapuche Chief in the southern region of the present
Province of Neuquen, Patagonia in Argentina in the second half 19th century.
Manuel Namuncurá (Araucanía Region, Chile, February 1, 1811 - San Ignacio, Province of Neuquen, Argentina, July 31,
1908) was the Lonco (Chief) of Mapuche people in the second half 19th century. He was son of Calfucurá, famous Lonco (Chief)
of Mapuche people.
Tehuelche people
The Tehuelche people is a collective name for some native tribes of Patagonia and the southern pampas region in Argentina and Chile.
Tehuelche is a Mapudungun word meaning "Fierce People". They were also called Patagons, thought to mean “big feet”, by Spanish explorers,
who found large footprints made by the tribes on the Patagonian beaches. These large footprints were actually made by the guanaco leather
boots that the Tehuelche used to cover their feet. It is possible that the stories of the early European explorers about the Patagones, a race of
giants in South America, are based on the Tehuelche, because the Tehuelche were typically tall, taller than the average European of the time.
According to the 2001 census (INDEC), 4,300 Tehuelche lived in the provinces of Chubut and Santa Cruz, and an additional 1,637 in other parts
of Argentina. There are now no Tehuelche tribes living in Chile, though some Tehuelche were assimilated into Mapuche groups over the years.
The Tehuelche people have a history of over 14,500 years in the region, based on archeological findings. Their pre-Columbian history is divided
in three main stages: a stage with highly-sized rock tools, a stage where the use of bolas prevailed over the peaked projectiles, and a third one of
highly complex rock tools, each one with a specific purpose. The nomadic lifestyle of Tehuelches left scarce archeological evidence of their past.
They were hunter-gatherers living as nomads. During the winters they lived in the lowlands, catching fish and shellfish. During the spring they
migrated to the central highlands of Patagonia and the Andes Mountains, where they spent the summer and early fall, and hunted game.

Although they developed no original pottery, they are well known for their cave paintings. The Spanish arrived in the early 16th century. On
March 31, 1520, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed and made contact with the Tehuelche people. The Spanish never colonized
their lands, with the exception of some coastal settlements and a few missions. It took more than 300 years before the Argentine government
occupied the southern Patagonia. As nomads, the Tehuelche lived with limited possessions, as they had to move across long distances. Their
rock tools were usually made of obsidian or basalt, as those rocks were malleable but not so soft that they broke too easily. Those rocks,
however, could be found in only certain parts of Patagonia, so the Tehuelche had to make long journeys to renew their supplies. The Tehuelche
hunted many species in the Patagonia, including whales, sea mammals, small rodents and sea birds; their main prey was guanacos and Rheas.
Both species were usually found at the same places, as the rheas eat the larvae that grow in the guanaco's manure. Everything from the guanaco
was used by the Tehuelche: the meat and blood were used for food, the fat to grease their bodies during winter, and the hide to make clothing
and canopies. The Tehuelches also gathered fruits that grew during the Patagonian summer. Those fruits were the only sweet foods in their diet.
The Tehuelche originally spoke Tehuelche, also known as Aonikenk, a Chon language. Later, with the Araucanization of Patagonia, many tribes
started to speak variants of Mapudungun. Their name, Tehuelche, comes from that language.
List of Caciques (chiefs) of the Tehuelche people
Lozano Cacapol (died 1735) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's
Argentina from 1715 until his death in 1735. He was recognized as the first chief of the "mountain pampas" or leuvuches, as he called Falkner.
Cangapol (died 1752) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's
Argentina from 1735 until his death in 1752. He was the chieftain of the nomadic Leuvuche people, who moved through a huge
area from the Negro River to the Vulcan hills, today known as Tandilia hills, between the modern cities of Tandil and Mar del
Plata. The Leuvuches were in fact called Serranos (people from the hills) by the Spaniards. In 1751, Cangapol and his warriors
expelled the Jesuits from Laguna de los Padres and destroyed the settlement built by them five years before. In 1753, he became an
allied of the Spaniards against the Mapuches, who used to take profit of the Leuvuches' plunder raids north of the Salado river and
then sought safe haven in Chile, leaving the Leuvuches to face the Spanish retaliation alone. He died the same year and was
succeeded by his son Nicolás.
Nicoláswas a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people ruled in the area of Huilin, on the Negro River in today's Argentina from 1752 until ?.
Maria Grande, María la Vieja (died 1840 or 1848) was the Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina in the early
nineteenth century. Her power spanned virtually the entire Patagonia, from Punta Arenas to Carmen de Patagones and the Black River. It was
called "the Great" by Luis Vernet, referring to the Russian Empress Catherine II of Russia, when he met her in 1823 in Peninsula Valdes.
Chocorí (died 1834) was a Lonko (Chief) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina ruled in much of the territory of the present
province of Colorado River between the rivers Black, Black and Limay and near Bahia Blanca and the Sierra de la Ventana in the province of
Buenos Aires during the first decades of the nineteenth century, setting up camp on the Big Island of Choele Choel. He died in 1834 in a clash
with troops of Colonel Francisco Sosa, to pursue outstanding, belonging to the column of this first campaign of the Desert commanded by
General Angel Pacheco.
Loncopán also known as Lonkopan (died April 17, 1853), was a Tschen Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people and also a general of the
Argentine Army. He was son of Al-Aan. He was part of the Boreal Tehuelches Tschen, sometimes confused with the Pampas and Puelches
günün a künna. Of nomadic character, the tschen travelled through the south area of the provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa and Cordoba. He
forged alliances with Calfulcurá and received protection from Don Juan Manuel de Rosas. Tried the peaceful unification of all Native nations in
a large American Native Confederation (Confederación Indígena Americana), but the lack of communications and the disparity of interests
made it fail. He had a large army and controlled much of the strategic "rastrillas" (trade routes) in southern Buenos Aires province. After the
battle of Caseros, he refused to participate in the war against the Government, causing a rupture with the chief Cafulcurá. Flanked by internal
divisions, the tribe is attacked and absorbed by the tehuelches of Gervasio Chipitruz.
Casimiro Fourmantin, Casimiro Bigua (1819/1820-1874) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1840 until his
death in 1874.
Papón (died 1892) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1874 until his death in 1892. He was the son of Cacique
Casimiro Bigua, and brother of the Cacique Mulato.
Mulato, whose Indian name was Chumjaluwün (died 1905) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Tehuelche people from 1892 until his
death in 1905. He was the son of Cacique Casimiro Bigua, and brother of the Cacique Papon.

Inacayal (1835-1888) was a cacique (chief) of the Tehuelche people in Patagonia, Argentina who led a resistance
against government. They were hunter-gatherers who had a nomadic society, and had long been independent of the
Argentine government established in coastal areas. He was one of the last indigenous rulers to resist the Argentine
Conquest of the Desert in the late 19th century and its resultant campaigns. He did not surrender until 1884. His
hospitality to Francisco Moreno during the explorer's 1880 expedition to Patagonia was recalled after his surrender,
which was covered by the press. Moreno argued with the government on his behalf to spare Inacayal time in military
prison. In exchange, Moreno studied him for anthropology. Along with others in his clan, Inacayal was studied for his resemblance to
"prehistoric man." After his death in 1888, anthropologists displayed the indigenous chief's brain and skeleton as an exhibit in the
anthropological museum in Buenos Aires. His remains were finally returned to his people in 1994 for reinterment in the Comunidad Tehuelche
Mapuche of Chubut Province.
Pichi Curuhuinca was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
Chikichan was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
Salpul (also called Salpu and Juan Salpú) was a northern, or guennekenk, Tehuelche leader in the late 19th century in Patagonia, Argentina.
He allied with the tribes of Sayhueque, Inacayal, and Foyel (the last Patagonian indigenous chieftains who refused to recognize the Argentine
government). They fought against the Argentine Army during the Conquest of the Desert. In 1897, Salpul and a shaman named Cayupil
(Caypül) tried to organize an uprising against the government. Their activities were quickly discovered by the authorities. Salpul was arrested
and taken to Buenos Aires, but he was released within a month and returned home. Afterward he allied his people with the tribe of his relative
Juan Sacamata. Between the 1890s and 1900, both lived in Nueva Lubecka, located in the Genoa Valley, Chubut province. Salpul died some
years later in Pastos Blancos, near the Senguerr river.
Ancafilú (died 1823) was Chief (Cacique) of the plains Indian tribes that inhabited the mountains of Tandil of the Province of Buenos Aires in
Argentina from 1820 until his death in 1823.
Cachul was Chief (Cacique) who established himself with his tribe on the banks of Tapalque, Province of Buenos Aires in 1845.
Dynasty of Catriel
Dynasty of Catriel was a Indian Dynasty which ruled in the nineteenth century in the Province of Buenos Aires.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel
Juan Catriel, called "Old" (c.1770-1848) was Chief (Cacique) who lived in the nineteenth century in the Province of Buenos Aires
and ruled in pampas, characterized by friendship and appreciation for the Creoles who colonized the coast of Rio de la Plata to the
Salado River. He was the father of John "the Younger" Catriel. On many occasions the tribe of Juan Catriel collaborated with the
authorities to prevent the looting of Aucas Chilean rebels and renegade Christian groups and flooding the Argentina campaign. In
1827 he had collaborated with the colonel Federico Rauch. He was a collaborator and assistant in the expedition of Juan Manuel de
Rosas to the desert in 1833 and collaborated with him the Fracamá, Reilet, Venancio Cayupán, Llanquelén, Cachul chiefs and others.
At his death in 1848 he succeeded him in command of his tribe his son John "the Younger" Catriel. Indigenous known later as
catrieleros live today in small properties that stays close to the town of Los Toldos in the Province of Buenos Aires.
Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" (died 1866) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and
ruled in pampas from 1848 until his death in 1866. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "Old" .
Cipriano Catriel (died November 26, 1874) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and
ruled in pampas from 1866 until his death on November 26, 1874. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the
Younger."

Juan Jose Catriel (died 1879) was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and ruled in pampa
from 1874 until his death in 1879. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" and brother of Chief
(Cacique) Cipriano Catriel.
Marcelino Catriel was Chief (Cacique) of the dynasty of Catriel in the Province of Buenos Aires and ruled in
pampas in he late 1870s. He was son of the Chief (Cacique) Juan Catriel, called "the Younger" and brother of Chief
(Cacique) Cipriano Catriel and Chief (Cacique) Juan Jose Catriel.
Huarpes (Warpes) tribe
The Huarpes or Warpes are indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina. Some scholars assume that in the Huarpe language, this word means
"sandy ground," but according Arte y Vocabulario de la lengua general del Reino de Chile, written by Andrés Fabres in Lima in 1765, the word
Cuyo comes from Araucanian cuyum puulli, meaning "sandy land" or "desert country". Huarpe people settled in permanent villages beginning
in the 5th century CE. About 50 to 100 people lived in a village, making them smaller than Diaguita settlements. They were agrarian people
who grew corn (Zea mays), beans, squash, and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Towards the 15th century, Huarpe territory expanded into the
current Argentinian provinces of San Luis, Mendoza and San Juan and even on the north of the Neuquen Province. They inhabited between the
Jáchal River at north, to the Diamante River at south and between the Andes and Conlara Valley on San Luis. They were never fully part of the
Incan Empire, but were influenced by Inca culture and adopted llama ranching and the Quechua language after 1480. Chilean encomenderos
who had encomiendas in Cuyo introduced to Chile indigenous Huarpes who they hired to other Spaniards without encomiendas.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of Huarpes (Warpes) tribe
Juan Huarpe de Angaco was a Chief (Cacique) of Huarpes or Warpes, indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina during 1560s. He
ruled over the lands north of the valley of Tulum.
San Juan Pismanta was a Chief (Cacique) of Huarpes or Warpes, indigenous inhabitants of Cuyo, in Argentina during 1560s. He ruled the
villages north of the province and was a contemporary of Cacique Angaco peoples who ruled south.
Comechingón (Comechingones) people
Comechingón (plural Comechingones) is the common name for a group of people indigenous to the Argentine provinces of Córdoba and San
Luis. They were thoroughly displaced or exterminated by the Spanish conquistadores by the end of the 17th Century. The two main
Comechingón groups called themselves Henia (in the north) and Kamiare (in the south), each subdivided into a dozen or so tribes. The name
comechingón is a deformation of the pejorative term kamichingan "cave dwellers" used by the Sanavirón tribe. They were sedentary, practiced
agriculture yet gathered wild fruits, and raised animals for wool, meat and eggs. Their culture was heavily influenced by that of the Andes.
Several aspects seem to differentiate the Henia-Kamiare from inhabitants of nearby areas. They had a rather Caucasian appearance, with beards
and supposedly a minority with greenish eyes. Another distinctive aspect was their communal stone houses, half buried in the ground to endure
the cold, wind and snow of the winter. Their language was lost when Spanish politicies favoured Quechua. Nevertheless, they left a rich
pictography and abstract petroglyphs. A cultural contribution is the vowel extension in the Spanish of the present inhabitants of Córdoba, but
also not uncommon in San Luis and other neighbouring provinces. It is claimed that there are still six Comechingón families in Córdoba in the
barrio Alto alberdi. Information is available from direction de cultura Córdoba.
Chief (Cacique) of the Comechingón (Comechingones) people
Olayón (died 1620) was a Chief (Cacique) of the Comechingón (Comechingones), indigenous people from Argentine
provinces of Córdoba and San Luis from 1690 until his death in 1620. He died in combat, fighting the Spanish in singular duel
with Captain Tristan de Allende, whom he managed to kill.

Ranquel Tribe
The Ranquel are an indigenous tribe from the northern part of La Pampa Province, Argentina, in South America. With Puelche, Pehuenche and
also Patagones from the Günün-a-Küna group origins, they were conquered by the Mapuche. The name Ranquel is the Spanish name for their
own name of Rankülche: rankül -cane-, che -man, people- in Mapudungun; that is to say "cane-people" In the late 18th and early 19th centuries,
the Ranquel controlled two chiefdoms in Argentina Between 1775-1790 a group of Pehuenche advanced from the side of the Andes mountains
east to the territory they called Mamül Mapu (mamül: kindling, woods; mapu: land, territory) as it was covered by dense woods of Prosopis
caldenia, Prosopis nigra, and Geoffroea decorticans. They settled along the Cuarto and Colorado rivers, from the south of today's Argentine
provinces of San Luis, Córdoba, to the south of La Pampa. They were hunters, nomads and during a good part of the 19th century they had an
alliance with the Tehuelche people, with whom they traveled east into the western part of today's Buenos Aires Province and southern end of
Córdoba Province, and also to Mendoza, San Luis and Santa Fe. In 1833 Julio Argentino Roca led the Desert Campaign (1833–34), in which he
attempted to eliminate the Ranquel. Their leader at that time was Yanquetruz, and they put up a skilled defense, making good use of the desert
terrain. Yanquetruz was succeeded around 1834 by Painé Guor. Their last chief was Pincén, who was confined to the prison at Martín García
island (1880). They allied themselves with the forces of Felipe Varela during the rebellion against the Paraguayan War and the Central
Government in Buenos Aires. After Pincén's capture, the Ranquels were further reduced in population during the Conquest of the Desert, with
their lands being occupied by the army. A reservation, the Colonia Emilio Mitre, was established for them in today's La Pampa province, where
their descendants lived today.
List of Chiefs (Cacique) of Ranquel tribe
Máscara Verde (Green Mask) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa
in Argentina around 1812.
Carripilum (died 1820) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina from ? until his death in 1820.
Yanquetruz (or Llanquetruz) (died 1836) was the Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel indigenous tribe of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of
La Pampa in Argentina from around 1820 until his death in 1836 who fought the Europeans in the pampas of what is now Argentina in the
early nineteenth century. Yanquetruz's family had ruled over the region from the cordillera to the Atlantic from around 1680 to 1856, but his
authority was confined to the Ranqueles. The Ranquel people, a Mapuche tribe, were led by a chief named Máscara Verde (Green Mask) in 1812.
Yanquetruz came to these people from Chile in 1818. He had a reputation as a great warrior, and taught them techniques of war, making the
Ranquel warriors known throughout the pampas. The men of fighting age were organized into bands of between ten and thirty people whose
leader obeyed the command of the Ranquel chief. When Máscara Verde died, Yanquetruz was elected to take his place. His first major assault
was made on the settlers in Salta Province, helped by Chilean allies under a leader named Carreras. The Indian attacks were ferocious, and they
gained considerable booty. In August 1831 Yanquetruz laid siege to Villa Concepción (now Río Cuarto, Córdoba), apparently in a preemptive
strike since he had heard that a large army was preparing to attack his people. During the civil war in 1831 there were rumors that Yanquetruz
was assisting the Unitiarian side, and this may have been part of the motive for the campaign against the Indians launched soon after by Juan
Manuel de Rosas. The main reason was the Ranquels' desire to remain independent. In 1833 Rosas initiated the Desert Campaign (1833–34), an
expedition against the desert Indians. The columns led by José Félix Aldao from Mendoza Province and Ruiz Huidobro from San Luis Province
were charged with exterminating the Ranquels. Ruiz Huidobro's column had 1,000 men from the Division of the Andes and the Córdoba and La
Rioja provincial forces. He advanced at the start of March from the San Lorenzo fort towards the Quinto River in San Luis Province, intending to
surprise the Ranquels at their settlement of Leubucó. However, the Indians had been forewarned. On March 16, 1833 the troops under Huidobro
clashed with the Ranquels at a location called Las Acollaradas.[a] It was a fight with swords, spears and knives because rain prevented the use of
firearms. The result was inconclusive, and the Indians disappeared into the pampas. The Division continued its march to Leubucó, 25 leagues
from the Trapal lagoon, which Yanquetruz had abandoned. Huidobro suspected that Francisco Reinafé, chief of the troops from Córdoba, had
been the one who warned Yanquetruz of the advance. He had Reinafé relieved of his command. Yanquetruz's men harassed the Argentine
troops in a form of guerrilla warfare, disrupting their supplies and making it hard for them to get water. Huidobro was forced to retreat from
the desert in disarray. Nazario Benavídez and Martín Yanzón, both later to be provincial governors, were on the staff of the second Auxiliary
regiment of the Andes commanded by Aldao. This column gained a partial victory over chief Yanquetruz two weeks after the Las Acollaradas
action. The regiment participated in fierce fighting on March 31 and April 1, 1833 in which the Spanish prevailed but suffered considerable
losses. Rosas was furious at the damage that Yanquetruz had inflicted on his forces. In 1834 Yanquetruz returned to invade San Luis Province.
This was his last raid. Yanquetruz died in 1838 and was succeeded by Painé Guor, who was later captured and made a prisoner of Rosas.
Yanquetruz became a legend, the most famous chief in the Pampas after Calfucurá. One of the soldiers who fought Yanquetruz said it would be
difficult to find anywhere in America a more prompt, intelligent and insightful approach than the predatory raids of these Indians, and at the
same time more calm, brave and wise in making a stand against much better armed adversaries, always thinking quickly despite the noise and
confusion. Colonel Manuel Baigorria, a young officer, left the army and joined Yanquetruz. He became a close friend of the leader, and
Yanquetruz named his eldest son Baigorrita (little Baigorria). Another son, José Maria Bulnes Yanquetruz, born in 1831, became a famous
warrior in his own right.
Manuel Baigorria Gualá, alias Maricó (1809-1875) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó
lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in Argentina during 1840s and in early 1850s. He was a soldier who fought
in the Argentine Civil Wars. Of mixed origins, he spent many years living with the Ranqueles, an independent people
who lived to the south of the area colonized by Europeans in what is now Argentina. He was recognized as a leader by
the Ranqueles, who provided support to his Unitarian side in the civil wars. Manuel Baigorria was born in San Luis de la

Punta de los Venados around 1809, son of Blas Baigorria and Petrona Ledesma. Ignacio Fotheringham, a contemporary, described him as short
in stature but muscular, strong and agile, with reckless courage. Baigorria joined the army and became an officer while a young man. He served
under the Unitarian General José María Paz and was captured in 1831 after the Battle of Rodeo de Chacón. It only through good luck that he
avoided being included in a group of prisoners who were to be shot. Following that he decided to live with the Ranqueles in their tolderías.
Baigorria became well-established among the Ranqueles, and recognized as a leader. He became a close friend of their chief Yanquetruz, who
named his eldest son Baigorrita (little Baigorria). Over a period of forty years he had four wives, three Christian and one a Mapuche. He became
the adopted brother of the Ranquele chief Pichún. In 1838 Baigorria led a party of Ranqueles on an unsuccessful raid into northern Buenos
Aires Province and southern Santa Fe Province. Baigorria became a Colonel in the Unitarian forces. In November 1840 he took part in a
revolution in San Luis Province, and after being defeated again returned to the Ranqueles. In April 1843 he led 600 Indians on a raid, which was
repelled. In 1845 he launched a raid with 900 Indians and whites who had taken refuge in their tolderías. The Malónes, as the raids were called,
were an effective method for assisting his political allies. After the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas fell from power in 1852, Baigorria returned to
the European side of the border. He forgot his old friendship to the point that he made several campaigns against the Indians on the border. He
also fought on both sides in the civil wars at that time, the Argentine Confederation and the secessionist State of Buenos Aires. In his later years
he advised General Julio Argentino Roca, teaching him the secrets of the desert geography and the customs of the Indians. Roca was to make
his reputation with his success against the Indians in his ruthless Conquest of the Desert. Baigorria was sixty when he started to write his
memoirs in 1868. He died on June 21, 1875 in San Luis. He died poor, but as a good soldier his widow Lorenza Barbosa received a pension. From
Baigorria's book one gathers the impression of a modest person, courageous, honest, consistent and dependable. Although at times he led
hordes of wild horsemen on raids, he was not excessively greedy or bloodthirsty, mainly wanting foals, books and newspapers as his share of the
loot. The historian Alvaro Yunque said of his life that it needed little change to make it a novel.
Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) (died 1856) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La
Pampa in Argentina from ? until his death in 1856. He was father of Chief (Cacique) Calvaiú Güer and Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz Guor.
Calvaiú Güer (died 1858) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina from 1856 until his death in 1858. He was son of Chief (Cacique) Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) and brother of Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz
Guor.
Panguitruz Guor, better known as Mariano Rosas (Leuvucó, to 1825 - August 18, 1877) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel,
indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in Argentina from 1858 until his death on August 18,
1877. He was son of Chief (Cacique) Painé Güer (‘Zorro Azul’) and brother of Chief (Cacique) Panguitruz Guor.
Ramón Cabral (Nahuel, el Platero) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La
Pampa in Argentina in the late 1870s.
Pichón Huala (Pichón Gualá) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in Poitahué in the present province of
La Pampa in Argentina in the late 1870s. He was confined to the prison at Martín García island in 1880.
Epumer (c. 1820-1886) was a Chief (Cacique) of Ranquel, indigenous people of Leubucó lagoon in the present province of La Pampa in
Argentina in the early 1880s.
Charrúa People
The Charrúa are an indigenous people of South America in present-day Uruguay and the adjacent areas in Argentina (Entre Ríos) and Brazil
(Rio Grande do Sul). They were a semi-nomadic people that sustained themselves through fishing, hunting, and gathering. It is thought that the
Charrúa were driven south into present-day Uruguay by the Guaraní people around 4000 years ago. According to the Charrúa killed Spanish
explorer Juan Díaz de Solís during his 1515 voyage up the Río de la Plata, but this was contradicted by researchers who said that the Charrúa
people were not cannibalistic and that it was actually the Guaranis who did it. Later, it was proven that there was no direct testimony of this
moment. Following the arrival of European settlers, the Charrúa, along with the Chana, strongly resisted their territorial invasion. In the 18th
and 19th centuries the Charruas were confronted by cattle exploitation that strongly altered their way of life, causing famine and forcing them
to rely on cows and sheep. Unfortunately, those were in that epoch increasingly privatized. Malones (raids) were resisted by settlers who freely
shot any indigenous people who were in their way. Later, Fructuoso Rivera, Uruguay's first president, who possessed a hacienda organized the
Charruas's genocide. Since April 11, 1831, when the Salsipuedes (meaning "Get-out-if-you-can") campaign was launched by a group led by
Bernabé Rivera, nephew of Fructuoso Rivera, it is said that the Charruas were extinct. Four surviving Charrúas were captured at Salsipuedes.
They were Senacua Sénaqué, a medicine man; Vaimaca-Pirú Sira, a warrior; and a young couple, Laureano Tacuavé Martínez and María Micaëla
Guyunusa. All four were taken to Paris, France, in 1833, where they were exhibited to the public. They all soon died in France, including a baby
daughter born to Sira and Guyunusa, and adopted by Tacuavé. The child was named María Mónica Micaëla Igualdad Libertad by the Charrúas,
yet she was filed by the French as Caroliné Tacouavé. A monumental sculpture, Los Últimos Charrúas was built in their memory in
Montevideo, Uruguay. Since the 80's - after Uruguay's last dictatorship -, a group of people is affirming and revendicating their Charruan
ancestry.
Chief (Cacique) of Charrúa People
Cabari (died December 1, 1715) was the last Chief (Cacique) of Charrúa, indigenous people of South America in present-day Uruguay who
harassed for several years resisted the Spaniards, being the only tribe that remained in Uruguay. In 1707 he was severely beaten by the
Spaniards, still, despite their efforts, defeated and killed. Individuals of his tribe eventually also disappear gradually. Cabari (or Caravy or

Caberi) which some consider him the most important leader of the eighteenth century the Uruguayan territory in recorded history. In 1707 he
was imprisoned and escaped by an uprising that had several major periods until they kill him on December 1, 1715 in what is now Entre Rios,
Argentina.
"Poyais"
On April 29, 1820, George Frederic Augustus, King of the Miskito Kingdom signed a document granting MacGregor and his heirs a substantial
swathe of Mosquito territory 8,000,000 acres (12,500 square miles), an area larger than Wales in exchange for rum and jewellery. The land was
pleasing to the eye but unfit for cultivation and could sustain little in the way of livestock. Its area was roughly a triangle with corners at Cape
Gracias a Dios, Cape Camarón and the Black River's headwaters. MacGregor dubbed this area "Poyais" after the natives of the highlands around
the Black River's source, the Paya or "Poyer" people (today called the Pech) and in mid-1821 appeared back in London calling himself the
Cazique of Poyais "Cazique", a Spanish-American word for a native chief, being equivalent in MacGregor's usage to "Prince". He claimed to have
been created such by the Mosquito king, but in fact both the title and Poyais were of his own invention. Despite Rafter's book, London society
remained largely unaware of MacGregor's failures over the past few years, but remembered successes such as his march to Barcelona; similarly
his association with the "Die-Hards" of the 57th Foot was recalled, but his dubious early discharge was not. In this climate of a constantly shifting
Latin America, where governments rose, fell and adopted new names from year to year, it did not seem so implausible that there might be a
country called Poyais or that a decorated general like MacGregor might be its leader. The Cazique became "a great adornment for the dinner
tables and ballrooms of sophisticated London", Sinclair writes rumours abounded that he was partially descended from indigenous royalty. His
exotic appeal was enhanced by the arrival of the striking "Princess of Poyais", Josefa, who had given birth to a girl named Josefa Anna Gregoria
at MacGregor's sister's home in Ireland.[90] The MacGregors received countless social invitations, including an official reception at Guildhall
from the Lord Mayor of London.
Chief ("Cazique") of "Poyais"
Gregor MacGregor(December 24, 1786 – December 4, 1845) was a Scottish soldier, adventurer and confidence
trickster who from 1821 until 1837 attempted to draw British and French investors and settlers to "Poyais", a fictional
Central American territory he claimed to rule as "Cazique". Hundreds invested their savings in supposed Poyaisian
government bonds and land certificates, while about 270 emigrated to MacGregor's invented country in 1822–23 to
find only an untouched jungle; over half of them died. MacGregor's Poyais scheme has been called "the most
audacious fraud in history" and "the greatest confidence trick of all time". Born into the Clan Gregor in Stirlingshire,
MacGregor purchased a commission in the British Army in 1803 and from 1809 to 1810 served in the Peninsular War
in Portugal and Spain, latterly as a major seconded to the Portuguese Army. He left the British service in 1810 and
two years later joined the republican side in the Venezuelan War of Independence, initially as a colonel. He quickly
became a general and over the next four years operated against the Spanish on behalf of both Venezuela and its
neighbour New Granada; his successes included a difficult month-long fighting retreat through northern Venezuela
to Barcelona in 1816. Under a mandate from Latin American revolutionary agents to conquer Florida from the Spanish, MacGregor captured
Amelia Island in 1817 and there proclaimed a short-lived "Republic of the Floridas". He returned home to recruit British officers and men, then
oversaw two calamitous operations in New Granada during 1819 that each ended with him abandoning his troops. On his permanent return to
Britain in 1821, MacGregor claimed that King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast in the Gulf of Honduras had created him
Cazique of Poyais, which he described as being around the Black River (now the Río Sico). Poyais was supposedly a developed colony with an
existing community of British settlers, an army and a democratic government. Amid the booming market in Latin American government bonds
as the new republics emerged, MacGregor attracted substantial investment for Poyais and hundreds of colonists, mostly his fellow Scotsmen. On
reaching the Mosquito Coast the duped emigrants, cut off from civilisation, soon began to die from tropical diseases. Officials from British
Honduras found and evacuated them in May 1823; 180 perished, including those who died after the rescue. Fewer than 50 returned to Britain.
When the British press reported on MacGregor's deception following the survivors' return in late 1823, some of them leaped to his defence,
insisting that the general had been let down by those he had put in charge of the emigration party. MacGregor left for France and attempted a
variation on the scheme there, but French officials became suspicious and arrested him in December 1825. A French court tried MacGregor and
three others for fraud in 1826, but convicted only one of his associates acquitted, MacGregor returned to London, where he attempted lesser
Poyais schemes over the next decade, latterly competing with rival "Poyaisian offices" that tried to copy him. In 1838 he moved to Venezuela,
where he was welcomed back as a hero, made a Venezuelan citizen and given a pension with the rank of general of division in the Venezuelan
Army. He died in Caracas in 1845, aged 58, and was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral. Gregor MacGregor was born on
Christmas Eve 1786 at his family's ancestral home of Glengyle at the northern end of Loch Katrine in Stirlingshire, Scotland, the son of Daniel
MacGregor, an East India Company sea captain, and his wife Ann (née Austin). The family was Roman Catholic and part of the Clan Gregor,
whose proscription by King James VI and I in 1604 had been repealed only in 1774. During the proscription the MacGregors had been legally
ostracised to the extent that they were forbidden from using their own surname many of them, including Gregor's celebrated great-great-uncle
Rob Roy, had participated in the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745. MacGregor would assert in adulthood that a direct ancestor of his had
survived the Darien scheme of 1698, the ill-fated Scottish attempt to colonise the Isthmus of Panama. Gregor's grandfather, also called Gregor
and nicknamed "the Beautiful", served with distinction in the British Army under the surname Drummond, and subsequently played an
important role in the clan's restoration and rehabilitation into society. Little is recorded of MacGregor's childhood. After his father's death in
1794, he and his two sisters were raised primarily by his mother with the help of various relatives. MacGregor's biographer David Sinclair
speculates that he would probably have spoken mainly Gaelic during his early childhood, and learned English only after starting school around
the age of five-and-a-half. MacGregor would claim in later life to have studied at the University of Edinburgh between 1802 and 1803; records of

this do not survive as he did not take a degree, but Sinclair considers it plausible, citing MacGregor's apparent sophistication and his mother's
connections in Edinburgh. MacGregor joined the British Army at 16, the youngest age it was possible for him to do so, in April 1803. His family
purchased him a commission as an ensign in the 57th (West Middlesex) Regiment of Foot, probably for around £450. MacGregor's entrance to
the military coincided with the start of the Napoleonic Wars following the breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens. Southern England was fortified
to defend against a possible French invasion; the 57th Foot was at Ashford, Kent. In February 1804, after less than a year in training, MacGregor
was promoted without purchase to lieutenant—an advancement that usually took up to three years. Later that year, after MacGregor had spent
some months in Guernsey with the regiment's 1st Battalion, the 57th Foot was posted to Gibraltar. MacGregor in the British Army, painted by
George Watson, 1804 MacGregor was introduced to Maria Bowater, the daughter of a Royal Navy admiral, around 1804. Maria commanded a
substantial dowry and, apart from her by-now-deceased father, was related to two generals, a member of parliament and the botanist Aylmer
Bourke Lambert. Gregor and Maria married at St Margaret's Church, Westminster in June 1805 and set up home in London, at the residence of
the bride's aunt. Two months later, having rejoined the 57th Foot in Gibraltar, MacGregor bought the rank of captain for about £900, choosing
not to wait the seven years such a promotion might take without purchase. The 57th Foot remained in Gibraltar between 1805 and 1809. During
this time MacGregor developed an obsession with dress, rank insignia and medals that made him unpopular in the regiment; he forbade any
enlisted man or non-commissioned officer from leaving his quarters in anything less than full dress uniform. In 1809 the 57th Foot was sent to
Portugal as reinforcements for the Anglo-Portuguese Army under the Duke of Wellington, during his second attempt to drive the French out of
Spain during the Peninsular War. MacGregor's regiment landed at Lisbon on July 15, about three months into the campaign. By September it
was garrisoning Elvas, near the frontier with Spain.[16] Soon thereafter MacGregor was seconded to the 8th Line Battalion of the Portuguese
Army, where he served with the rank of major from October 1809 to April 1810. According to Colonel Michael Rafter, this secondment came
after a disagreement between MacGregor and a superior officer, "originally of a trivial nature", that intensified to such an extent that the young
captain was forced to request discharge. This was promptly granted. MacGregor formally retired from the British service on May 24, 1810,
receiving back the £1,350 he had paid for the ranks of ensign and captain, and returned to Britain. The 57th Foot's actions at the Battle of
Albuera on May 16, 1811 would earn it considerable prestige and the nickname "the Die-Hards"—MacGregor would thereafter make much of
his association. On his return to Britain the 23-year-old MacGregor and his wife moved into a house rented by his mother in Edinburgh. There
he assumed the title of "Colonel", wore the badge of a Portuguese knightly order and toured the city in an extravagant and brightly-coloured
coach. After failing to attain high social status in Edinburgh, MacGregor moved back to London in 1811 and began styling himself "Sir Gregor
MacGregor, Bart.", falsely claiming to have succeeded to the MacGregor clan chieftainship; he also alluded to family ties with a selection of
dukes, earls and barons. This had little bearing on reality but MacGregor nevertheless created an air of credible respectability for himself in
London society. In December 1811, Maria MacGregor died. At a stroke MacGregor lost his main source of income and the support of the
influential Bowater family. His choices were, Sinclair suggests, limited: announcing his engagement to another heiress so soon after Maria's
death might draw embarrassing public protests from the Bowaters, and returning home to farm the MacGregor lands in Scotland would be in
his mind unacceptably dull. His only real experience was military, but the manner of his exit from the British Army would make a return there
awkward at best. MacGregor's interest was aroused by the colonial revolts against Spanish rule in Latin America, particularly Venezuela, where
seven of the ten provinces had declared themselves an independent republic in July 1811, starting the Venezuelan War of Independence. The
Venezuelan revolutionary General Francisco de Miranda had been lionised in London's highest circles during his recent visit, and may have met
MacGregor. Noting the treatment London society gave to Miranda, MacGregor formed the idea that exotic adventures in the New World might
earn him similar celebrity on his homecoming. He sold the small Scottish estate he had inherited from his father and grandfather and sailed for
South America in early 1812. On the way he stopped in Jamaica, where according to Rafter he was tempted to settle among the planters and
traders, but "having no introductory letters to that place, he was not received into society". After a comfortable sojourn in Kingston, he sailed for
Venezuela and disembarked in the capital Caracas in April 1812. MacGregor arrived in Venezuela a fortnight after much of Caracas had been
destroyed by an earthquake. With swathes of the country under the control of advancing royalist armies, the revolutionary government was
losing support and starting to fracture. MacGregor dropped his pretended Scottish baronetcy, reasoning that it might undermine the republican
credentials he hoped to establish, but continued to style himself "Sir Gregor" on the basis that he was, he claimed, a Knight of the Portuguese
Order of Christ. He offered his services directly to Miranda in Caracas. As a former British Army officer from the famous "Die-Hards", no less he
was received with great enthusiasm and given command of a cavalry battalion with the rank of colonel. In his first action, MacGregor and his
cavalry routed a royalist force west of Maracay, between Valencia and Caracas. Subsequent engagements were less successful, but the
republican leaders were still pleased with the glamour they perceived this dashing Scottish officer to lend to their cause. Colonel MacGregor
married Doña Josefa Antonia Andrea Aristeguieta y Lovera, daughter of a prominent Caracas family and a cousin of the revolutionary
Lieutenant-Colonel Simón Bolívar, in Maracay on June 10, 1812. By the end of that month Miranda had promoted MacGregor to brigadier-
general, but the revolutionary cause was failing; in July, after the royalists took the key port of Puerto Cabello from Bolívar, the republic
capitulated. In the chaos that ensued Miranda was captured by the Spanish while the remnants of the republican leadership, including
MacGregor with Josefa in tow, were extricated to the Dutch island of Curaçao aboard a British brig. Bolívar joined them there later in the year.
With Miranda imprisoned in Spain, Bolívar emerged as the new leader of the Venezuelan independence movement. He resolved that they would
have to take some time to prepare before returning to the mainland. Growing bored in Curaçao, MacGregor decided to offer his services to
General Antonio Nariño's republican armies in Venezuela's western neighbour, New Granada. He escorted Josefa to lodgings in Jamaica, then
travelled to Nariño's base at Tunja in the eastern Andes. Miranda's name won him a fresh commission in the service of New Granada, with
command of 1,200 men in the Socorro district near the border with Venezuela. There was little action in this sector; Nariño's forces were mainly
engaged around Popayán in the south-west, where the Spanish had a large garrison. Rafter reports positively on MacGregor's conduct in
Socorro, writing that "by the introduction of the European system of tactics, [he] considerably improved the discipline of the troops", but some
under his command disliked him. An official in Cúcuta, the district capital, expressed utter contempt for MacGregor in a letter to a friend: "I am
sick and tired of this bluffer, or Quixote, or the devil knows what. This man can hardly serve us in New Granada without heaping ten thousand
embarrassments upon us." While MacGregor was in the New Granadian service, Bolívar raised a force of Venezuelan exiles and local troops in
the port of Cartagena, and captured Caracas on August 4, 1813. The royalists quickly rallied and crushed Bolívar's second republic in mid-1814.
Nariño's New Granadian nationalists surrendered around the same time. MacGregor withdrew to Cartagena, where the formidable Castillo San
Felipe de Barajas was still in revolutionary hands, and at the head of a native regiment destroyed local hamlets, roads and crops so the Spanish
could not use them. A Spanish force of about 6,000 landed in late August 1815 and, after repeatedly failing to overcome the 5,000 defenders,
deployed to subdue the fortress by blockade. Sinclair records that MacGregor played an "honourable, though not conspicuous" part in the
defence. By November there remained in Cartagena only a few hundred men capable of fighting. The defenders resolved to use the dozen
gunboats they had to break through the Spanish fleet to the open sea, abandoning the city to the royalists; MacGregor was chosen as one of the
three commanders of this operation. On the night of December 5, 1815 the gunboats sailed out into the bay, blasted their way through the
smaller Spanish vessels and, avoiding the frigates, made for Jamaica. All of the gunboats escaped. The British merchant class in Jamaica that
had shunned MacGregor on his first arrival in 1812 now welcomed him as a hero. The Scotsman entertained many dinner parties with
embellished accounts of his part in the Cartagena siege, leading some to understand that he had personally headed the city's defence. One

Englishman toasted the "Hannibal of modern Carthage". Around New Year 1816, MacGregor and his wife made their way to Santo Domingo
(now the Dominican Republic), where Bolívar was raising a new army. Bolívar received MacGregor back into the Venezuelan Army with the
rank of brigadier-general, and included him in an expeditionary force that left Aux Cayes (now Les Cayes) on April 30, 1816. MacGregor took
part in the capture of the port town of Carúpano, as second-in-command of Manuel Piar's column, but is not mentioned in the record of the
battle prepared by Bolívar's staff. After the Spanish were driven from many central Venezuelan towns, MacGregor was sent to the coast west of
Caracas to recruit native tribesmen in July 1816. On July 18, 1816, eight days after the numerically superior royalists countered and broke
Bolívar's main force at La Cabrera, MacGregor resolved to retreat hundreds of miles east to Barcelona. Two pursuant royalist armies harried
MacGregor constantly as he retreated across country, but failed to break his rearguard. With no carts and only a handful of horses, the Scotsman
was forced to leave his wounded where they fell. Late on July 27, MacGregor's route east was blocked by a large royalist force at Chaguaramas,
south of Caracas and roughly a third of the distance to Barcelona. MacGregor led his men in a furious charge that prompted a Spanish retreat
back into the town, then continued towards Barcelona. The Spanish remained in the town until July 30, 1816 giving MacGregor two days' head
start, and caught up with MacGregor only on August 10, 1816. The Scotsman deployed his 1,200 men, mostly native archers, behind a marsh
and a stream the Spanish cavalry were bogged down in the marsh, while the archers repelled the infantry with volleys of arrows. After three
hours MacGregor charged and routed the royalists. MacGregor's party was helped the rest of the way east to Barcelona by elements of the main
revolutionary army. They arrived on August 20, 1816, after 34 days' march. In Rafter's view, this marked "the zenith of MacGregor's celebrity" in
South America. He had, according to his biographer Frank Griffith Dawson, "led his troops with brilliant success"; Sinclair agrees, calling the
march a "remarkable feat" demonstrating "genuine military skill". With Bolívar back in Aux Cayes, overall command of the republican armies in
Venezuela had been given to Piar. MacGregor and Piar had several disagreements over the next two months regarding the strategic conduct of
the war according to the American historian David Bushnell, the Scottish general probably "r[an] afoul of personal and factional rivalries within
the patriot camp". In early October 1816 MacGregor left with Josefa for Margarita Island, about 24 miles (39 km) off eastern Venezuela, where
he hoped to enter the service of General Juan Bautista Arismendi. Soon afterwards he received an acclamatory letter from Bolívar: "The retreat
which you had the honour to conduct is in my opinion superior to the conquest of an empire ... Please accept my congratulations for the
prodigious services you have rendered my country". MacGregor's march to Barcelona would remain prominent in the South American
revolutionary narrative for decades. Arismendi proposed to MacGregor that capturing one of the Spanish ports in East or West Florida might
provide an excellent springboard for republican operations elsewhere in Latin America. MacGregor liked the idea and, after an abortive attempt
to recruit in Haiti, sailed with Josefa to the United States to raise money and volunteers. In early 1817, soon after he left, a further
congratulatory letter from Bolívar arrived in Margarita, promoting MacGregor to general of division, awarding him the Orden de los
Libertadores (Order of the Liberators) and asking him to return to Venezuela. MacGregor would remain ignorant of this for two years. On
March 31, 1817, in Philadelphia, MacGregor received a document from three men calling themselves the "deputies of free America" Lino de
Clemente, Pedro Gual and Martin Thompson, each of whom claimed to speak for one or more of the Latin American republics in which the
Scottish general was called upon to take possession of "both the Floridas, East and West" as soon as possible. Florida's proposed fate was not
specified; MacGregor presumed that the Floridians, who were mostly of non-Spanish origin, would seek US annexation and that the US would
quickly comply. He thus expected at least covert support from the US government. In the Mid-Atlantic states, South Carolina and particularly
Savannah, Georgia, MacGregor raised not only several hundred armed men for this enterprise, but also $160,000 by the sale of "scripts" to
investors, promising them fertile acres in Florida or their money back with interest. He determined to first attack Amelia Island, an anarchic
community of pirates and other criminals containing about 40% of East Florida's population (recorded as 3,729 in 1815). Expecting little to no
resistance from the tiny Spanish garrison there, MacGregor left Charleston with only 60 men, mostly US citizens, in one ship. He led the
landing party of 78 men personally on June 29, 1817, with the words: "I shall sleep either in hell or Amelia tonight!" The Spanish commander at
Fort San Carlos, with 51 men and several cannon, vastly overestimated the size of MacGregor's force and surrendered without either side firing a
shot. Few of Amelia's residents came out to support MacGregor, but at the same time there was little resistance; most simply left for mainland
Florida or Georgia. MacGregor raised a flag showing a green cross on a white field the "Green Cross of Florida" and issued a proclamation on
June 30, urging the island's inhabitants to return and support him. This was largely ignored, as was a second proclamation in which MacGregor
congratulated his men on their victory and exhorted them to "free the whole of the Floridas from Tyranny and oppression" Morale among the
troops plummeted when MacGregor prohibited looting. MacGregor announced a "Republic of the Floridas" under a government headed by
himself, attempted to tax the local pirates' booty at an "admiralty court", and tried to raise money by seizing and selling dozens of slaves found
on the island. Most of his recruits were still in the US; American authorities prevented most of them from leaving port, and MacGregor was able
to muster only 200 on Amelia. His officers clamoured for an invasion of mainland Florida, but he insisted they did not have enough men, arms
or supplies. Bushnell suggests that MacGregor's backers in the US may have promised him more support in these regards than they ultimately
provided. Eighteen men sent to reconnoitre around St Augustine in late July 1817 were variously killed, wounded or captured by the Spanish.
MacGregor's army paid first in "Amelia dollars" he had printed, then later not at all became increasingly mutinous As Spanish forces
congregated on the mainland opposite Amelia, MacGregor and most of his officers decided on September 3, 1817 that the situation was
hopeless and that they would abandon the enterprise. MacGregor announced to the men that he was leaving, explaining vaguely that he had
been "deceived by my friends", and turned command over to one of his subordinates, a former Pennsylvania congressman called Jared Irwin.
With an angry crowd looking on and hurling insults at him, MacGregor boarded the Morgiana with his wife on September 4. He waited off-
shore for a few days, then left on the schooner Venus on September 8, 1817. Two weeks later the MacGregors arrived at Nassau in the Bahamas,
where MacGregor had commemorative medallions struck bearing the Green Cross motif and the Latin inscriptions Amalia Veni Vidi Vici
("Amelia, I Came, I Saw, I Conquered") and Duce Mac Gregorio Libertas Floridarium ("Liberty for the Floridas under the leadership of
MacGregor"). He made no attempt to repay those who had funded the Amelia expedition. Irwin's troops defeated two Spanish assaults and were
then joined by 300 men under Louis-Michel Aury, who held Amelia for three months, then surrendered to American forces who held the island
"in trust for Spain" until the Florida Purchase in 1819. Press reports of the Amelia Island affair were wildly inaccurate, partly because of
misinformation disseminated by MacGregor himself his sudden departure, he claimed, was because he had sold the island to Aury for $50,000.
Josefa gave birth to her and MacGregor's first child, a boy named Gregorio, in Nassau on November 9, 1817. The owner of the Venus, an ex-
captain of the British Corps of Colonial Marines called George Woodbine, pointed to the British Legions being raised by the Latin American
revolutionaries in London, and suggested that MacGregor could recruit and command such a force himself. Excited by the idea of leading
British troops again after years in command of colonials, tribesmen and miscellaneous adventurers, MacGregor sailed for home with Josefa and
Gregorio and landed in Dublin on September 21, 1818. The third Venezuelan republic's envoy in London borrowed £1,000 for MacGregor to
engage and transport British troops for service in Venezuela, but the Scotsman squandered these funds within a few weeks. A financier identified
only as "Mr Newte" took responsibility for the envoy's debt on the condition that MacGregor instead take troops to New Granada. MacGregor
funded his expedition through the sale of commissions at rates cheaper than the British Army, and assembled enlisted men through a network
of recruiters across the British Isles, offering volunteers huge financial incentives. MacGregor sailed for South America on November 18, 1818
aboard a former Royal Navy brigantine, renamed the Hero; 50 officers and over 500 troops, many of them Irish, followed the next month. They
were critically under-equipped, having virtually no arms or munitions. The men came close to mutiny at Aux Cayes in February 1819 when

MacGregor failed to produce the $80 per man on arrival promised by his recruiters. MacGregor successfully enjoined South American
merchants in Haiti to support him with funds, weapons and ammunition, but then procrastinated and gave the order to sail for the island of San
Andrés, off the Spanish-controlled Isthmus of Panama, only on March 10. Going first to Jamaica to arrange accommodation for Josefa and
Gregorio, MacGregor was almost arrested there on charges of gun-running. He joined his troops on San Andrés on April 4. The delay had led to
renewed dissension in the ranks that the stand-in commander Colonel William Rafter had difficulty containing. MacGregor restored morale by
announcing that they would set out to attack Porto Bello on the New Granadian mainland the following day. Colonel Rafter disembarked with
200 men near Porto Bello on April 9, outflanked an about equal force of Spanish defenders during the night, and marched into Porto Bello
without a fight on April 10. MacGregor, watching from one of the ships with Woodbine to whom he had given the rank of colonel quickly came
ashore when he sighted Rafter's signal of victory, and, as usual, issued a flowery proclamation: "Soldiers! Our first conquest has been glorious, it
has opened the road to future and additional fame." Rafter urged MacGregor to march on Panama, but MacGregor does not seem to have made
much in the way of plans to continue the campaign. He devoted most of his attention to the particulars of a new chivalric order of his design,
the emblem of which would be a Green Cross. The troops became mutinous again after more promised money failed to materialise, MacGregor
eventually paid each man $20, but this did little to restore discipline. The lack of patrolling by MacGregor's troops allowed the Spanish to march
straight into Porto Bello early on April 30, 1819. MacGregor was still in bed when the Spaniards found his riflemen drilling in the main square
and opened fire. Awoken by the noise, MacGregor threw his bed and blankets from the window onto the beach below and jumped out after
them, then attempted to paddle out to his ships on a log. He passed out and would probably have drowned had he not been picked up and
brought aboard the Hero by one of his naval officers. MacGregor would claim that on regaining consciousness he immediately raised his
standard over the Hero, then despatched runners to Rafter ordering him not to surrender. Rafter's version of events was that he received orders
to this effect only after he had himself contacted MacGregor on the Hero. Rafter, in the fort with 200 men, kept up a steady barrage and waited
for his commander to fire on the royalists from the ships but to the colonel's astonishment MacGregor instead ordered his fleet about and made
for the high seas. Abandoned, Colonel Rafter and the remnants of MacGregor's army had no choice but to surrender; most of the surviving
officers and troops entered miserable existences in captivity. Rafter was ultimately shot with 11 other officers for conspiring to escape. Making
his way first to San Andrés, then Haiti, MacGregor conferred invented decorations and titles on his officers, and planned an expedition to Rio de
la Hacha in northern New Granada. He was briefly delayed in Haiti by a falling out with his naval commander, an officer called Hudson. When
the naval officer fell ill, MacGregor had him put ashore, seized the Hero which Hudson owned and renamed her El MacGregor, explaining to
the Haitian authorities that "drunkenness, insanity and mutiny" by his captain had forced him to take the ship. MacGregor steered the hijacked
brigantine to Aux Cayes, then sold her after she was found to be unseaworthy. He found 500 officers and men waiting for him, courtesy of
recruiters in Ireland and London, but no ships to carry them and little in the way of equipment. This was remedied during July and August
1819, first by the arrival of his Irish recruiter Colonel Thomas Eyre with 400 men and two ships, MacGregor gave him the rank of general and
the Order of the Green Cross and then by the appearance of war materiel from London, sent by Mr Newte on a schooner named Amelia.
MacGregor bombastically announced his intention to liberate New Granada, but then hesitated. The lack of action, rations or pay for weeks
prompted most of the British volunteers to go home. MacGregor's force, which had comprised 900 men at its peak (including officers), had
dwindled to no more than 250 by the time he directed the Amelia and two other vessels to Rio de la Hacha on September 29, 1819. His
remaining officers included Lieutenant-Colonel Michael Rafter, who had bought a commission with the hope of rescuing his brother William.
After being driven away from Rio de la Hacha harbour by cannon on October 4, MacGregor ordered a night landing west of the town and said
that he would take personal command once the troops were ashore. Lieutenant-Colonel William Norcott led the men onto the beach and waited
there two hours for MacGregor to arrive, but the general failed to appear. Attacked by a larger Spanish force, Norcott countered and captured
the town. MacGregor still refused to leave the ships, convinced that the flag flying over the fort must be a trick; even when Norcott rowed out to
tell him to come into port, MacGregor would not step ashore for over a day. When he did appear, many of his soldiers swore and spat at him. He
issued another lofty proclamation, recalled by Rafter as an "aberration of human intellect", at the foot of which MacGregor identified himself as
"His Majesty the Inca of New Granada". Events went largely as they had done earlier in the year at Porto Bello. MacGregor abstained from
command in all but name, and the troops descended into a state of confused drunkenness. "General MacGregor displayed so palpable a want of
the requisite qualities which should distinguish the commander of such an expedition," Rafter wrote, "that universal astonishment prevailed
amongst his followers at the reputation he had for some time maintained." As Spanish forces gathered around the town, Norcott and Rafter
decided the situation was hopeless and left on a captured Spanish schooner on October 29, 1819, taking with them five officers and 27 soldiers
and sailors. MacGregor convened his remaining officers the next day and, giving them promotions and Green Cross decorations, exhorted them
to help him lead the defence. Immediately afterwards he went to the port, ostensibly to escort Eyre's wife and two children to safety on a ship.
After putting the Eyres on the Lovely Ann, he boarded the Amelia and ordered the ships out to sea just as the Spanish attacked. General Eyre
and the troops left behind were all killed. MacGregor reached Aux Cayes to find news of this latest debacle had preceded him, and he was
shunned. A friend in Jamaica, Thomas Higson, informed him through letters that Josefa and Gregorio had been evicted, and until Higson's
intervention had taken refuge in a slave's hut. MacGregor was wanted in Jamaica for piracy and so could not join his family there. He similarly
could not go back to Bolívar, who was so outraged by MacGregor's recent conduct that he accused the Scotsman of treason and ordered his
death by hanging if he ever set foot on the South American mainland again. MacGregor's whereabouts for the half year following October 1819
are unknown. Back in London in June 1820, Michael Rafter published a highly censorious account of MacGregor's adventures, Memoirs of
Gregor M'Gregor, dedicating the book to Colonel William Rafter and the troops abandoned at Porto Bello and Rio de la Hacha. In his summary
Rafter speculated that following the latter episode MacGregor was "politically, though not naturally dead" "to suppose", he wrote, "that any
person could be induced again to join him in his desperate projects, would be to conceive a degree of madness and folly of which human nature,
however fallen, is incapable". MacGregor's next known location is at the court of King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast, at Cape
Gracias a Dios on the Gulf of Honduras in April 1820. The Mosquito people, descendants of shipwrecked African slaves and local natives, shared
the historic British antipathy towards Spain, and the British authorities in the region had crowned their most powerful chieftains as "kings" since
the 17th century. There had been a modest British settlement around the Black River (now the Río Sico), but this had been evacuated following
the Anglo-Spanish Conventionof 1786; by the 1820s the most visible sign of prior colonisation was a small graveyard overgrown by the jungle.
On April 29, 1820, George Frederic Augustus signed a document granting MacGregor and his heirs a substantial swathe of Mosquito territory
8,000,000 acres (12,500 square miles), an area larger than Wales in exchange for rum and jewellery. The land was pleasing to the eye but unfit
for cultivation and could sustain little in the way of livestock. Its area was roughly a triangle with corners at Cape Gracias a Dios, Cape Camarón
and the Black River's headwaters. MacGregor dubbed this area "Poyais" after the natives of the highlands around the Black River's source, the
Paya or "Poyer" people (today called the Pech) and in mid-1821 appeared back in London calling himself the Cazique of Poyais "Cazique", a
Spanish-American word for a native chief, being equivalent in MacGregor's usage to "Prince". He claimed to have been created such by the
Mosquito king, but in fact both the title and Poyais were of his own invention. Despite Rafter's book, London society remained largely unaware
of MacGregor's failures over the past few years, but remembered successes such as his march to Barcelona; similarly his association with the
"Die-Hards" of the 57th Foot was recalled, but his dubious early discharge was not. In this climate of a constantly shifting Latin America, where
governments rose, fell and adopted new names from year to year, it did not seem so implausible that there might be a country called Poyais or

that a decorated general like MacGregor might be its leader. The Cazique became "a great adornment for the dinner tables and ballrooms of
sophisticated London", Sinclair writes rumours abounded that he was partially descended from indigenous royalty. His exotic appeal was
enhanced by the arrival of the striking "Princess of Poyais", Josefa, who had given birth to a girl named Josefa Anna Gregoria at MacGregor's
sister's home in Ireland. The MacGregors received countless social invitations, including an official reception at Guildhall from the Lord Mayor
of London. MacGregor said that he had come to London to attend King George IV's coronation on the Poyers' behalf, and to seek investment
and immigrants for Poyais. He claimed to have inherited a democratic system of government there, with a basic civil service and military. To
those interested MacGregor showed what he said was a copy of a printed proclamation he had issued to the Poyers on April 13, 1821. He therein
announced the 1820 land grant, his departure for Europe to seek investors and colonists "religious and moral instructors ... and persons to guide
and assist you" and the appointment of Brigadier-General George Woodbine to be "Vice-Cazique" during his absence. "POYERS!", the document
concluded, "I now bid you farewell for a while ... I trust, that through the kindness of Almighty Providence, I shall be again enabled to return
amongst you, and that then it will be my pleasing duty to hail you as affectionate friends, and yours to receive me as your faithful Cazique and
Father." There is no evidence that such a statement was ever actually distributed on the Mosquito Coast. So began the Poyais scheme, what has
been called "the most audacious fraud in history" and "the greatest confidence trick of all time". MacGregor devised a tricameral parliament and
other convoluted constitutional arrangements for Poyais, drew up commercial and banking mechanisms, and designed distinctive uniforms for
each regiment of the Poyaisian Army. His imaginary country had an honours system, landed titles, a coat of arms doubly supported by Poyers
and unicorns and the same Green Cross flag he had used in Florida. By the end of 1821 Major William John Richardson had not only accepted
MacGregor's fantasy as true but become an active ally, providing his attractive estate at Oak Hall, Wanstead to be a British base for the supposed
Poyaisian royal family. MacGregor gave Richardson the Order of the Green Cross, commissioned him into the Poyaisian "Royal Regiment of
Horse Guards" and appointed him the head representative of Poyais in Britain. Richardson received a letter of credence from "Gregor the First,
Sovereign Prince of the State of Poyais", was presented to George IV, and became chargé d'affaires of the Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill in
the City of London. MacGregor had Poyaisian offices set up in London, Edinburgh and Glasgow to sell impressive-looking land certificates
initially hand-written, but later printed to the general public, and to co-ordinate prospective emigrants. The general consensus is that Britain in
the early 1820s could hardly have suited MacGregor and his Poyais scheme better. Amid a general growth in the British economy following the
Battle of Waterloo and the end of the Napoleonic Wars, interest rates were dropping and the British government bond, the "consol", offered rates
as low as 3% per annum on the London Stock Exchange. It was fashionable to instead buy more lucrative equivalents issued in London for
overseas governments. After continental European bonds were popular in the immediate post-Waterloo years, the Latin American revolutions
brought a raft of new alternatives, starting with the £2 million loan issued for Gran Colombia (incorporating both New Granada and Venezuela)
in March 1822. Bonds from Colombia, Peru, Chile and others, offering interest rates as high as 6% per annum, created what Sinclair terms "a
fever of investment in South America", on which a Central American nation, like the Poyais described by MacGregor, would be ideally
positioned to capitalise. MacGregor mounted an aggressive sales campaign. He gave interviews in the national newspapers, engaged publicists
to write advertisements and leaflets, and had Poyais-related ballads composed and sung on the streets of London, Edinburgh and Glasgow. His
proclamation to the Poyers was distributed in handbill form. In mid-1822 there appeared in Edinburgh and London a 355-page guidebook
"chiefly intended for the use of settlers", Sketch of the Mosquito Shore, Including the Territory of Poyais ostensibly the work of a "Captain
Thomas Strangeways", aide-de-camp to the Cazique, but actually written either by MacGregor himself or by accomplices. The Sketch mostly
comprised long, reprinted tracts from older works on the Mosquito Coast and other parts of the region. The original material ranged from
misleading to outright made up. MacGregor's publicists described the Poyaisian climate as "remarkably healthy ... agree[ing] admirably with the
constitution of Europeans" it was supposedly a spa destination for sick colonists from the Caribbean. The soil was so fertile that a farmer could
have three maize harvests a year, or grow cash crops such as sugar or tobacco without hardship; detailed projections at the Sketch 's end forecast
profits of millions of dollars. Fish and game were so plentiful that a man could hunt or fish for a single day and bring back enough to feed his
family for a week. The natives were not just co-operative but intensely pro-British. The capital was St Joseph, a flourishing seaside town of wide
paved boulevards, colonnaded buildings and mansions, inhabited by as many as 20,000. St Joseph had a theatre, an opera house and a domed
cathedral; there was also the Bank of Poyais, the Poyaisian houses of parliament and a royal palace. Reference was made to a "projected Hebrew
colony". The Sketch went so far as to claim the rivers of Poyais contained "globules of pure gold". Chorus of "The Poyais Emigrant", one of the
ballads composed to advertise Poyais:
“The Poyais Emigrant
We'll a' gang to Poyais thegither,
We'll a' gang ower the seas thegither,
To fairer lands and brighter skies,
Nor sigh again for Hieland heather.”
This was almost all fiction, but MacGregor's calculation that official-looking documents and the printed word would convince many people
proved correct. The meticulous detail in the leather-bound Sketch, and the cost of having it printed, did much to dispel lingering doubts.
Poyaisian land certificates at 2s/3d per acre, roughly equivalent to a working man's daily wage at the time, were perceived by many as an
attractive investment opportunity. There was enough demand for the certificates that MacGregor was able to raise the price to 2s/6 per acre in
July 1822, then gradually to 4s/- per acre, without diminishing sales; according to MacGregor, about 500 had bought Poyaisian land by early
1823. The buyers included many who invested their life savings. MacGregor became, to quote one 21st-century financial analyst, the "founding
father of securities fraud". Alongside the land certificate sales, MacGregor spent several months organising the issue of a Poyaisian government
loan on the London Stock Exchange. As a precursor to this he registered his 1820 land grant at the Court of Chancery on October 14, 1822. Sir
John Perring, Shaw, Barber & Co., a London bank with a fine reputation, underwrote a £200,000 loan, secured on "all the revenues of the
Government of Poyais" including the sale of land, and offered provisional certificates or "scrip" for the Poyaisian bonds on October 23, 1822. The
bonds were in denominations of £100, £200 and £500, and offered at a discounted purchase price of 80%. A deposit of 15% secured the
certificate, with the remainder due over two instalments on January 17 and February 14, 1823. The interest rate was 6% per annum. If the
Poyaisian issue successfully emulated its Colombian, Peruvian and Chilean counterparts, MacGregor stood to amass a fortune.For settlers,
MacGregor deliberately targeted his fellow Scots, assuming that as a Scotsman himself they would be more likely to trust him. Their
emigration served to reassure potential investors in the Poyaisian bonds and land certificates firstly that the country was real, and secondly that
it was being developed and would provide monetary returns. In Sinclair's assessment, this aspect of the scheme "turn[ed] what would have been
an inspired hoax into a cruel and deadly one". Tamar Frankel posits in her analysis that, at least to some degree, MacGregor "probably believed
his own story" and genuinely hoped to forge these people into a Poyaisian society.MacGregor told his would-be colonists that he wished to see
Poyais populated with Scots as they possessed the necessary hardiness and character to develop the new country. Alluding to the rivalry with
England and the Darien episode which, he stressed, had involved a direct ancestor of his MacGregor suggested that in Poyais they might right
this historic wrong and salvage Scottish pride. Skilled tradesmen and artisans were promised free passage to Poyais, supplies, and lucrative

government contracts. Hundreds, mostly Scots, signed up to emigrate enough to fill seven ships. They included a City of London banker named
Mauger (who was to head the Bank of Poyais), doctors, civil servants, young men whose families had bought them commissions in the Poyaisian
Army and Navy, and an Edinburgh cobbler who accepted the post of Official Shoemaker to the Princess of Poyais. Leadership of the Cazique's
first emigration party was given to an ex-British Army officer, Hector Hall, who was commissioned into the Poyaisian "2nd Native Regiment of
Foot" with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and created "Baron Tinto" with a supposed 12,800-acre (20-square-mile) estate. Hall would sail with 70
emigrants on the Honduras Packet, a vessel MacGregor had encountered in South America. MacGregor saw them off from London on
September 10, 1822, entrusting to Mr Mauger 5,000 Bank of Poyais dollar notes produced by the Bank of Scotland's official printer. "The new
world of their dreams suddenly became a very real world as the men accepted the Cazique's dollar notes," Sinclair writes, "The people who had
bought land, and who had planned to take their savings with them in coin, were also delighted to exchange their gold for the legal currency of
Poyais." After MacGregor spoke briefly to each of the settlers to wish them luck, he and Hall exchanged salutes and the Honduras Packet set
sail, flying the Green Cross flag. A second emigrant ship the Kennersley Castle, a merchantman docked at Leith, near Edinburgh was hired by
MacGregor in October 1822, and left Leith on January 22, 1823 with almost 200 emigrants aboard. MacGregor again saw the settlers off, coming
aboard to see that they were well quartered; to their delight, he announced that since this was the maiden emigrant voyage from Scotland to
Poyais, all the women and children would sail for free. The Cazique was rowed back to shore to rousing cheers from his colonists. The ship's
captain Henry Crouch fired a six-gun broadside salute, hoisted the supposed flag of Poyais, then steered the ship out of port. While claiming
royal status as Cazique, MacGregor attempted to dissociate himself from the Latin American republican movement and his former comrades
there, and from late 1822 made discreet overtures towards the Spanish government regarding co-operation in Central America. The Spanish
paid him little notice. The Poyaisian bonds performed reasonably well until they were crippled by unrelated developments during November
and December 1822. Amid the general instability in South America, the Colombian government suggested that its London agent might have
exceeded his authority when he arranged the £2 million loan. When this representative suddenly died, the frantic buying of South American
securities was abruptly replaced by equally restless selling. The Cazique's cash flow was all but wiped out when most of those who had bought
the Poyaisian scrip did not make the payments due in January. While the price of the Colombian bonds steadied and eventually rose again, the
Poyaisian securities never recovered; by late 1823 they were traded for less than 10% of their face value. The Honduras Packet reached the Black
River in November 1822. Bemused to find a country rather different from the Sketch 's descriptions, and no sign of St Joseph, the emigrants set
up camp on the shore, assuming that the Poyaisian authorities would soon contact them. They sent numerous search parties inland; one, guided
by natives who recognised the name St Joseph, found some long-forgottenfoundations and rubble. Hall quickly came to the private conclusion
that MacGregor must have duped them, but reasoned that announcing such concerns prematurely would only demoralise the party and cause
chaos. A few weeks after their arrival, the Honduras Packet suddenly sailed away; the emigrants found themselves alone apart from the natives
and two American hermits. Vaguely reassuring the settlers that the Poyaisian government would find them if they just stayed where they were,
Hall set out for Cape Gracias a Dios, hoping to make contact with the Mosquito king or find another ship. Most of the emigrants found it
impossible to believe that the Cazique had deliberately misled them, and posited that blame must lie elsewhere, or that there must have been
some terrible misunderstanding. “... disease seized upon them and spread rapidly. Lack of proper food and water, and failure to take the requisite
sanitary precautions, brought on intermittent fever and dysentery. ... Whole families were ill. Most of the sufferers lay on the ground without
other protection from the sun and rain than a few leaves and branches thrown across some sticks. Many were so weak as to be unable to crawl to
the woods for the common offices of nature. The stench arising from the filth they were in was unendurable.” The second set of colonists
disembarked from the Kennersley Castle in late March 1823. Their optimism was quickly extinguished. Hall returned in April with
disheartening news: he had found no ship that could help, and far from considering them any responsibility of his, King George Frederic
Augustus had not even been aware of their presence. The Kennersley Castle having sailed, MacGregor's victims could count on no assistance in
the near future. Hall returned to Cape Gracias a Dios several times to seek help, but did not explain his constant absences to the settlers this
exacerbated the general confusion and anger, particularly after Hall refused to pay the wages promised to those supposedly on Poyaisian
government contracts. With the coming of the rainy season insects infested the camp, diseases such as malaria and yellow fever took hold, and
the emigrants sank into utter despair. James Hastie, a Scottish sawyer who had brought his wife and three children with him, later wrote: "It
seemed to be the will of Providence that every circumstance should combine for our destruction." The would-be royal shoemaker, who had left a
family in Edinburgh, shot himself. The settlers were discovered in early May 1823 by the Mexican Eagle, a schooner from British Honduras
carrying the Chief Magistrate of Belize, Marshal Bennet, to the Mosquito king's court. Seven adult male colonists and three children had died,
and many more were sick. Bennet informed them that Poyais did not exist and that he had never heard of this Cazique they spoke of. He advised
them to return with him to British Honduras, as they would surely die if they stayed where they were. The majority preferred to wait for Hall to
come back, hopefully with news of passage back to Britain. About half a week later Hall returned with the Mosquito king, who announced that
MacGregor's land grant was revoked forthwith. He had never granted MacGregor the title of Cazique, he said, nor given him the right to sell
land or raise loans against it; the emigrants were in fact in George Frederic Augustus's territory illegally and would have to leave unless they
pledged allegiance to him. All of the settlers left except for about 40 who were too weakened by disease to make the journey. Transported
aboard the cramped Mexican Eagle the lack of space necessitated three trips the emigrants were in miserable shape when they reached Belize,
and in most cases had to be carried from the ship. Weather conditions in British Honduras were even worse than those at the Black River, and
the colony's authorities, doctors and residents could do little to help the new arrivals. Disease spread rapidly among the settlers and most of
them died. The colony's superintendent, Major-General Edward Codd, opened an official investigation to "lay open the true situation of the
imaginary State of Poyais and ... the unfortunate emigrants", and sent word to Britain of the Poyais settlers' fate. By the time the warning reached
London, MacGregor had five more emigrant ships on the way; Royal Navy vessels intercepted them. The surviving colonists variously settled in
the United States, remained in British Honduras, or sailed for home aboard the Ocean, a British vessel that left Belize on August 1, 1823. Some
died during the journey back across the Atlantic. Of the about 270 who had sailed on the Honduras Packet and the Kennersley Castle, at least
180 had perished in all. Fewer than 50 saw Britain again. MacGregor left London shortly before the small party of Poyais survivors arrived home
on October 12, 1823 he told Richardson that he was taking Josefa to winter in Italy for the sake of her health, but in fact his destination was
Paris. The London press reported extensively on the Poyais scandal over the following weeks and months, stressing the colonists' travails and
charging that MacGregor had orchestrated a massive fraud. Six of the survivors including Hastie, who had lost two of his children during the
ordeal claimed that they were misquoted in these articles, and on October 22, 1823 signed an affidavit insisting that blame lay not with
MacGregor but with Hall and other members of the emigrant party. "[W]e believe that Sir Gregor MacGregor has been worse used by Colonel
Hall and his other agents than was ever a man before," they declared, "and that had they have done their duty by Sir Gregor and by us, things
would have turned out very differently at Poyais". MacGregor asserted that he himself had been defrauded, alleged embezzlement by some of
his agents, and claimed that covetous merchants in British Honduras were deliberately undermining the development of Poyais as it threatened
their profits. Richardson attempted to console the Poyais survivors, and issued libel writs against some of the British newspapers on MacGregor's
behalf. In Paris, MacGregor successfully enjoined the Compagnie de la Nouvelle Neustrie, a firm of traders that aspired towards prominence in
South America, to seek investors and settlers for Poyais in France. He concurrently intensified his efforts towards King Ferdinand VII of Spain in
a November 1823 letter the Cazique proposed to make Poyais a Spanish protectorate. Four months later he offered to lead a Spanish campaign

to reconquer Guatemala, using Poyais as a base. Spain took no action. MacGregor's "moment of greatest hubris", Matthew Brown suggests in his
biographical portrait, came in December 1824 when, in a letter to the King of Spain, he claimed to be himself "descendent of the ancient Kings
of Scotland". Around this time Josefa gave birth to the third and final MacGregor child, Constantino, at their home in the Champs-Élysées.
Gustavus Butler Hippisley, a friend of Major Richardson and a fellow veteran of the British Legions in Latin America, accepted the Poyais
fantasy as true and entered MacGregor's employ in March 1825. Hippisley wrote back to Britain refuting "the bare-faced calumnies of a hireling
press"; in particular he admonished a journalist who had called MacGregor a "penniless adventurer". With Hippisley's help, MacGregor
negotiated with the Nouvelle Neustrie company, whose managing director was a Frenchman called Lehuby, and agreed to sell the French
company up to 500,000 acres (781 square miles) in Poyais for its own settlement scheme; "a very clever way of distancing himself", Sinclair
comments, as this time he would be able to say honestly that others were responsible and that he had merely made the land available. Lehuby's
company readied a ship at Le Havre and began to gather French emigrants, of whom about 30 obtained passports to travel to Poyais. Discarding
the idea of co-operation with Spain, MacGregor published a new Poyaisian constitution in Paris in August 1825, this time describing it as a
republic he remained head of state, with the title Cazique and on August 18, raised a new £300,000 loan through Thomas Jenkins & Company,
an obscure London bank, offering 2.5% interest per annum. No evidence survives to suggest that the relevant bonds were issued. The Sketch was
condensed and republished as a 40-page booklet called Some Account of the Poyais Country. French government officials became suspicious
when 30 more people requested passports to travel to this country they had never heard of, and ordered the Nouvelle Neustrie company's ship
to be kept in port. Some of the would-be emigrants became themselves concerned and ordered a police investigation, which led to the arrest of
Hippisley and MacGregor's secretary Thomas Irving in Paris in the early hours on September 4, 1825. MacGregor went into hiding in the French
provinces, while Lehuby fled to the southern Netherlands. Hippisley and Irving were informed on September 6, that they were being
investigated for conspiracy to defraud, and to sell titles to land they did not own. Both insisted that they were innocent. They were taken that
evening to La Force Prison. MacGregor was arrested after three months and brought to La Force on December 7, 1825. He apologised to his
confederates for leaving them in this position for so long, and speculated that the charges against them must be "political in nature, arising
from some sudden change in policy", or the result of some Spanish intrigue calculated to undermine Poyaisian independence. The three men
remained imprisoned without trial while the French attempted to extradite Lehuby from the Netherlands. Attempting to re-associate himself
and Poyais with the republican movement in Latin America, MacGregor issued a French-language declaration from his prison cell on January
10, 1826, claiming that he was "contrary to human rights, held prisoner ... for reasons of which he is not aware" and "suffering as one of the
founders of independence in the New World". This attempt to convince the French that he might have some kind of diplomatic immunity did
not work. The French government and police simply ignored the announcement. The three Britons were brought to trial on April 6, 1826.
Lehuby, still in the Netherlands, was tried in absentia. The Crown prosecution's case was seriously hampered by his absence, particularly
because many key documents were with him in the Netherlands. The prosecutor alleged a complex conspiracy between MacGregor, Lehuby
and their associates to profit personally from a fraudulent land concession and loan prospectus. MacGregor's lawyer, a Frenchman called Maître
Merilhou, asserted that if anything untoward had occurred, the missing managing director should be held culpable; there was no proof of a
conspiracy, he said, and MacGregor could have been himself defrauded by Lehuby. The prosecutor conceded that there was insufficient
evidence to prove his case, complimented MacGregor for co-operating with the investigation fairly and openly, and withdrew the charges. The
three judges confirmed the defendants' release "a full and perfect acquittal", Hippisley would write but days later the French authorities
succeeded in having Lehuby extradited, and the three men learned they would have to stand trial again. The fresh trial, scheduled for May 20,
was postponed when the prosecutor announced that he was not ready. The delay gave MacGregor and Merilhou time to prepare an elaborate,
largely fictional 5,000-word statement purporting to describe the Scotsman's background, activities in the Americas, and total innocence of any
endeavour to defraud. When the trial finally began on July 10, 1826, Merilhou was present not as MacGregor's defence counsel but as a witness
for the prosecution, having been called as such because of his links with the Nouvelle Neustrie company. Merilhou entrusted MacGregor's
defence to Maître Berville, who read the 5,000-word submission in full before the court. "Maître Merilhou, as the author of the address the court
had heard, and Maître Berville, as the actor who read the script, had done their work extremely well," Sinclair writes; Lehuby was convicted of
making false representations regarding the sale of shares, and sentenced to 13 months' imprisonment, but the Cazique was found not guilty on
all charges, while the imputations against Hippisley and Irving were stricken from the record. MacGregor quickly moved his family back to
London, where the furore following the Poyais survivors' return had died down and, in the midst of a serious economic downturn, some
investors had subscribed to the £300,000 Poyais loan issued by Thomas Jenkins & Company, apparently believing the assertion of the Cazique's
publicists that the previous loans had defaulted only because of embezzlement by one of his agents. MacGregor was arrested soon after his
arrival back in Britain, and held at Tothill Fields Bridewell in Westminster for about a week before being released without charge. He initiated a
new, less ornate version of the Poyais scheme, describing himself simply as the "Cacique of the Republic of Poyais". The new Poyaisian office at
23 Threadneedle Street made none of the claims to diplomatic status the old Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill had done. MacGregor
persuaded Thomas Jenkins & Company to act as brokers for an £800,000 loan, issued on 20-year bonds at 3% interest, in mid-1827. The bonds,
produced at nominal values of £250, £500 and £1,000, did not become popular. An anonymous handbill was circulated in the City of London,
describing the previous Poyais loans and warning readers to "Take Care of your Pockets, Another Poyais Humbug". The loan's poor performance
compelled MacGregor to pass most of the unsold certificates to a consortium of speculators for a small sum. Sinclair stresses that the Poyais
bonds were perceived as "humbug" not because MacGregor's hoax had been fully unravelled, but simply because the prior securities had failed
to deliver profitable returns. "Nobody thought to question the legitimacy of Poyais itself", he elaborates. "Some investors had begun to
understand that they were being fleeced, but almost none realised how comprehensively." Other variants on the Poyais scheme were similarly
unsuccessful. In 1828 MacGregor began to sell certificates entitling the holders to "land in Poyais Proper" at 5s/- per acre. Two years later King
Robert Charles Frederic, who had succeeded his brother George Frederic Augustus in 1824, issued thousands of certificates covering the same
territory and offered them to lumber companies in London, directly competing with MacGregor. When the original investors demanded their
long-overdue interest, MacGregor could only pay with more certificates. Other charlatans soon caught on and set up their own rival "Poyaisian
offices" in London, offering land debentures in competition with both MacGregor and the Mosquito king. By 1834 MacGregor was back in
Scotland and living in Edinburgh. He paid some unredeemed securities by issuing yet another series of Poyaisian land certificates. Two years
later he published a constitution for a smaller Poyaisian republic, centred on the region surrounding the Black River, and headed by himself as
President. It was clear, however, that "Poyais had had its day," as Sinclair puts it. An attempt by MacGregor to sell some land certificates in 1837
marks the last record of any Poyais scheme. Josefa MacGregor died at Burghmuirhead, near Edinburgh, on May 4, 1838. MacGregor almost
immediately left for Venezuela, where he resettled in Caracas and in October 1838 applied for citizenship and restoration to his former rank in
the Venezuelan Army, with back pay and a pension. He stressed his travails on Venezuela's behalf two decades earlier and asserted that Bolívar,
who had died in 1830, had effectively deported him; he described several unsuccessful requests to return and being "[forced to] remain outside
the Republic ... by causes and obstacles out of my control" while losing his wife, two children and "the best years of my life and all my fortune".
The Defence Minister Rafael Urdaneta, who had served alongside MacGregor during the Aux Cayes expedition of 1816, asked the Senate to look
upon the Scotsman's application favourably as he had "enlisted in our ranks from the very start of the War of Independence, and ran the same
risks as all the patriots of that disastrous time, meriting promotions and respect because of his excellent personal conduct" MacGregor's

contributions had been "heroic with immense results". President José Antonio Páez, another former revolutionary comrade, approved the
application in March 1839. MacGregor was duly confirmed as a Venezuelan citizen and general of division in the Venezuelan Army, with a
pension of one-third of his salary. He settled in the capital and became a respected member of the local community. After his death at home in
Caracas on December 4, 1845, he was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral, with President Carlos Soublette, Cabinet ministers
and the military chiefs of Venezuela marching behind his coffin. Obituaries in the Caracas press extolled General MacGregor's "heroic and
triumphant retreat" to Barcelona in 1816 and described him as "a valiant champion of independence". "There was not a word about Amelia
Island, Porto Bello or Rio de la Hacha, and there was no reference to the Cazique of Poyais," Sinclair concludes: "It was almost as if the man they
buried was not the one who would ultimately take his place in history as an exotic footnote in the long and sorry saga of fools and their money."
Huetares
Huetares were an important indigenous group in Costa Rica, to the mid-sixteenth century lived in the Midwest.
List of Rulers of Huetares peoplee
Chiupa was an indigenous king of Costa Rica, possibly Huetar extraction who lived in the first half 16th century in the basin of the river
Suerre, on the Caribbean slope.
Camaquiri (Camaquire) was an indigenous king of Costa Rica, possibly Huetar extraction who lived in 1544 in the basin of the river Suerre,
on the Caribbean slope.
Cocori was an indigenous king of Costa Rica, possibly Huetar extraction who lived in 1543/1544 in the basin of the river Suerre, on the
Caribbean slope.
Tayutic was an indigenous king of Costa Rica, possibly Huetar extraction who lived in the second half 16th century in the basin of the river
Suerre, on the Caribbean slope.
Garabito was an indigenous King of the West Huetar Kingdom, in the present Costa Rica during 1560s. Garabito is perhaps,
along with Pablo Presbere, the best known of indigenous kings of Costa Rica, mainly because it was the greater strength opposed
the conquest of the country by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. Around her figure they have woven many legends where his
fierce and indomitable character is highlighted. He is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor
Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Guarco was a King of Huetares of Purapura, important indigenous group in Costa Rica from 1560s until 1570s. He is mentioned in the
granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Fernando Correque (death 1584) was a King of Huetares, important indigenous group in Costa Rica from 1570s until his death around
1584.
Alonso Correque was a King of Huetares, important indigenous group in Costa Rica in the late sixteenth century.
Turichiquí was an indigenous king of Costa Rica, belonging to the Huetar ethnicity during 1560s. He was possibly vassal of Huetar King
Fernando Correque. Turichiquí, who lived in the valley of Ujarrás, was the principal leader of a great movement of indigenous resistance
against the Spanish started in 1568, in which communities Guarco Valley, Turrialba, Ujarrás and Atirro participated.
Pipils
The Pipils or Cuzcatlecs are an indigenous people who live in western El Salvador, which they called Cuzcatlan. Their language is called Nahuat
or Pipil, related to the Toltec people of the Nahuatl Nation. Evidence from archeology and ethnohistory also supports the southward diffusion
thesis, especially that speakers of early Nahuatl languages migrated from northern Mexican deserts into central Mexico in several waves.
However, in general, their mythology is more closely related to the mythology of the Maya peoples who are their near neighbors and by oral
tradition said to have been adopted by Ch'orti' and Poqomam Mayan people during the Pipil exodus in the 9th century CE, led by Topiltzin
Quetzalcoatl.
List of Rulers of Pipils in Cuzcatlecs

Cuachimichin was a ruler of Mesoamerican peoples known as the Pipils, a polity which was based around the center of Cuzcatlan, in the
southwestern periphery of Mesoamerica (present-day El Salvador) from around 1450s until 1460s or from 1460s until 1470s.
Tutecotzimit (died 1501) was a ruler of Mesoamerican peoples known as the Pipils, a polity which was based around the center of Cuzcatlan,
in the southwestern periphery of Mesoamerica (present-day El Salvador) from 1460s or 1470s until his death in 1501.
Tonaltut (died 1501) was a ruler of Mesoamerican peoples known as the Pipils, a polity which was based around the center of Cuzcatlan, in
the southwestern periphery of Mesoamerica (present-day El Salvador) from 1501 until his death in 1520.
Atlacatl (died 1528) is reputed to have been the name of the last ruler of a polity which was based around the center of Cuzcatlan, in the
southwestern periphery of Mesoamerica (present-day El Salvador), at the time of the Spanish conquest. Cuzcatlán was at that time one of the
leading political centers in a loose 'confederation' of Mesoamerican peoples known as the Pipils, whose ultimately unsuccessful resistance
against the Spanish conquistadores under Pedro de Alvarado and others is remembered in Salvadoran tradition. The figure of Atlacatl himself
has taken on a somewhat legendary aspect in Salvadoran folklore, symbolising the Pipils' brave and stout resistance against the invading
Spanish forces. However, the historical reality of Atlacatl's resistance (and even existence) is open to question, with contemporary sources
providing a different account, and the details of Atlacatl's heroic exploits appearing as later embellishments after the fact. According to one
account, when Pedro de Alvarado and his forces arrived at Atehuan (Ateos) he received a message sent to him by Atlacatl in which Atlacatl
acquiesced to Alvarado's demand for Cuzcatlán's surrender. However, when Alvarado approached the town he found it abandoned, the Pipils all
having fled to the mountainous region nearby. Alvarado sent a new demand to Atlacatl for their surrender, but instead received the answer: "if
you want our arms you must come to get them from the mountains". Alvarado's forces launched a furious attack on the Pipil mountain
stronghold in which many horses, Spaniards and their native auxiliaries were killed; Alvarado was forced to retreat from Cuzcatlán on July 4,
1524. Two years after this battle, Alvarado's kinsman Gonzalo de Alvarado had founded a Spanish base at San Salvador (August 1526), from
where the Spanish forces continued to raze the surrounding districts and combat the remaining Pipil resistance. Finally, in 1528, Diego de
Alvarado and his Indian auxiliaries set out on another attack on Cuzcatlán, during the defense of which Atlacatl and his forces were defeated,
Atlacatl jumped into the volcano to remain an unconquered legend.
Atonal was the Prince ("Tatoni") of Pipils people of Acaxual during 1520s. Hernán Cortés, after conquering the city of Tenochtitlan, capital of
the Aztec empire, delegated the conquest of the territories southward to his lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado, who set out with 120 horsemen, 300
footsoldiers and several hundred Cholula and Tlaxcala auxiliaries. After subduing the highland Mayan city-states of present-day Guatemala
through battle and co-optation, the Spanish sought to extend their dominion to the lower Atlantic region of the Pipils, then dominated by the
powerful city-state of Cuzcatlán. The Kaqchikel Mayans, who had long been rivals of Cuscatlán for control over their wealthy cacao-producing
region, joined forces with Alvarado's men and supported his campaign against their enemies. Accompanied by thousands of Kaqchikel warriors,
Alvarado then marched on Cuscatlán. The army arrived at the present territory of El Salvador, across the Paz River, on June 6, 1524. Receiving
word of the approaching Spanish forces, the Pipil peasants who lived nearby had fled. On June 8, 1524, the conquerors arrived in the
neighborhood of Acajutla at a village called Acaxual. There, according to records, a battle ensued between the opposing armies, with the Pipils
wearing cotton armor (of three fingers' thickness, according to Alvarado) and carrying long lances. This circumstance would be crucial in the
progression of the battle. Alvarado approached the Pipil lines with his archers' showers of crossbow arrows, but the natives did not retreat. The
conquistador noticed the proximity of a nearby hill and knew that it could be a convenient hiding place for his opponents. Alvarado pretended
that his army had given up the battle and retreated. The Pipils suddenly rushed the invaders, giving Alvarado an opportunity to inflict massive
losses. The Pipils that fell to the ground could not get back on their feet, hindered by the weight of their cotton armor, which enabled the
Spanish to slaughter them. In the words of Alvarado: "...the destruction was so great that in just a short time there were none which were left
alive...". However, Alvarado's army were not completely unscathed. In the battle Alvarado himself was struck by a sling shot to his thigh which
fractured his femur bone. According to local tradition the stone that hit the conquistador was hurled by a Pipil "Tatoni" (a prince) called Atonal.
The resultant infection lasted about eight months and left Alvarado partially crippled. In spite of this wound, he continued the conquest
campaign with relish.
Anastasio Mártir Aquino (April 15, 1792, Santiago Nonualco, El Salvador – July 24, 1833, San Vicente, El Salvador) was
a Salvadoran indigenous leader who led the Insurrection of the Nonualcos, a campesino uprising in El Salvador during the
time it belonged to the Federal Republic of Central America. Aquino was born into a family belonging to the Taytes (chiefs)
of the Nonualco, an Indigenous tribe of the Pipil nation that occupied the territory of the current Department of La Paz. After
the independence of Central America from Spain, it was briefly united with the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide
(1821-23). In 1823, with the fall of Emperor Iturbide, it declared independence from Mexico together with the states of
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The five states formed a short-lived federal republic that lasted until 1840,
but it was a difficult existence. The confrontations between Liberals and Conservatives, the local caudillos, the government's
lack of resources and its precarious organization, among other things, made the federation unstable. The need to raise money for the support of
the federation lead to a series of economic measures that were unpopular with the majority of the population. Among these were tributes and
expropriations of uncultivated land. The latter especially was a blow to the Indigenous, who during colonial times had retained the right to
practice slash-and-burn agriculture in lands not occupied by haciendas. Now the haciendas expanded and the land available for subsistence
agriculture by the Indigenous shrank. Forced labor in mines and fields also continued. Thus this group, already at a disadvantage socially since
the arrival of the Spaniards, became more disadvantaged with the arrival of independence. The government of El Salvador had to implement
unpopular measures in 1832, including a direct tax on real estate and on rents. This led to discontent and to popular uprisings. A major revolt
occurred at San Miguel, but others occurred at Chalatenango, Izalco and Sonsonate. These were suppressed. It was at Santiago Nonualco where
the principal uprising occurred, in late 1832 and early 1833. Aquino was a worker on an indigo plantation there, and he rebelled following the
arrest of his brother by the hacienda owner. Aquino called for disobedience to the government. He and his followers attacked army posts,
recruiting the Indigenous conscripts there, and burned haciendas. Legend relates that the spoils were distributed to the poor. By the end of
January 1833 Aquino managed to assemble an army large enough to do battle. His force was estimated at 2,000 to 5,000 men, armed mostly
with lances, but apparently with some firearms. The revolt started in the hacienda Jalponguita, in Santiago Nonualco, and spread along the
Comalapa and Lempa Rivers. The commandant of the neighboring city of San Vicente, J.J. Guzmán, received orders to suppress the rebellion.
The first attempt ended in an ambush. Another attack on February 5 was also unsuccessful. When he received news of this last defeat,
Commandant Guzmán fled. Meanwhile in the capital, San Salvador, political chief Mariano Prado, realizing he was incapable of controlling the

situation, turned over power to vice-chief Joaquín de San Martín. Before this transfer of power there was discontent in the ranks of the military,
and for this reason they abandoned the capital. The city descended into chaos, and San Martín had to take shelter to save his life. Aquino did not
know of the disorder in San Salvador. If he had, its occupation would not have been difficult. Having taken Zacatecoluca, he decided to attack
San Vicente on February 14. The people of San Vicente made haste to protect all objects of value. With two detachments one under the
command of Aquino's brother and the other of a friend, the rebels arrived early in the morning of the 15th. They were received without
hostility; the inhabitants preferred to avoid a fight. Aquino intended to burn the city, since it had been the source of the first attacks on his army
and it was where the exploitive landlords lived. However he was dissuaded by the intervention of an old householder for whom he had worked.
Aquino was named the political chief of San Vicente by his supporters, but he was unable to prevent a general sacking of the city. According to
popular tradition, Aquino went to the church of Nuestra Señora del Pilar and taking the crown from an image of St. Joseph, proclaimed himself
King of the Nonualcos. In Tepetitán he was proclaimed General Commandant of the Liberation Army and he proclaimed the famous
Declaration of Tepetitán on February 16. In it he ordered drastic punishments for murder (death), wounding someone (loss of a hand), joining
the government forces (as specified by law), robbery (loss of a hand) and vagrancy, among other crimes. The declaration also contained a
section on the protection of married women. Aquino also ended payment of taxes to the government, especially on indigo (the main product of
the region), banned aguardiente, and proclaimed the end of forced labor. He prohibited collection of debts contracted before the rebellion, with
a punishment of ten years in prison. The government tried to reach an agreement with the rebels under which they would put down their arms,
through mediation by two priests. Only one of them, Juan Bautista Navarro, was able to contact Aquino, and he obtained no results. Finally the
authorities were able to raise an army to confront Aquino. To the army were added many residents of San Vicente, who wanted to take revenge
for the sacking of the city. One of the army commanders, Major C. Cuellar, wanted to confront Aquino alone, but he was defeated. According to
legend, Aquino rushed at him with the cry Treinta arriba, treinta abajo, y adentro Santiagueños ("Thirty above, thirty below, and inside
Santiagueños"). This probably referred to the place occupied by his troops at the moment of the attack. On the morning of February 28 the
decisive battle occurred in Santiago Nonualco. Apparently the rebels were also being decimated by a disease. Taking advantage of this, Colonel
Juan José López, in command of 5,000 men, launched a general attack and dispersed the rebels. Aquino was not captured. In order to capture
the leader, the government offered to spare the lives of anyone who revealed his whereabouts. One traitor took advantage of the offer, and
Aquino was captured on April 23. He was moved to Zacatecoluca, where he was tried and condemned to death. He was executed by firing squad
in San Vicente. His head was cut off and displayed in an iron cage with the label "Example for rebels". It was later taken to the capital. After the
rebellion a song circulated, beginning with the following lines:
El indio Anastasio Aquino
Le mandó decir a Prado,
que no peleara jamás
Contra el pueblo de Santiago.
Aquino lo dijo así,
Tan feo el indio pero vení
También le mandó decir
Que los indios mandarían
Porque este país era de ellos
Como el mismo lo sabía
Aquino lo dijo así,
(The Indian Anastasio Aquino
Was sent to say to Prado,
That he never fight
Against the people of Santiago.
Aquino said it thus,
He also was sent to say
That the Indians would rule
Because this country was theirs
As he himself knew.
Aquino said it thus,
Tan feo el indio pero vení)
Up to the present day, Aquino has been taken as a symbol of rebellion and liberty by sectors on the political left. Also he has appeared in
literature. For example, the poets Pedro Geoffroy Rivas and Roque Dalton have dedicated some of their work to him. The writer Matilde Elena
López wrote a theater piece with the name of The Ballad of Anastasio Aquino.
Patricio Shupan (died 1917) was mayordomo of the brotherhood of Pipil people, who died in 1917 after participating at a dinner with
president Carlos Meléndez.
José Feliciano Ama (1881-February 28, 1932) was an indigenous peasant leader, a Pipil from Izalco in El Salvador,
who participated and died in the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Ama had his lands taken by the wealthy coffee
planting family, the Regalados, during which he was hung by his thumbs and beaten. This was in the context of liberal
reforms which stripped the indigenous population of access to their communal lands, which were appropriated by
private landowners. Ama was a day laborer in Izalco. He married Josefa Shupan, who came from an influential Pipil
family in Izalco. 1917 he became a member of the catholic brotherhood Cofradía del Corpus Christi. His father-in-law
Patricio Shupan was mayordomo of the brotherhood, who died in 1917 after participating at a dinner with president Carlos Meléndez. After
Shupan's death Feliciano Ama became head of the brotherhood, which consisted exclusively of Pipil.In the early morning of January 22, 1932
Feliciano Ama lead the Pipil peasants of Izalco into the uprising against the landlords. With several hundred supporters he marched to the
capital of the department Sonsonate. There the mayor was killed by insurgents from Juayúa, but landlords accused Ama, who fled into the hills
of Izalco. There he was found by soldiers from the garrison of Izalco under commander Cabrera, captured and hanged in the center of Izalco.

Opata Tribe
The Opata are three indigenous peoples native to the northern Mexican border state of Sonora. Opata territory, the “Opateria”, encompasses the
mountainous northeast and central part of the state extending to near the border with the United States. Most Opatan towns were situated in
river valleys and had an economy based on irrigated agriculture. In the 16th century when they first met the Spanish, the Opata were the most
numerous people in Sonora. As an identifiable ethnic group, the Opata and their language are now extinct, or nearly extinct.
List of Chiefs of Opata Tribe
Dorame Eudeve (died 1820) was the Chief of Opata, indigenous people native to the present northern Mexican border state of Sonora in the
early 19th century until his death in 1820. Tension between the Spanish, the Mexicans, and the Opata manifested itself in numerous revolts in
the 19th century. In 1820, 300 Opata warriors defeated a Spanish force of 1,000 soldiers, and destroyed a mining town near Tonichi. Later, they
won another battle at Arivechi, killing more than 30 soldiers. A Spanish force of 2,000 soldiers finally defeated the Opata, forcing the survivors
to surrender. The Spanish executed the Opata leaders, including Dorame Eudeve, whose surname is still common in the Opateria region of
Sonora. Revolts continued after Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821.
Dolores Gutierrez (died 1833) was the Chiefess of Opata, indigenous people native to the present northern Mexican border state of Sonora
during early 1830s until his death in 1833. Opata leader, Dolores Gutierrez, was executed in 1833 by the Mexicans for his involvement in a
revolt.
Juan Guiriso was the Chief of Opata, indigenous people native to the present northern Mexican border state of Sonora in 1833.
Blas Medrano (died April 1835) was the Chief of Opata, indigenous people native to the present northern Mexican border state of Sonora
from 1833 until his death in April 1835.
Albino Acosta was the Chief of Opata, indigenous people native to the present northern Mexican border state of Sonora in the second half
1830s.
Cabécares Tribe
Cabécares (Kabekwa in cabécar language) are an indigenous ethnic group in Costa Rica. They are located in Chirripó, in the Valle del Pacuare,
and Reserve of Talamanca, between the provinces of Cartago and Limón.
List of Rulers of the Cabécares
Guaycora was a indigenous chieftain of Sucaca of the Cabécares in the present Costa Rica in the early 17th century, in the Cordillera de
Talamanca.
Comesala was a Chief and religious leader (useköl) of Cabécar, indigenous people in Costa Rica, who along with Paul Presbere in 1709 led
the largest Indian rebellion in Costa Rica, against Spanish rule.
Carlos Mamani Chilihuanca (died 1816) was an indigenous Aimara leader in the War of Independence of Bolivia, who fought during the
third helper campaign to the High Peru of the Northern Army in 1815 and continued fighting after the army was disbanded by the space of a
year Moreover, until the movement he was eventually arrested by the Royal Army of Peru.
Quepoa Kingdom
Quepoa was the indigenious Kingdom in the South Pacific region of Costa Rica. It was bounded by the river Parrita northeast, the Rio Grande de
Térraba southeast, the southern mountains of the Central Valley to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south.
King of Quepoa Kingdom
Corrohore was the indigenous King of Quepoa Kingdom in Costa Rica during 1560s. He is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in
1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.

Chorotega People
Mangue, also known as Chorotega, is an extinct Oto-Manguean language indigenous to Honduras, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. The ethnic
population numbered around 10,000 in 1981. Chorotega-speaking peoples included the Mangue and Monimbo; dialects were Chorotega proper,
Diria, Nagrandan, Nicoya, Orisi, and Orotiña. The Oto-Manguean languages are spoken mainly in Mexico and it is thought that the Mangue
people moved south from Mexico together with the speakers of Subtiaba and Chiapanec well before the arrival of the Spaniards in the
Americas. Some sources list "Choluteca" as an alternative name of the people and their language, and this has caused some (for example
Terrence Kaufman 2001) to speculate that they were the original inhabitants of the city of Cholula, who were displaced with the arrival of
Nahua people in central Mexico. The etymology for the nomenclature "Chorotega" in this case would come from the Nahuatl language where
"Cholōltēcah" means "inhabitants of Cholula", or "people who have fled". The Region south of Honduras derives its name from this Nahuatl
word, present day Choluteca, and Choluteca City. Choluteca was originally inhabited by Chorotega groups. Daniel Garrison Brinton argued that
the name chorotega was a Nahuatl exonym meaning "people who fled" given after a defeat by Nahuan forces that split the Chorotega-Mangue
people into to groups. He argued that the better nomenclature was Mangue, derived from the group’s endonym mankeme meaning "lords". In
Guaitil, Costa Rica, the Mangue have been absorbed into the Costa Rican culture, losing their language, but pottery techniques and styles have
been preserved.
List of Rulers of the Chorotegas
Diriangen was the tribal leader of the Chorotegas who can rightfully be called the first resistance fighter of the Nicaragua. He fought against
the Spanish in the 1520s, keeping them at bay for a time. Part of his legacy can be seen in the words from the famous folk song Nicaragua,
Nicaraguita where the words are as follows:
Ay Nicaragua, Nicaragüita, la flor más linda de mi querer,
abonada con la bendita, Nicaragüita, sangre de Diriangen.
Oh Nicaragua, the most beautiful flower of my love,
Fertilized with the blessed blood of Diriangen.
Gurutinawas an indigenous King in Costa Rica chorotega ethnicity, whose domains were located on the Pacific coast during 1520s. Although
Fernandez Guardia (1975) suggested that the kingdom of Gurutina was among Aranjuez and Chomes rivers (Guacimal) in Bakit (1981)
hypothesized that was located far to the southwest, in the vicinity of rivers raised Jesus Maria and Machuca, which stretched from the cove
Tivives to the vicinity of the present city of Orotina.
Zapandíwas an indigenous king of Costa Rica chorotega ethnicity during 1520s, whose domains were in the mouth of the homonymous river,
now called Tempisque, and were visited by the conqueror Gil González Dávila in 1522. The count made by the treasurer of the expedition,
Andres de Cereceda,He mentions the name of Sabandi or Sabandí and only indicates that resided five leagues from Nicoya and four of Corobicí.
Coyoche was a King of the small kingdom of Chorotega (also called Churuteca) during 1560s, located in the cove of Tivives, between the
mouths of the Grande de Tarcoles and Jesus Maria, in the present province of Puntarenas. This kingdom was one of the Chorotegas chiefdoms
that existed in Costa Rica to the arrival of the Spaniards, as Orotina, Chomes, Nicoya, Zapandí, Diriá.
Caxcan Indians
The Caxcan were a partly nomadic indigenous people of Mexico. Under their leader, Francisco Tenamaztle, the Caxcan were allied with the
Zacatecos against the Spaniards during the Mixtón Rebellion. During the rebellion, they were described as "the heart and the center of the
Indian Rebellion". They were famously led by Tenamaxtli. After the rebellion, they were at constant target by the Zacatecos and Guachichiles
due to their ceasefire agreement with the Spaniards. Their principal religious and population centers were at Teul, Tlaltenango, Juchipila, and
Teocaltiche. Over time, the caxcans lost their culture due to warfare, disease, and marriage to non-caxcans. There are no people with full caxcan
heritage today. Their language was part of the uzo-atec language family. Their elected rulers were called tlatoani. Caxcan society was divided up
into several different city-states.
List of Leaders of the Caxcan Indians
Francisco Tenamaztle (fl. 1540s–1550s), also Tenamaxtlan, Tenamaxtli or Tenamaxtle, was a leader of the
Caxcan Indians in Mexico during the Mixton War of 1540–1542. He was later put on trial in Spain. With the support of
Bartolomé de las Casas he defended the justice of his cause by appealing to King Carlos I. The first contact of the
Caxcan and other indigenous peoples of northwestern Mexico with the Spanish, was in 1529 when Nuño Beltrán de
Guzmán set forth from Mexico City with 300–400 Spaniards and 5,000 to 8,000 Aztec and Tlaxcaltec allies on a march
through the future states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Durango, Sinaloa, and Zacatecas. Over a six-year period Guzman
conducted frequent violent slave raids throughout Northern Mexico, enslaving thousands of Indians. Guzmán and his lieutenants founded
towns and Spanish settlements in the region, called Nueva Galicia, including Guadalajara, the first temporary site of which was at Tenamaztle’s
home of Nochistlán, Zacatecas. The Spaniards encountered increased resistance as they moved further from the complex hierarchical societies
of Central Mexico and attempted to force Indians into servitude through the encomienda system. Tenamaztle was baptized a Catholic sometime

after Guzman’s expedition and given the Christian name Francisco. He became “Lord Tlatoani of Nochistlan,” an urban center and region in the
southern part of Zacatecas. The Caxcan Indians are often considered part of the Chichimeca, a generic term used by the Spaniards and Aztecs
for all the nomadic and semi-nomadic Native Americans living in the deserts of northern Mexico. However, the Caxcanes seem to have been
sedentary, depending upon agriculture for their livelihood and living in permanent towns and settlements. They were, perhaps, the most
northerly of the agricultural, town-and-city dwelling peoples of interior Mexico. Presumably at the same time as his baptism, Tenamaztle also
swore allegiance to the Spanish crown and was confirmed in his position and any property he owned. Spanish rule, however, was oppressive and
in mid-1540 the Caxcanes and their allies, the Zacatecos and possibly other Chichimeca tribes, revolted. The command structure of the
Caxcanes is unknown but the most prominent leader who emerged was Tenamaztle. The spark which set off the Míxton War was apparently the
arrest of 18 rebellious Indian leaders and the hanging of nine of them in mid 1540. Later in the same year the Indians rose up to kill the
encomendero Juan de Arze. Spanish authorities also became aware that the Indians were participating in “devilish” dances. After killing two
Catholic priests, many Indians fled the encomiendas and took refuge in the mountains, especially on the hill fortress of Mixton. Acting
Governor Cristobal de Oñate led a Spanish and Indian force to quell the rebellion. The Caxcanes killed a peace delegation of one priest and ten
Spanish soldiers. Oñate attempted to storm Mixtón, but the Indians on the summit repelled his attack. Oñate then requested reinforcements
from the capital, Mexico City. The Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza called upon the experienced conquistador Pedro de Alvarado to assist in putting
down the revolt. Alvarado declined to await reinforcements and attacked Mixton in June 1541 with four hundred Spaniards and an unknown
number of Indian allies. He was met there by an Indian army, estimated by the Spanish to number 15,000, under Tenamaztle and Don Diego, a
Zacateco. The first attack of the Spanish was repulsed with ten Spaniards and many Indian allies killed. Subsequent attacks by Alvarado were
also unsuccessful and on June 24 he was crushed when a horse fell on him. He subsequently died on July 4. Emboldened, the Indians led by
Tenamaztle attacked Guadalajara in September but were repulsed. The Indian army retired to Nochistlan and other strongpoints. The Spanish
authorities were now thoroughly alarmed and feared that the revolt would spread. They assembled a force of 450 Spaniards and 30 to 60
thousand Aztec, Tlaxcalan and other Indians and under Viceroy Mendoza invaded the land of the Caxcanes. With his overwhelming force,
Mendoza reduced the Indian strongholds one-by-one in a war of no quarter. On November 9, 1541, he captured the city of Nochistlan and
Tenamaztle but the Indian leader later escaped. In early 1542 the stronghold of Mixton fell to the Spaniards and the rebellion was over. The
aftermath of the Caxcan's defeat was that “thousands were dragged off in chains to the mines, and many of the survivors (mostly women and
children) were transported from their homelands to work on Spanish farms and haciendas. By the viceroy's order men, women and children
were seized and executed, some by cannon fire, some torn apart by dogs, and others stabbed. The reports of the excessive violence against
civilian Indians caused the Council of the Indies to undertake a secret investigation into the conduct of the viceroy. With the defeat, Tenamaztle,
Guaxicar, another leader, and their followers, retreated into the mountains of Nayarit where they lived in hiding for nine years. This area,
primarily occupied by the Cora people, did not come under the complete control of the Spanish until 1722, the last bastion of Indian opposition
to Spanish rule in Nueva Galicia. In 1551, Tenamaztle voluntarily surrendered to the Bishop of Nueva Galicia who brought him to Mexico City.
After an investigation, on August 12, 1552 Spanish authorities established his identity as the leader of the Caxcanes in the Mixton War and on
November 17 he was ordered to be sent for trial to Spain. In Spain, Tenamaztle was imprisoned in Valladolid and later took up residence in a
Dominican monastery. Here he met Bartolomé de las Casas who helped him plead his case. The wheels of justice rolled slowly and it was July 1,
1555 before he had an opportunity to present his case to the King and the Council of the Indies. Tenamaztle’s strategy was to (1) establish that
he was the rightful tlatoani of Nochistlan; (2) demonstrate that the Caxcan had received the Spanish in peace and that he should have all the
rights of a vassal of the King of Spain; (3) accuse Nuño de Guzman, Cristobal de Oñate and Miguel de Ibarra of exploiting and murdering
Indians; and, (4) declare that the war of the Caxcanes was “natural justice” because of the abuses of the Spaniards. He petitioned that his lands,
wife, and children be returned to him. Tenamaztle asked the king to consider "the unparalleled wrongs and evils that the Caxcanes had endured
at the hands of the Spanish” and said that the objective of the Indians was not to rebel but to “flee the inhuman cruelty to which they were
subjected." The trial proceeded without decision for more than one year. The last known document related to the trial is dated August 7, 1556.
Nothing more is known of the disposition of the case or of Tenamaztle. He probably died in Spain.
Guaxicar was a leader of the Caxcan Indians in Mexico during 1540s. With the defeat, Tenamaztle, Guaxicar, another leader, and their
followers, retreated into the mountains of Nayarit where they lived in hiding for nine years. This area, primarily occupied by the Cora people,
did not come under the complete control of the Spanish until 1722, the last bastion of Indian opposition to Spanish rule in Nueva Galicia.
Suinse
Suinse was indigenious community in the region now known as Talamanca in south-east of Costa Rica. named for being an extremely rugged
country, so that local indigenous compare it with the back of an armadillo. The Suinse river emerges from the mountains, in a place called
SwañaLaukö ("wind out") and descends to a closed valley with steep mountains on both sides, wooded, before emptying into the river Coén on
half a playón. The site, known to the Indians as SwikLurara (swëköLaLa) or "old site."
Chief of Suinse
Paul Presbere (1670 - July 4, 1710) was an indigenous Chief of Suinse community in the region now known as Talamanca, in south-east of
Costa Rica. He is remembered because it was the Indian chief who led the indigenous uprising Inland against the Spanish authorities on
September 29, 1709, during which were killed several monks, soldiers and the wife of one of them and set fire to fourteen temples built by
missionaries. Paul Presbere was executed on July 4, 1710.
Nicarao was the most important cacique or Indian chief at the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in what today is
Southeastern Nicaragua in 1522, although Columbus, on his 4th and last voyage, had already set foot in Nicaragua in
1502. According to some historians, the modern name Nicaragua is the Hispanized version of the phoneme Nicarao where
the "o" has been dropped and the "gua" added to create the name of the country. The area of Nicarao's cacicazgo extended
from the Isthmus of Rivas in Nicaragua next to Lake Nicaragua to Guanacaste Province in modern Costa Rica. The

principal settlement Nicaraocallí (also called Nequecheri), is believed to have been situated near the modern lake port of San Jorge in Rivas
Department, Nicaragua. En 1522, Gil González Dávila left Panamá with 100 men, beginning the first incursion into the territory of modern
Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Andrés de Cereceda, the expedition's (treasurer?), wrote in his log the names of the caciques of the villages where
gold was collected.In the gulf of Nicoya (northern Costa Rica, they found the largest village they had visited so far, which was ruled by the
cacique Chorotega. Since then linguistic sources have been based on this cacique, using his name as an eponym to encompass a number of
villages which had cultural and linguistic similarities despite being physically separated.
John Skenandoa/ˌskɛnənˈdoʊə/ (c. 1706 – March11, 1816), also called Shenandoah /ˌʃɛnənˈdoʊə/ among other forms, was an elected chief (a
so-called "pine tree chief") of the Oneida. He was born into the Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannocks, but was adopted into the Oneida of the
Iroquois Confederacy. When he later accepted Christianity, he was baptized as "John", taking his Oneida name Skenandoa as his surname. Based
on a possible reconstruction of his name in its original Oneida, he is sometimes called "Oskanondonha" in modern scholarship; his tombstone
bears the spelling Schenando /ˈʃɛnənˌdoʊ/. During the colonial years, Skenandoa supported the English against the French in the Seven Years'
War. Later, during the American Revolutionary War, he supported the colonials and led a force of 250 Oneida and Tuscarora warriors in western
New York in their support. A longtime friend of the minister Samuel Kirkland, a founder of Hamilton College, his request to be buried next to
Kirkland was granted. In the funeral procession at the death of Skenandoa together were Oneida, students and officers from Hamilton College,
Kirkland's widow and her family, and many citizens of Clinton, New York. Skenandoa's name is variously recorded; "Shenandoah" has become
the most famous form, used in many versions of the folk song "O Shenandoah", where the words "O Shenandoah, I love your daughter" and "The
chief disdained the trader's dollars: / 'My daughter never you shall follow'" are found. Other forms include Skenandoah or Scanandoa;
Schenandoah, Schenandoa, Shenondoa, Shanandoah, or Shanendoah; Skenando or Scanondo; Schenando; and Skennondon, Scanandon,
Skonondon, or Skeanendon. The origin of Skenandoa's name is uncertain. The spelling Oskanondonha (which was not recorded in his lifetime)
assumes derivation from Oneida oskanu:tú: [oˌskanũːˈtũː], "deer". However, Skenandoa referred to himself as "an aged hemlock", and the Oneida
word for "hemlock" is kanʌʔtú:saʔ [ˌkanə̃ʔˈtũːsaʔ]; this derivation has had a longer tradition of acceptance. Skenandoa was born in 1710 into the
Iroquoian-speaking Susquehannock people (also called Conestoga), located in present-day eastern Pennsylvania. He was adopted into the
Oneida people, one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. As an adult man, he was notable for his height, estimated to be 6'5," and was
said to have a commanding presence. The Oneida elected him as a "Pine Tree Chief", in recognition of his leadership and contribution to the
tribe. This position allowed him a place in the Grand Council of 50 chiefs of the Confederacy, representing all the clans of all the nations. It was
not hereditary, nor could Skenandoa name a successor.[8] The name referred to a man being recognized as a chief and rising up inside the tribe.
During the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War in the United States), Chief Skenandoa favored the British against the
French and led the Oneida in their support in central New York. He was said to have saved German colonists in German Flatts, in the Mohawk
Valley, from a massacre. During the next decades, he formed more alliances with the ethnic German and British colonists in central and western
New York. Samuel Kirkland, a Protestant missionary who went to the Iroquois country of western New York in 1764, encountered Chief
Skenandoa there and mentioned him in letters. Kirkland returned to the area in 1766 and worked with the Oneida for the remainder of his life.
After Kirkland persuaded the chief to become baptized, Skenandoa took the name "John". Many of the Oneida converted to Christianity in the
decade before the American Revolutionary War. In part due to the friendship with Kirkland, Chief Sklenandoa favored the patriot colonials and
led the Oneida to be their allies during the Revolutionary War. He led many Oneida to fight against the British and their Iroquois allies, who
came from four nations of the Confederacy. Chief Skenandoa commanded 250 warriors from the Oneida and Tuscarora tribes. In the 1800s New
York Governor Daniel D. Tompkins gave him a silver pipe in recognition of his contributions. Today it is displayed at Shako:wi, the Oneida
Nation museum at their reservation near Syracuse. Skenandoa was the father-in-law of the Mohawk war leader Joseph Brant, who allied with the
British during the revolution. Brant had Skenandoa jailed at Fort Niagara for a period in 1779 during the war when the Oneida chief was on a
peace mission to the Iroquois. Brant hoped that the British could help contain colonial encroachment against the Iroquois. After the war,
Kirkland continued to minister to the Oneida. About 1791 he started planning a seminary, a boys' school to be open to Oneida as well as white
young men of the area. In 1793 he received a charter from the state for the Hamilton Oneida Seminary, and in 1794 completed its first building,
known as Oneida Hall. By 1812, the seminary developed as the four-year institution known as Hamilton College. Skenandoa lived into great old
age. Nearing the end of his life and having gone blind, the chief is recorded as having said: I am an aged hemlock. I am dead at the top. The
winds of an hundred winters have whistled through my branches. Why my Jesus keeps me here so long, I cannot conceive. Pray ye to him, that I
may have patience to endure till my time may come. After Skenandoah died in 1816 at well over a hundred years old, he was buried upon his
request (and with the Kirkland family's approval) next to his friend Kirkland, who had died in 1808, on the grounds of Kirkland's home in
Clinton, New York. Today the property is known as Harding Farm. As a measure of the respect for the chief, the procession at his funeral in
1816 included students and officers from Hamilton College, the widow Mrs. Kirkland and other members of her family, and numerous town
residents, in addition to his son and members of his family and nation. In 1851, both bodies were reinterred in the cemetery of Hamilton
College, of which Kirkland was a co-founder. The Oneida oral tradition tells that Chief Skenandoa provided critical food, sending corn to
General George Washington and his men during their harsh winter at Valley Forge in 1777-1778. Washington is said to have named the
Shenandoah River and valley in his honor, and subsequently numerous other places in the United States were named Shenandoah. He is also
referred to in the title and lyrics of the folk song "Oh Shenandoah". A monument to Skenandoa was erected by the Northern Missionary Society
at the Hamilton College cemetery. Its inscription recognizes his leadership, friendship with Kirkland, and important contributions to the rebel
colonists during the war.
In 2002, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the Oneida County Historical Society.
Kayapo Peoples
The Kayapo (Portuguese: Caiapó [kɐjɐˈpɔ]) people are indigenous peoples in Brazil, from the plain islands of the Mato Grosso and Pará in Brazil,
south of the Amazon Basin and along Rio Xingu and its tributaries. Kayapo call themselves "Mebengokre", which means "people of the
wellspring". Kayapo people also call outsiders "Poanjos". The Kayapo tribe lives alongside the Xingu River in the eastern part of the Amazon
Rainforest, near the Amazon basin, in several scattered villages ranging in population from one hundred to one thousand people. Their land
consists of tropical rainforest savannah (grassland) and is arguably the largest tropical protected area in the world, covering 11,346,326 million
hectares of Neotropical forests and scrubland containing many endangered species. They have small hills scattered around their land and the
area is criss-crossed by river valleys. The larger rivers feed into numerous pools and creeks, most of which don’t have official names. In 2010,

there was an estimated 8,638 Kayapo people, which is an increase from 7,096 in 2003. Subgroups of the Kayapo include the Xikrin, Gorotire,
Mekranoti and Metyktire. Their villages typically consist of a dozen huts. A centrally located hut serves as a meeting place for village men to
discuss community issues. The term Kayapó, also spelled Caiapó or Kaiapó, comes from neighboring peoples and means "those who look like
monkeys". This name is probably based on a Kayapó men's ritual involving monkey masks. The autonym for one village is Mebêngôkre, which
means "the men from the water hole." Other names for them include Gorotire, Kararaô, Kuben-Kran-Krên, Kôkraimôrô, Mekrãgnoti, Metyktire,
and Xikrin. They speak the Kayapo language, which belongs to the Jê language family. They also speak Portuguese.
Chief of the Kayapo people
Raoni Metuktire, also simply known as Chief Raoni (born ca. 1930) is an important chief of the Kayapo people, a
Brazilian Indigenous group from the plain lands of the Mato Grosso and Pará in Brazil, south of the Amazon Basin and
along Rio Xingu and its tributaries. He is a famous international character, a living symbol of the fight for the preservation
of the Amazon rainforest and of the indigenous culture. Cacique (Portuguese and Spanish word for chieftain) Raoni
Metuktire was born in the State of Mato Grosso in or around 1930, in the heart of the Brazilian part of the Amazon
rainforest, in a village called Krajmopyjakare (today called Kapôt). Born in the Metuktire family of Kayapo people, he is
one of Cacique Umoro’s sons. As the Kayapo tribe is nomadic, his childhood was marked by moving continuously from
one place to another and he witnessed many tribal wars. Guided by his brother Motibau, at the age of 15, he chose to have a
painted wooden lip plate (called ‘botoque’ by the warriors of his tribe) placed under the lower lip. Raoni and other members
of the Metuktire tribe encountered the Western World for the first time in 1954. Initiated into the portuguese language by
Orlando Villas-Bôas, the eldest of the Villas-Bôas brothers and a famous indigenous anthropologist in Brazil, the young
Raoni was ready for the Kuben’s invasion (Kuben meaning « the others », « white people »). In 1964, he met King Leopold III of Belgium, while
the latter was on an expedition into indigenous reservations in Mato Grosso. Deforestation was already giving cause for concern when a
documentary film made by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux, narrated by Jacques Perrin and called “Raoni” was shot. Marlon Brando, known for his support
of Native American people, had just been paid an unprecedented $3.7 million for his 10-minute part in Superman, but agreed to be filmed for
no salary at all for the opening sequence of the movie. Brazilian media’s sudden interest made him become the banner-bearer of the fight for
the preservation of the Amazon rainforest, which had been put in jeopardy by illegal deforestation, the increasing cultivation of soya beans and
the choice of hydroelectric dams as an alternative to fulfill the country needs for energy. Raoni has obtained international public attention
thanks to musician Sting, who came to meet him in the Xingu in November 1987. On October 12, 1988, Sting participated with Raoni to a press
conference prior to the Sao Paulo show of the ‘Human Rights Now!’ Amnesty International tour. After the impact of this event, Sting, his wife
Trudie Styler and Jean-Pierre Dutilleux became the co-founders of the Rainforest Foundation. The initial purpose of this association was to
provide support to Raoni’s projects, the first one being at that time the demarcation of Kayapos territory threatened by invasion. In February
1989, Raoni became one of the fiercest opponents to the Belo Monte dam project. Television broadcasts transmitted his opinions in Altamira
during a huge assembly of chiefs. Raoni visited 17 countries alongside with Sting, from April till June 1989. This very successful campaign gave
opportunity to spread his words worldwide and to raise awareness about the amazon rainforest deforestation drama. Twelve rainforest
foundations were then created in the world to raise funds dedicated to the elaboration of a huge national park in the Rio Xingu River region,
located in Para and Mato Grosso Brazilian states. Raoni's dream was to unite five demarcated indigenous territories (Baú, Kaiapó, Panará, Kapôt
Jarina, Bàdjumkôre) with then undemarcated Mekragnotire lands. Alongside with the adjoining Xingu National Park, the united indigenous
lands would cover approximately 180000 km² (i.e. close to a third of the size of France). In 1993, the funds raised worldwide helped to make
Raoni's dream a reality : the unification of the Xingu indigenous lands gave birth to of the most important rainforest reserve in the world. More
than an informal Ambassador for the protection of the Amazon rainforest and its indigenous inhabitants, Raoni, like Jacques Chirac once said,
his the living symbol of the fight for the protection of the environment. Since 1989, the great kayapo leader did several trips all over the world,
for example to the north-eastern portions of the provinces of Quebec to visit Innu people in August 2001 or to Japan in May 2007. However, his
message mainly struck a chord with European countries such as France where he came back in 2000, 2001 and 2003. Various indigenous people
from the region of Xingu are fighting to preserve the ways and customs which are transmitted orally since the dawn of time. These tribes were
isolated from the world until the twentieth century. Raoni found out means to link with the rest of the world but kept stoicism, distance and
dignity. He often meets the great and the good but he lives in simple hut and doesn’t own anything. The gifts he receives are always
redistributed. During his media interventions, he is almost always seen wearing a wreath of yellow feathers and arrayed with Kayapo earrings
and necklace. The cacique Raoni is easily recognizable with his lip plate that stretches his lower lip. The following generations didn’t keep this
tradition. Raoni is one of the last men to wear a lower lip plate. In September 2011, Chief Raoni took the status of ‘Honour citizen of Paris’ given
by Bertrand Delanoë who is the mayor of Paris and received the medal of the French National Assembly by Nicolas Perruchot. In an interview
broadcast by French TV channel TF1 on the occasion of a European campaign in 2010 (France, Belgium, Switzerland, Monaco, Luxembourg),
Raoni declared war on the Belo Monte dam project which jeopardizes indigenous territories located on the bank of the Xingú river in the state
of Pará (Brazil). He also reaffirmed his determination to protect the Amazon rainforest from a major disaster: ‘I asked my warriors to be ready
for the war. I told the tribes of the High Xingú the same. We will not be pushed around.’ During this tour, he visited France where he promoted
his memoirs Raoni, mémoires d'un chef indien[2] and was welcomed by former French President Jacques Chirac by means of his Foundation
(Fondation Chirac) which support his pilote project of an institute in the middle of the Brazilian Amazon rainforest. Raoni gave his name to this
institute which aim is to preserve the culture of indigenous people and the biodiversity of the forest. He was also welcomed during this tour by
Albert II, Prince of Monaco, who is known to be committed to the protection of nature. The former French President Nicolas Sarkozy didn’t
welcome him during this tour even though he had invited Raoni in September 2009, at the time of an official visit to Brazil. The Brazilian
Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA), last defence against the construction of the Belo Monte dam, delivered
the licence to the consortium of Brazilian companies Norte Energia on June 1, 2011. This information has been forwarded by the media and
social networks all over the world with a picture of Raoni crying. The caption added that his tears were provoked by the announcement of the
final validation of the project. Indignant, Chief Raoni denied on his official website: ‘I didn’t cry because of the authorization of the construction
of the Belo Monte dam and the beginning of the construction (…). President Dilma will cry but I will not. I want to know who gave this picture
and spread this false information (…). President Dilma will have to kill me in front of the Planalto Palace (Palácio do Planalto). Then you will be
able to build the Belo Monte dam. According to Amazon Watch his crying had nothing to do with the dam or any news related to it; it is a
custom among the Kayapo to cry when they greet an old acquaintance or relative that they have not seen for a long time, as was happening
when this photo was taken. In September 2011, Chief Raoni went to the United Nations Human Right Council in Geneva and participated to
Rio+20 in June 2012. Raoni is not disheartened. He recently received the support of famous people such as James Cameron, Sigourney Weaver,
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Vincent Cassel, Marion Cotillard, Edgar Morin, Jan Kounen, Nicolas Hulot, Danielle Mitterrand, Mino Cinelu and
launched an international petition in 7 languages against the proposed Belo Monte dam project on his official website.

Moche civilization
The Moche civilization (alternatively, the Mochica culture, Early Chimu, Pre-Chimu, Proto-Chimu, etc.) flourished in northern Peru with its
capital near present-day Moche and Trujillo, from about AD 100 until AD 800, during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the
subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were
likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common elite culture, as seen in the rich iconography and monumental architecture that
survive today.
Moche Lord
The Lord of Sipán (El Señor de Sipán) is the name given to the first of several Moche mummies found at Huaca Rajada, Sipán, Peru by
archaeologist Walter Alva. The site was discovered in 1987. Some archaeologists consider this find to be one of the most important
archaeological discoveries in South America in the last 30 years, as the main tomb was found intact and untouched by thieves. By 2007, fourteen
tombs had been located and identified at Huaca Rajada. The Royal Tombs Museum of Sipán was constructed in nearby Lambayeque to hold
most of the artifacts and interpret the tombs. It opened in 2002 and Dr. Alva is director. The Moche tombs at Huaca Rajada are located near the
town of Sipán in the middle of the Lambayeque Valley. Sipán is in the Zaña district in the northern part of Peru. Close to the coast, it is about 20
miles east of the city of Chiclayo and about 30 miles away from Lambayeque. Huacas like Huaca Rajada were built by the Moche and other
South American cultures as monuments. The Huaca Rajada monument consists of two small adobe pyramids plus a low platform. The platform
and one of the pyramids were built before 300 CE by the Moche; the second pyramid at Huaca Rajada was built about 700 CE by a later culture.
Many huacas were looted by the Spanish during and after the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire; the looting of huacas continues to be a
problem in many locations. In early 1987, looters digging at Huaca Rajada found several objects made of gold. A disagreement among the
looters caused the find to be reported to the local police. The police raided the site, recovering a number of items, and alerted Dr. Alva. Scientific
analysis of the skeleton of the Lord of Sipán show that he was approximately 1.63 meters tall and was about 35–45 years old at the time of his
death. His jewelry and ornaments, which included headdresses, a face mask, a pectoral, (the pectoral was gold and had the head of a man and
the body of an octopus) necklaces, nose rings, ear rings and other items, indicate he was of the highest rank. Most of the ornaments were made
of gold, silver, copper and semi-precious stones. The Lord of Sipán was wearing two necklaces with beads of gold and silver in the shape of maní
(peanuts), which represent the tierra (earth). The peanuts symbolized that men came from the land, and that when they die, they return to the
earth. Peanuts were used because they were an important food crop for the Moche. The necklaces had ten kernels on the right side made of
gold, signifying masculinity and the sun god, and ten kernels on the left side made of silver, to represent femininity and the moon god. Buried
with the Lord of Sipán were six other people: three young women (possibly wives or concubines who had apparently died some time earlier), two
males (probably warriors), and a child of about nine or ten years of age. The remains of a third male (possibly also a warrior) was found on the
roof of the burial chamber sitting in a niche overlooking the chamber. There was also a dog which was probably the Lord of Sipan's favorite pet.
The warriors who were buried with the Lord of Sipán had amputated feet, as if to prevent them from leaving the tomb. The women were dressed
in ceremonial clothes. In addition to the people, archeologists found in the tomb a total of 451 ceremonial items and offerings (burial goods),
and the remains of several animals, including a dog and two llamas. In 1988, a second tomb was found and excavated near that of the Lord of
Sipán. Artifacts in this second tomb are believed to be related to religion: a cup or bowl for the sacrifices, a metal crown adorned with an owl
with its wings extended, and other items associated with worship of the moon. Alva concluded that the individual buried in this tomb was a
Moche priest. Carbon dating established that the skeleton in this second tomb was contemporary with the Lord of Sipan. The third tomb found
at Huaca Rajada was slightly older than the first two, but ornaments and other items found in the tomb indicated that the person buried in the
tomb was of the same high rank as the first Lord of Sipán burial. DNA analysis of the remains in this third tomb established that the individual
buried in the third tomb was related to the Lord of Sipán via the maternal line. As a result, the archeologists named this third individual The
Old Lord of Sipán. The third tomb also contained the remains of two other people: a young woman, a likely sacrifice to accompany the Old Lord
of Sipán to the next life; and a man with amputated feet, possibly sacrificed to be the Old Lord's guardian in the afterlife. A total of fourteen
tombs have been found at Sipán. Archeological research and DNA testing enabled deducing certain physical characteristics of the ruler, such as
skin color, the form of his lips, hair, eyes and other facial features. It was also possible to provide an accurate estimate of his age at death,
allowing for a more accurate facial reconstruction by researchers. The Royal Tombs Museum of Sipán, located in nearby Lambayeque contains
most of the important artifacts found at Huaca Rajada, including the Lord of Sipán and his entourage. Dr. Alva helped found and support
construction of the museum, which opened in 2002. The museum was designed to resemble the ancient Moche tombs. He has been appointed as
director of the museum. In 2009 a smaller museum was openend at the site of Huaca Rajada.
Sican (Sicán) culture
The Sican (also Sicán) culture is the name that archaeologist Izumi Shimada gave to the culture that inhabited what is now the north coast of
Peru between about AD 750 and AD 1375. According to Shimada, Sican means "temple of the moon". The Sican culture is also referred to as
Lambayeque culture, after the name of the region in Peru. It succeeded the Moche culture. There is still controversy among archeologists and
anthropologists over whether the two are separate cultures. The Sican culture is divided into three major periods based on cultural changes as
evidenced in archeological artifacts.
King of culture Sican
Lord of Sican is the name given to a King of culture Sican or Lambayeque whose intact tomb was discovered in 1991 in Huaca del Oro (or
parrot) in the archaeological site of Batan Grande, on the north coast of Peru who ruled in 11th century or 12th century. The remains of the
Lord of Sican were found in the East Tomb call. This is a vertical shaft square, 3 m side, reaching the 12.5 m deep. The buried person was a man

of 40-45 years old, 1.60 m tall. Beside him lay the remains of two young women (about 20 years) and two girls, presumably sacrificed to
accompany them in the afterlife. The body of the Lord of Sican was covered with cinnabar (mercury sulfide) and showed a strange position:
sitting, but upside down, ie with the legs up and head down. He was wearing a gold mask, earplugs and long earrings. The tomb also contained
beautiful pieces of ceramics abundant objects of gold, silver and bronze, an unarmed berth and necklaces of semiprecious and different types of
tropical shells originating from equatorial coast stones. Numerous small objects of arsenical copper (copper alloy with 2% to 6% arsenic), a
curious form of card, whose purpose is unknown (perhaps they were used as currency) were also found.
Arawak Peoples
The Arawak are a group of indigenous peoples of South America and historically of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been
applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser
Antilles in the Caribbean, all of whom spoke related Arawakan languages. The term Arawak originally applied specifically to the South
American group who self-identified as Arawak or Lokono. Their language, the Arawak language, gives its name to the Arawakan language
family. Arawakan speakers in the Caribbean were also historically known as the Taíno, a term meaning "good" or "noble" that some islanders
used to distinguish their group from the neighboring Island Caribs. In 1871, ethnologist Daniel Garrison Brinton proposed calling the
Caribbean populace "Island Arawak" due to their cultural and linguistic similarities with the mainland Arawak. Subsequent scholars shortened
this convention to "Arawak", creating confusion between the island and mainland groups. In the 20th century, scholars such as Irving Rouse
resumed using "Taíno" for the Caribbean group to emphasize their distinct culture and language. The Arawakan languages may have emerged
in the Orinoco River valley. They subsequently spread widely, becoming by far the most widely spread language family in South America at the
time of European contact, with speakers located in various areas along the Orinoco and Amazon rivers and their tributaries. The group that self-
identified as the Arawak, also known as the Lokono, settled the coastal areas of what is now Jamaica, Guyana, Suriname, Curaçao, French
Guiana, and parts of the island of Trinidad. At some point, the Arawakan-speaking Taíno culture emerged in the Caribbean. Two major models
have been presented to account for the arrival of Taíno ancestors in the islands; the "Circum-Caribbean" model suggests an origin in the
Colombian Andes, while the Amazonian model supports an origin in the Amazon basin, where the Arawakan languages developed. The Taíno
were among the first American people to encounter Europeans when Christopher Columbus visited multiple islands and chiefdoms on his first
voyage. It was at this time they experienced European colonization, and their population declined precipitously as a result. Suffering from war,
disease, and slavery, the Taíno population had declined to a few thousand by 1519 and by the end of the century, they had disappeared as a
distinct ethnic group. Taíno influence has survived even until today, though, as can be seen in the religions, languages, and music of Caribbean
cultures. The Lokono and other South American groups resisted colonization for a longer period, and the Spanish remained unable to subdue
them throughout the 16th century. In the early 17th century, they allied with the Spanish against the neighboring Kalina (Caribs), who allied
with the English and Dutch. The Lokono benefited from trade with European powers into the early 19th century, but suffered thereafter from
economic and social changes in their region, including the end of the plantation economy. Their population declined until the 20th century,
when it began to increase again. The Taíno have been extinct as a distinct population since the 16th century, though many people in the
Caribbean have Taíno ancestry. A 2003 mitochondrial DNA study under the Taino genome project determined that 62% of people in Puerto
Rico have direct-line maternal ancestry to Taíno/Arawakan ancestors.
List of Caciques (Chiefs) of Arawak indigenous peoples
Yoraco was the Cacique (Chief) of Arawak indigenous peoples in Venezuela during 1560s and 1570s.
Terepaima was the Cacique (Chief) of Arawak indigenous peoples in Venezuela during 1570s.
Guarani Peoples
Guaraní are a group of culturally related indigenous peoples of South America. They are distinguished from the related Tupí by their use of the
Guaraní language. The traditional range of the Guaraní people is in what is now Paraguay between the Uruguay River and lower Paraguay
River, the Misiones Province of Argentina, southern Brazil once as far as north as Rio de Janeiro, and parts of Uruguay and Bolivia. Although
their demographic dominance of the region has been reduced by European colonisation and the commensurate rise of mestizos, there are
contemporary Guaraní populations in these areas. Most notably, the Guarani language, still widely spoken across traditional Guaraní
homelands, is one of the two official languages in Paraguay, the other one being Spanish. The language was once looked down upon by the
upper and middle classes, but it is now often regarded with pride and serves as a symbol of national distinctiveness. The Paraguayan population
learns Guaraní both informally from social interaction and formally in public schools. In modern Spanish Guaraní is also applied to refer to any
Paraguayan national in the same way that the French are sometimes called Gauls.
List of Guarani Leaders
Tepé Tiaraju (unknown–1756) was an indigenous Guarani leader in the Jesuit reduction mission of São Luiz Gonzaga and
who died on February 7, 1756, in the municipality of São Gabriel, in the present-day state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Sepé
Tiaraju led the fight against the Portuguese and Spanish colonial powers in the Guerras Guaraníticas (Guarani War) and was
killed three days before a massacre that killed around fifteen hundred of his fellow warriors. After 250 years of the date of his
death he still remains a very influential figure in the popular imagination, considered a saint by some. This conflict in South
America resulted from the land demarcations established by the European powers with the Tratado de Madrid (1750).
According to this treaty the Guarani population inhabiting the Jesuit missions in the region had to be evacuated. After one
hundred and fifty years living a unique communal life, neither the prospect of returning to the forests nor moving to another place were
considered as options by most mission Guaranis. Further treaties such as the San Idelfonso Treaty (1777) and the Badajoz Treaty (1801) still

grappled with issues related to this topic. The Christianized Guarani population residing in the Jesuit missions (called missões or reduções, in
Portuguese), that is in Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina combined, is estimated to have numbered approximately eighty thousand at the start of
the conflict. At that time these so-called evangelized Guaranis as opposed to the many Guaranis living the traditional way and not in the Jesuit
missionsmraised what is believed to have been the largest herd of cattle in all of Latin America. Therefore, the Europeans' interests in the area
extended beyond land appropriations. Sepé Tiaraju was immortalized in the letters by Brazilian writer Basílio da Gama in the epic poem O
Uraguai (1769) and in the poem "O Lunar de Sepé", collected by Simões Lopes Neto and published in the beginning of the 20th century. Since
then, he has been a character in many major literary works, like "O tempo e o vento" ["The time and the wind"], by Erico Verissimo. The
expression and battle cry "Esta terra tem dono!" (or "This land has owners!") is attributed to Sepé Tiaraju. Santo Ângelo Airport, in Santo Ângelo,
Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil is named after Sepé Tiaraju.
Apiaguaiki Tumpa(ca. 1863 – January 28/29, 1892) was a Guarani cacique regarded by many Guaraní people as a national
hero, known for his struggle to defend his peoples' land and liberty from the encroaching Bolivian government. He was killed
at the age of 28 in the Kuruyuki Massacre by the Bolivian Army along with approximately one thousand of his followers. His
death is commemorated annually by many Guarani, and a Guaraní language university in Kuruyuki, Bolivia is named after
him.
Alsate, also known as Arzate, Arzatti, and Pedro Múzquiz, (ca. 1820 – 1881/1882) was the last chief of the Chisos band of
Mescalero Apaches. He was the son of Miguel Múzquiz, who was captured by the Mescalero as a boy at what is now
Melchor Múzquiz in Coahuila, Mexico, and raised among them, and his Indian wife. When he came of age and proved
himself, Alsate became the leader of a Mescalero band. They ranged through the Davis Mountains, Chisos Mountains and
Chinati Mountains in the Big Bend area of Texas, the Sierra del Carmen of Coahuila and the Sierra Alamos in Chihuahua
north of the Bolsón de Mapimí. Relations between the Indians and the authorities on both sides of the border were
generally peaceful at first, although Arzate was almost shot for stealing the coat of the trader John D. Burgess; Arzate's
band had intended to rob Burgess' convoy but the two talked and ended up as friends, and Burgess had given Arzate his
coat as a gift. However, in 1878 complaints to the Mexican authorities about the band's raids on farms and traders led to
President Porfirio Díaz ordering Alsate's arrest; Colonel José Garza Galán de Santa Rosa was dispatched with a force of a
hundred men and surprised him and his followers at his farm near San Carlos de Chihuahua, and they were extradited to Mexico City to be
jailed in la Acordada. Arzate's father was in the group and was freed after convincing his brother Manuel of his identity.[3] Manuel Múzquiz
wrote a note requesting clemency for Arzate, but could not release him; however, in December 1879 he and his followers were able to escape
from the carts transporting them and vanish into the mountains.[4] The following year Colonel Ortiz of El Paseo del Norte lured them into a
trap at San Carlos by promising a peace treaty; they were set upon after eating and drinking heavily at a celebratory feast, and while those few
who were able to fight were killed, the rest were sold into slavery. Alsate and his war chiefs Colorado and Zorillo were executed at Ojinaga.
K'iche' People
K'iche' (pronounced [kʼi ˈtʃeʔ]; previous Spanish spelling: Quiché) are indigenous peoples of the Americas, one of the Maya peoples. The K'iche'
language is a Mesoamerican language in the Mayan language family. The highland K'iche' states in the pre-Columbian era are associated with
the ancient Maya civilization, and reached the peak of their power and influence during the Postclassic period. The meaning of the word K'iche'
is "many trees." The Nahuatl translation, Cuauhtēmallān "Place of the Many Trees (People)", is the origin of the word Guatemala. Quiché
Department is also named for them. Rigoberta Menchú, an activist for indigenous rights who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992, is perhaps the
best-known K'iche'.
Leader of self-government in the region known as "Totonicapan in the Kingdom of Guatemala."
Tzul Athanasiuswas a Guatemalan indigenous leader, the Quiche Maya people 'representative figure of Totonicapan Indian
uprising of 1820, which overthrew Spanish power of the town and imposed for twenty-nine days, a self-government in the region
known as "Totonicapan in the Kingdom of Guatemala."
Juan Maldonado Waswechia, Tetabiate (died July 7, 1901) was a prominent Yaqui military leader who lived in
the Mexican state of Sonora from 1887 until his death on July 7, 1901.

Juan María Sibalaume was a prominent Yaqui military leader who lived in the Mexican state of Sonora from 1901 until ?.
Qulla People
The Qulla (Quechua for south, hispanicized and mixed spellings Colla, Kolla) are an indigenous people of Western Bolivia, Chile, and
Argentina, living in Jujuy and Salta Provinces. The 2004 Complementary Indigenous Survey reported 53,019 Qulla households living in
Argentina. They moved freely between the borders of Argentina and Bolivia. Their lands are part of the yungas or high altitude forests at the
edge of the Amazon rainforest. The Qulla have lived in their region for centuries, before the arrival of the Inca Empire in the 15th century.
Sillustani is a prehistoric Qulla cemetery in Peru, with elaborate stone chullpas. Several groups made up the Qulla people, including the Zenta,
and Gispira. The Qulla came into contact with Spaniards in 1540. They resisted Spanish invasion for 110 years but ultimately lost the Santiago
Estate to the Spanish. One particularly famous rebel leader was Ñusta Willaq, a female warrior who fought the Spanish in 1780. With
Argentinian independence in 1810, the situation of the Qulla people did not improve and they worked for minimal wages. On August 31, 1945,
Qulla communities in the northwestern Argentine provinces of Jujuy and Salta, through a group of representatives, sent a note to the National
Agrarian Council demanding the restitution of their lands, in compliance with previous laws. On January 17, 1946 President Edelmiro Julián
Farrell signed the expropriation decree. But as funds for the necessary land surveys and paperwork were in progress, the direction of the
Council passed to other people, who blocked them. In 1946, Qulla people joined the Malón de la Paz, a march to the capital of Buenos Aires to
demand the return of their lands. In the 1950s, Qulla people worked in the timber industry on their ancestral lands. In 1985, the Argentinian
government officially recognized the indigenous peoples of that country by Law 23303. A cholera epidemic took a toll on the Qulla population
in the late 20th century. In August 1996, many Qulla people occupied and blocked roads to their traditional lands but were violently stopped by
the police. On March 19, 1997, the Qulla people finally regained legal possession of the Santiago Estate.
Kolla Leader
Ñusta Huillac was a Kolla leader who rebelled against the Spanish in Chile in 1780. She was nicknamed La Tirana (Spanish for "The
Tyrant") because of her mistreatment of prisoners. She fell in love with Vasco de Almeida, one of her prisoners, and pleaded with her people for
him. After her father's death, she became the leader of a group of Inca who were brought to Chile to mine silver in Huantajaya.
Juan de Lebú was a Moluche cacique or Ulmen of the Lebu region, captured by the Spanish sometime before 1568. He was sent to Peru and
the Spaniards had baptized him with the name of Juan. He returned in 1568, with the new Governor Melchor Bravo de Saravia. When he had the
chance he escaped and returned to his people to help them in the war against the Spanish Empire. Because he had become familiar with
European tactics like Paineñamcu (Alonso Diaz), they became close collaborators in the war. During Governor Rodrigo de Quiroga's first
campaign in 1578, there was a raid that attempted to burn down the Spanish winter camp at Arauco. Juan de Lebú and seven other lonkos were
captured in a retaliatory raid against the perpetrators by the Spanish under Rodrigo the nephew of Quiroga. To punish them as an example the
seven lonkos were hanged from trees while Juan de Lebú suffered the same punishment as Caupolican, impalement.
Páez people
The Páez people, also known as the Nasa, are a Native American people who live in the southwestern highlands of Colombia, especially in the
Cauca Department, but also the Caquetá Department lowlands and Tierradentro.
Leader of the Páez people
Juan Tama de la Estrella was an indigenous leader of the Páez people or Nasa people around 1635.
Ch'orti' people

The Ch'orti' people (alternatively, Ch'orti' Maya or Chorti) are one of the indigenous Maya peoples, who primarily reside in communities and
towns of southeastern Guatemala, northwestern Honduras, and northern El Salvador. Their indigenous language, also known as Ch'orti', is a
survival of Classic Choltian, the language of the inscriptions in Copan. It is the first language of approximately 15,000 people, although the
majority of present-day Ch'orti' speakers are bilingual in Spanish as well. The Ch'orti' area, having Copán as the cultural center, were the
headquarters of the ancient Mayan civilization. The Ch'orti' people, led by their Mayan Chief Galel, strongly but unsuccessfully resisted the
Spanish conquerors. The Ch'orti' belong to the Meridional Mayans, and are closely related to the Mayans in Yucatán, Belize and Northern
Guatemala. They are also somewhat related to the Choles, Mayans that currently live in Chiapas.
Chief of Ch'orti'
Copán Galel was Mayan Chief of Ch'orti', indigenous Maya peoples in Copán around 1530. He was strongly but unsuccessfully resisted the
Spanish conquerors.
Lenca People
The Lenca are an indigenous people of southwestern Honduras and eastern El Salvador. They once spoke the Lenca language, which is now
extinct. In Honduras, the Lenca are the largest indigenous group with an estimated population of 100,000. El Salvador's Lenca population is
estimated at about 37,000. The pre-Conquest Lenca had frequent contact with various Maya groups as well as other indigenous peoples of
Mexico and Central America. The origin of Lenca populations has been a source of ongoing debate amongst anthropologists and historians. It
continues to generate research focused on obtaining more archaeological evidence of pre-Colonial Lenca. Some scholars have suggested that
the Lenca were not originally indigenous to Mesoamerica region, but migrated to the region from South America around 3,000 years ago.
List of Chiefs (Caciques) of Lenca
Entepica was a chief (cacique) of Lenca, indigenous people in area of Cerquin villages and the mountains of the mist (Piraera) before the
arrival of the Spaniards.
Benito was a chief (cacique) of Lenca, indigenous people in area where the pesent department of Olancho, after the arrival of the Spaniards in
1526, he ws resisted the forces of Diego Lopez de Salcedo. They fought until Benito was captured, sent to Nicaragua as a prisoner and thrown
into a pack that killed him.
Lempira (Spanish: lem-pee’-rah) was a war chieftain of the Lencas of western Honduras in Central America during
the 1530s, when he led resistance to Francisco de Montejo's attempts to conquer and incorporate the region into the
province of Honduras. Mentioned as Lempira in documents written during the Spanish conquest, he is still regarded as a
warrior who offered resistance against the Spanish conquistadors. Jorge Lardé y Larín argues that the name Lempira
comes from the word Lempira, which in turn comes from two words of the Lenca language: from lempa, meaning "lord"
as a title of hierarchy, i meaning "of", and era, meaning "hill or mountain". Thus, Lempira, means "lord of the mountain"
or "lord of the hill". When the Spaniards arrived in Cerquin, Lempira was fighting against neighboring chiefs, but
because of their threat, he allied with the Lenca subgroup of Cares thus unifying the different Lenca tribes. Based in
Cerquin hill, he organized resistance against the Spanish troops in 1537, managing to gather an army of almost 30,000
soldiers, from 200 villages. As a result, other groups also took up arms in the valley of Comayagua and Olancho.
Spanish attempts to stop him, led by Francisco de Montejo and Alonso de Cáceres, but unsuccessfully until 1537. There
are two very different historical accounts of Lempira. The first, by Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, appearing in Historia general de los hechos
de los castellanos, published in 1626 in Seville, Spain, identifies Lempira as a war captain appointed by Entipica, leader of the Cares, a named
subgroup of the Lenca. Herrera reports that Lempira, whose name means something like "Lord of the Mountains" in Lenca, commanded over
30,000 soldiers from over 200 different Lenca towns. In 1537, there were widespread indigenous uprisings in Honduras, and the Cares were one
group that revolted against Spanish rule. The Spaniards, on instruction from their Governor, Francisco de Montejo, attacked him at Cerquin,
near Gracias a Dios. Lempira, according to Herrera, retreated to a fortified hill top where he resisted the Spaniards for many months. Finally, the
Spaniards lured him out to talk, and a concealed Spanish soldier with an arquebus shot and killed him. On seeing this, Herrera reports, the
Lenca surrendered. This is essentially the story as taught to Honduran children in school. In the 1980s, the Honduran historian Mario Felipe
Martínez Castillo discovered a very different account of Lempira in a document entitled Méritos y Servicios: Rodrigo Ruiz, Nueva España
written in 1558 in Mexico City, and located in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, Spain. That document, Patronato 69 R.5, tells the story of
Rodrigo Ruiz and his service in the conquest of Honduras under Francisco Montejo. It includes his account of killing Lempira. The document is
in the form of a series of questions, answered by witnesses to the services Rodrigo Ruiz gave to the Spanish King. Ruiz wrote the questions, one
of which is translated in part as follows: "...after I cut off his head, they retreated and within 4 days we controlled all of their towns, and they gave
obiedience to your Majesty as they were obligated to do... and later we founded the town of Gracias a Dios. Ask them to say what they know and
if its true that I served in said war, all the time it lasted, serving with myself, my weapons, my horse, at my cost, and was not rewarded for it."
&ndash- Archivo General de Indias, Méritos y Servicios: Rodrigo Ruiz, Nueva España. Rodrigo Ruiz goes on to detail other service to the Spanish
Crown. The many witnesses in this 100 page document agree that Rodrigo Ruiz fairly outlined his service and told the truth. Ruiz asked for a
pension of 1000 pesos for his service. Interestingly, the modern Honduran Lenca preserved in their oral tradition elements that match the Ruiz
story, Lempira's belief that wearing Spanish clothing made him impervious to Spanish bullets, and that Lempira died in combat, not through
ambush. In 1931, Honduras renamed its currency in honor of Lempira. In 1943, Honduras renamed the Gracias Department the Lempira
Department. In 1957 the Honduran writer Ramón Amaya Amador wrote a fictional account of Lempira, entitled El señor de la sierra.

Cicumba was a chief (cacique) of Pueblo Indians of Tolupán who resisted the Spanish forces, fought against the forces of Pedro de Alvarado
in 1536.
Papayeca People
Papayeca was indigenous people that made resistance to the Spanish conquest. They lived near the present city of Trujillo, the first capital of
Honduras.
List of Chiefs (Caciques) of Papayeca peoples
Mazatl (died 1524) was a chief (cacique) of Papayeca, indigenous people near the present city of Trujillo (Colón) during 1520s. He was
captured and hanged in 1524 by order of Hernán Cortés.
Pizacura was a chief (cacique) of Papayeca, indigenous people near the present city of Trujillo (Colón) during 1520s. He was captured by
Hernán Cortés in 1524 but later released and continue revolted. He move the capital from Trujillo to Naco valley where he estalished town of
Santa María de la Buena Esperanza.
Pacaca Kingdom
Pacaca, also called Pacacua was a Costa Rican indigenous kingdom of the XVI century, where people belonging to ethnic and huetares culture
whose main seat was in the current canton of Mora province of San José, Costa Rica, in a place called today Tabarcia named.
King of Pacaca Kingdom
Coquiva was the King of Pacaca, also called Pacacua Kingdom, indigenous kingdom of the XVI century, where people belonging to ethnic
and huetares culture during the early 1560s. He is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de
Ribera y Gómez.
Toyopán Kingdom
Toyopán (Nahuatl: theo-you, God, and bread, place) was the name of an ancient Indian chieftainship of Costa Rica, in the sixteenth century,
during the arrival of the Spaniards, was ruled by the Huetar king Yorustí.
Huetar King of Toyopán
Yorustí was the Huetar King of Toyopán during the arrival of the Spaniards in 1560s.
Coto Kingdom
Coto, Couto or Coctú was an indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region of Costa Rica, on the Pacific
coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.
List of Kings of Coto Kingdom
Coto was an indigenous king who riled in indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region of Costa Rica,
on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.
Dujurawas an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region
of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.
Guaycara was an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern
region of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.
Boto was an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region of
Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.

Devobawas an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region
of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas.
Cañawas an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region of
Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas. He is mentioned in the granting of
parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Sacora was an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region
of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas. He is mentioned in the granting
of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Abuzarrá was an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern
region of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas. He is mentioned in the
granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Cebacawas an indigenous king of Coto, Couto or Coctú, indigenous kingdom that existed in the sixteenth century in the southeastern region
of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast, on the plains of the current canton of Buenos Aires province of Puntarenas. He is mentioned in the granting
of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Acuareyapa (died 1578) was a Carib Chief (Cacique) who lived in the valleys of Tuy-Miranda in the present Venezuela. His birth date is
unknown but is known to have died in 1578.
Chacao was a 16th-century Carib Chief (Cacique) who governed in the region of the valley of Caracas, at the time called San Francisco, in
present-day Venezuela. Today the region, Chacao Municipality, Miranda, bears his name. Around 1567, Chacao was taken prisoner by Juan de
Gamez upon the orders of Diego de Losada, who had told him to go out and capture natives; Losada later slackened the order. Losada's reasons
for the order remain unknown, but it has been suggested that he wanted to befriend the cacique before attempting to pacify the region.
Regardless, in 1568, Chacao allied himself with Guaicaipuro and several other local chiefs in a futile attempt to stop the advance of the
conquistadors; they were beaten, by the same Losada, in the Battle of Maracapana.
Toronoima was the Carib Chief (Cacique) who governed in the region of Guanta (in the valley of Guantar) during 1520s.
Naiguata was a 16th century Carib Chief (Cacique) who ruled in the present Venezuela.
Paramacay was the Carib Chief (Cacique) of Cumanagoto origin who lived in the second half of the sixteenth century. Its territory was
located between the coast of Barlovento in Miranda state and Catia La Mar in Vargas state.
Jacinto Collahuazo was Chief (Cacique) of Qechua tribe in Ecuador in the second half 18th century, with formal education, he was
imprisoned for writing a book in Quechua, related to the war between Huascar and Atahualpa. His work was burned in public, by the
Corregidor de Ibarra, and was sentenced to prison, where he spent his last days. It is considered the first Ecuadorian indigenous chronicler.
Chactemal Lordship
Chactemal was a Mayan Lordship in Yucatan Peninsula during arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century. Located around the
Bay of Chetumal and tracing the New and Hondo rivers.
Chief (Cacique) of Chactemal
Nachán Can or Nachán Ka'an was Chief (Cacique) of Chactemal (today Chetumal) between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He was
father of Zazil Há who married Gonzalo Guerrero (also known as Gonzalo Marinero, Gonzalo de Aroca and Gonzalo de Aroza) was a sailor from
Palos, in Spain who shipwrecked along the Yucatán Peninsula and was taken as a slave by the local Maya. Earning his freedom, Guerrero
became a respected warrior under a Maya Lord and raised three of the first mestizo children in Mexico and presumably the first mixed children
of the mainland Americas.
Muiscan Confederation
The Muisca are the Chibcha-speaking people that formed the Muiscan Confederation of the central highlands of present-day Colombia's Eastern
Range. They were encountered by the Spanish Empire in 1537, at the time of the conquest. Subgroupings of the Muisca were mostly identified
by their allegiances to three great rulers: the Zaque, centered in Chunza, ruling a territory roughly covering modern southern and northeastern
Boyacá and southern Santander; the Zipa, centered in Bacatá, and encompassing most of modern Cundinamarca, the western Llanos and

northeastern Tolima; and the Iraca, ruler of Suamox and modern northeastern Boyacá and southwestern Santander. The territory of the Muisca
spanned an area of around 47,000 square kilometres (18,000 sq mi) a region slightly larger than Switzerland - from the north of Boyacá to the
Sumapaz Páramo and from the summits of the Eastern Range to the Magdalena Valley. It bordered the territories of the Panches and Pijaos
tribes. At the time of the conquest, the area had a large population, although the precise number of inhabitants is not known. The languages of
the Muisca were dialects of Chibcha, also called Muysca and Mosca, which belong to the Chibchan language family. The economy was based on
agriculture, metalworking and manufacturing. The Muiscan people were organized in a confederation that was a loose union of states that each
retained sovereignty. The Confederation was not a kingdom, as there was no absolute monarch, nor was it an empire, because it did not
dominate other ethnic groups or peoples. The Muiscan Confederation cannot be compared with other American civilizations such as the Aztec
or the Inca empires. The Muiscan Confederation was one of the biggest and best-organized confederations of tribes on the South American
continent. Every tribe within the confederation was ruled by a chief or cacique. Most of the tribes were part of the Muisca ethnic group, sharing
the same language and culture, and relating through trade. They united in the face of a common enemy. The army was the responsibility of the
Zipa or Zaque. The army was made up of the güeches, the traditional ancient warriors of the Muisca. The Muiscan Confederation existed as the
union of two lesser confederations. The southern confederation, headed by the Zipa, had its capital at Bacatá (now Bogotá). This southern polity
included the majority of the Muisca population and held greater economic power. The northern confederation was ruled by the Zaque, and had
its capital at Hunza, known today as Tunja. Although both confederations had common political relations and affinities and belonged to the
same tribal nation, there were still rivalries between them. Among the confederations, there were four chiefdoms: Bacatá, Hunza, Duitama, and
Sogamoso. The chiefdom was composed by localities. The tribes were divided into Capitanías (ruled by a Capitan. There were two kinds: Great
Capitania (sybyn) and Minor Capitania (uta). The status of Capitan was inherited by maternal lineage.
List of Rulers (Zipas) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation
Meicuchuca (died 1470) was a ruler (Zipa) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1450 until his death in 1470.
Saguamanchica (died 1490) was a ruler (Zipa) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1470 until his death in
1490. Saguamanchica was in a constant war against aggressive tribes such as the Sutagos, the Fusagasugaes and, especially, the
Panches, who would also make difficulties for his successors, Nemequene and Tisquesusa.
Nemequene (died 1514) was a ruler (Zipa) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1490 until his death in 1514.
Tisquesusa(died 1537) was a ruler (Zipa) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1514 until his death in 1537.
When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada arrived in Bogotá the ruling Zipa was Tisquesusa and the Zaque was Quemuenchatocha.
Zaquesazipa, Sagipa (died 1539) was a ruler (Zipa) of Bacatá Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1537 until his death
in 1539. The Spaniards killed the last Muisca sovereigns, Sagipa and Aquiminzaque. The reaction of the chief leaders and the
people did little to change the destiny of the Confederations.
List of Rulers (Zaques) of Hunza Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation
Hunzahúawas a Muisca Chief (Cacique). During his reign the power of the Muisca territory was centralized in the city of Hunza
(Tunja), named in his honor.
Michuá (died 1490) was a ruler (Zaque) of Hunza Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1470 until his death in 1490.
Quemuenchatocha (1472-1537) was a ruler (Zaque) of Hunza Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1490 until his
death in 1537. When Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada arrived in Bogotá the ruling Zipa was Tisquesusa and the Zaque was
Quemuenchatocha.

Aquiminzaque (died 1540) was a ruler (Zaque) of Hunza Chiefdom of the Muiscan Confederation from 1537 until his death in
1540. The Spaniards killed the last Muisca sovereigns, Sagipa and Aquiminzaque. The reaction of the chief leaders and the people did
little to change the destiny of the Confederations.
Kingdom of Nicoya
The Kingdom of Nicoya, also called Cacicazgo or Nicoya Lordship was an Amerindian nation that occupied much of the territory of the present
province of Guanacaste, in the North Pacific of Costa Rica. Its political, economic and religious center was the city of Nicoya, located on the
peninsula of the same name, which depended several provinces located on both banks of the Gulf of Nicoya and numerous tributary towns. In
prior to the arrival of European XVI century, Nicoya was the most important in northern Costa Rica Pacific chiefdom.
King of the Kingdom of Nicoya
Nambi was a King of the Kingdom of Nicoya, also called Cacicazgo or Nicoya Lordship ruled in the first half 16th century. He was baptised
and named Alonso after conquering of the Spanish conquerors.
Nahua people
The Nahuas /ˈnɑːwɑːz/ are a group of indigenous people of Mexico and El Salvador. Their language of Uto-Aztecan affiliation is called Nahuatl
and consists of many more dialects and variants, a number of which are mutually unintelligible. About 1,500,000 Nahua speak Nahuatl and
another 1,000,000 speak only Spanish. Less than 1,000 native speakers remain in El Salvador. Evidence suggests the Nahua peoples originated in
Aridoamerica, in regions of the present day northwestern Mexico. They split off from the other Uto-Aztecan speaking peoples and migrated into
central Mexico around 500 CE. They settled in and around the Basin of Mexico and spread out to become the dominant people in central
Mexico.
King of Nahua people
Coaza was the King of Nahua people in the basin of Sixaola located near the Rio Sixaola (Sixaola River), which forms the Costa Rica-Panama
border.
List of Kings mentionedin the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez:
Abacara was a King of Tariaca, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Atara was a King of Tariaca, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Abat was a King of Xupragua (Sufragua), indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in
Abat was a King of Abacitaba, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Abebara was a King of Mesabarú, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Quecoara was a King of Mesabarú, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by

Duytari was a King of Mesabarú, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Turerewas a King of Mesabarú, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Aczarri, also called Accerrí (or Acserí) Aquecerri, Aquearri, Aquetzarí, Adcerri or Adqarri was an indigenous King of ethnicity huetar who
during the sixteenth century ruled a chiefdom located in the present territories of Canton Aserrí in the province of San Jose, Costa Rica. He is
mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Atao it was an indigenous King of Costa Rica, belonging to the ethnic huetar who ruling in a community called Corroci, Corosí or Corocí,
composed of 200 or 300 individuals, although it has been suggested that this figure might represent 200 or 300 families. His domains were
located near the present town of Tucurrique. He is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de
Ribera y Gómez.
Beara was a King of Uxua, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Cerbican was a King of Aoyaque, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Boquinete was a King of Aoyaque, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Nariguetawas a King of Aoyaque, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Chumazarawas a King of Cot (Coo), indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569
by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Aquitavawas a King of Cot (Coo), indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Cocoa was a King of Duxua, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Cutiura was a King of Atirro, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Daraycora was a King of Aracara, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Muameariwas a King of Aracara, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Guarazí was a King of Curcubite, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Guayabi was a King of Boruca, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Guazarawas a King of Pariagua (Parragua), indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in
Morure was a King of Anaca, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Pixtoro was a King of Quircot, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Pucuca was a King of Chirripó, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Quicarobawas a King of Carucap, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by

Tabaco was a King of Turrialba (Pueblo) la Grande, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels
made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Huerrawas a King of Turrialba (Pueblo) la Grande, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels
made in 1569 by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Taboba was a King of Puririce, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Taraquiri was a King of Guacara, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Tibaba was a King of Bore, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Torabawas a King of Yru and Turriu, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569
by the Spanish governor Pero Afán de Ribera y Gómez.
Toracciwas a King of Buxebux, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Urrira was a King of Ibacara, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Uxiba was a King of Arira, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Uzero was a King of Moyagua, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Xalpas was a King of Bexu, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Xarcopa was a King of Orosi, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Ximuarawas a King of Caraquibou, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by
Yabecar was a King of Uxu, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Zabaca was a King of Tuyotique, indigenous people in the present Costa Rica who is mentioned in the granting of parcels made in 1569 by the
Antonio Carebe was a Cacique (Chief) of the indigenous people of Talca, in the region called Tierra Adentro, Costa Rica, in the early
seventeenth century. He revolted against Spanish rule in 1615, during the government of Juan de Mendoza and Medrano. A force led by
Captain Juan de los Wings moved to suppress the insurrection, defeated the Indians and Antonio Carebe captured. Several were sentenced to
death and others severely punished.
Coreneo was a Cacique (Chief), in the region called Tierra Adentro, Costa Rica, in the early seventeenth century.
Darfima was a Lord (Señor) of Usabarú in the seventeenth century.

Juan Quetapa was a Cacique (Chief) of Pariagua (Parragua), indigenous people in the present Costa Rica in the seventeenth century.
Bribri People of Talmanca
The Bribri are an indigenous people of Costa Rica. They live in the Talamanca (canton) in Limón Province of Costa Rica. They speak the Bribri
language and Spanish. There are varying estimates of the population of the tribe. According to a census by the Ministerio de Salud, there are
11,500 Bribri living within service range of the Hone Creek Clinic alone. They are a voting majority in the Puerto Viejo de Talamanca area.
Other estimates of tribal population in Costa Rica range much higher, reaching 35,000. The Bribri were the autochthonous people of the
Talamanca region, living in the mountains and Caribbean coastal areas of Costa Rica and northern Panama. The majority live with running
water and a scarce amount of electricity, raising cacao, banano, and platano to sell as well as beans, rice, corn, and a variety of produce for their
own consumption. Studies have shown that as a symbol of wealth and prosperity, it is tradition to draw on the outer wall of ones home. As it is
difficult to find a visual reference of the symbol in modern day, these are just a close approximation of ones recorded by a team led by Dr.
Raphael Mikheel Puusa and Dr. Karima Pajamoes during their 1857 expedition. Many Bribri are isolated and have their own language. This has
allowed them to maintain their indigenous culture, although it has also resulted in less access to education and health care. Although the group
has the lowest income per capita in the country, they are able to raise much of their own produce, medicine, and housing materials, and earn
cash to purchase what they can't grow themselves through tourism and by selling cacao, banano, and platano.
List of Caciques (Chiefs) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca
Chirimo was a Cacique (Chief) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca in the present in Costa Rica from ? until 1862.
Santiago Mayas (1834-1871) was a Cacique (Chief) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca in the present in Costa Rica from 1862 until
his death in 1871.
Birche (died 1874) was a Cacique (Chief) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca in the present in Costa Rica from 1872 until his death in
1874.
William Forbes (died May 1880) was a Cacique (Chief) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca in the present in Costa Rica from 1874
until his death in May 1880.
Antonio Saldaña (died January 3, 1910) was a Cacique (Chief) of Bribri, indigenous people of Talamanca in the present in
Costa Rica from May 1880 until his death on January 3, 1910.
Quilombo dos Palmares (Angola Janga)
Palmares, or Quilombo dos Palmares, was a fugitive community of escaped slaves and others in colonial Brazil that developed from 1605 until
its suppression in 1694. It was located in what is today the Brazilian state of Alagoas. The modern tradition has been to call the settlement the
Quilombo of Palmares. Quilombos were settlements mainly of survivors and free-born enslaved African people. The Quilombos came into
existence when Africans began arriving in Brazil in the mid-1530s and grew significantly as slavery expanded. No contemporary document calls
Palmares a quilombo, instead the term mocambo is used. Palmares was home to not only escaped enslaved Africans, but also to mulattos,
caboclos, Indians and poor whites, especially Portuguese soldiers trying to escape forced military service. One estimate places the population of
Palmares in the 1690s at around 20,000 inhabitants,[citation needed] although recent scholarship has questioned whether this figure is
exaggerated. Stuart Schwartz places the number at roughly 11,000, noting that it was, regardless, "undoubtedly the largest fugitive community
to have existed in Brazil". These inhabitants developed a society and government that derived from a range of Central African sociopolitical
models, a reflection of the diverse ethnic origins of its inhabitants. This government was confederate in nature, and was led by an elected chief
who allocated landholdings, appointed officials (usually family members), and resided in a type of fortification called Macoco. Six Portuguese
expeditions tried to conquer Palmares between 1680 and 1686, but failed. Finally, the governor of the captaincy of Pernambuco, Pedro Almeida,
organized an army, under the leadership of the Bandeirantes Domingos Jorge Velho and Bernardo Vieira de Melo, defeated a palmarista force
putting an end to the republic in 1694.
List of Leaders of Quilombo dos Palmares (Angola Janga)
Aqualtune was the first leader of Quilombo dos Palmares, or Angola Janga, in the present-day state of Alagoas, Brazil during 1630. In the
16th century, slavery was becoming commonacross the Americas, particularly in Brazil. Slaves were shipped overseas from Africa via a massive
Atlantic slave trade network. In Brazil, most worked at sugar plantations and mines, and were brutally tortured. However, some lucky slaves
started to escape. According to legend, among them was Aqualtune, a former Angolan princess and general enslaved during a Congolese war.
Shortly after reaching Brazil, the pregnant Aqualtune escaped with some of her soldiers and fled to the Serra da Bariga region. It is believed that
here, Aqualtune founded a quilombo, or a colony of Quilombolas, called Palmares. Palmares was one of the largest quilombos in Brazil.
Palmares was inherited by Aqualtune's son, Ganga Zumba, who ruled the city from a palace.

Ganga Zumba (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈɡɐ̃ɡɐ ˈzũbɐ]) (ca. 1630-1678) was the first of the leaders of Quilombo dos
Palmares, or Angola Janga, in the present-day state of Alagoas, Brazil from 1670 until his death in 1678. Zumba was a slave
who escaped bondage on a sugar plantation and assumed his destiny as heir to the kingdom of Palmares and the title Ganga
Zumba. Although some Portuguese documents give him the name Ganga Zumba, and this name is widely used today, the
most important of the documents translates the name as "Great Lord," which is probably not correct. However, a letter written
to him by the governor of Pernambuco in 1678 and now found in the Archives of the University of Coimbra, calls him
"Ganazumba," which is a better translation of "Great Lord" (in Kimbundu) and thus was probably his name. Ganga is said to
be the son of princess Aqualtune. Daughter of an unknown King of Kongo. She led a battalion at the Battle of Mbwila. But
the Portuguese won the battle eventually killing 5,000 men and captured the King, his two sons, his two nephews, four
governors, various court officials, 95 title holders and 400 other nobles. which were put on ships and sold as slaves in the
Americas. is very probable that Ganga was among the nobles. The whereabouts of the rest of them is unknown, but Ganga Zumba his Brother
Zona and his sister Sabina (mother of Zumbi dos Palmares his nephew and successor) were made slaves at the plantation of Santa Rita. From
there they escaped to Palmares. A quilombo or mocambo was a refuge of runaway slaves who were forcibly brought to Brazil mainly from
Angola that escaped their bondage and fled into the interior of Brazil to the mountainous region of Pernambuco. As their numbers increased,
they formed maroon settlements, called mocambos. Gradually as many as ten separate mocambos had formed and ultimately coalesced into a
confederation called the Quilombo of Palmares, or Angola Janga, under a king, Ganga Zumba or Ganazumba, who may have been elected by
the leaders of the constituent mocambos. Ganga Zumba, who ruled the biggest of the villages, Cerro dos Macacos, presided the mocambo's chief
council and was considered the King of Palmares. The nine other settlements were headed by brothers, sons, or nephews of Gunga Zumba.
Zumbi was chief of one community and his brother, Andalaquituche, headed another. By the 1670s, Ganga Zumba had a palace, three wives,
guards, ministers, and devoted subjects at his royal compound called Macaco. Macaco comes from the name of an animal (monkey) that was
killed on the site. The compound consisted of 1,500 houses which housed his family, guards, and officials, all of which were considered royalty.
He was given the respect of a Monarch and the honor of a Lord.(Kent) In 1678 Zumba accepted a peace treaty offered by the Portuguese
Governor of Pernambuco, which required that the Palmarinos relocate to Cucaú Valley. The treaty was challenged by Zumbi, one of Ganga
Zumba's nephews, who led a revolt against him. In the confusion that followed, Ganga Zumba was poisoned, mostly likely by one of his own
relatives for entering into a treaty with the Portuguese. And many of his followers who had moved to the Cucaú Valley were re-enslaved by the
Portuguese. Resistance to the Portuguese then continued under Zumbi. The Brazilian film Ganga Zumba was made in 1963 but was not released
until 1972 because there was a military coup in Brazil in 1964, and films about revolutions, even those taking place in the 17th century, were
considered politically dangerous. The film is based on João Felício dos Santo's novel, and focuses on a black slave who ends up in Palmares. The
film is about black liberation and keeps a black racial perspective.
Ganga Zona was de-jure leader of the Quilombo dos Palmares, a fugitive settlement in the present-day state of Alagoas, Brazil from 1678
until ?. Ganga Zone was brother of Ganga Zumba. He participated in the peace agreement between the Quilombo of Palmares and the Kingdom
Portuguese.
Zumbi(1655-November 20, 1695), also known as Zumbi dos Palmares (Portuguese pronunciation: [zũˈbi dus pɐwˈmaɾis]),
was the last of the leaders of the Quilombo dos Palmares, a fugitive settlement in the present-day state of Alagoas, Brazil
from 1678 until February 6, 1694. Quilombos were fugitive settlements or African refugee settlements. Quilombos
represented free African resistance which occurred in three forms: free settlements, attempts at seizing power, and armed
insurrection. Members of quilombos often returned to plantations or towns to encourage their former fellow Africans to
flee and join the quilombos. If necessary, they brought others by force and sabotaged plantations. Anyone who came to
quilombos on their own were considered free, but those who were captured and brought by force were considered slaves
and continued to be so in the new settlements. They could be considered free if they were to bring another captive to the
settlement. Quilombo dos Palmares was a self-sustaining republic of Maroons escaped from the Portuguese settlements in
Brazil, "a region perhaps the size of Portugal in the hinterland of Bahia". At its height, Palmares had a population of over 30,000. Forced to
defend against repeated attacks by Portuguese colonists, many warriors of Palmares were expert in capoeira, a martial arts form that was
brought to and enhanced in Brazil by kidnapped Angolans at about the 16th century on. Zumbi was born free in Palmares in 1655, believed to
be descended from the Imbangala warriors from Angola. He was captured by the Portuguese and given to a missionary, Father António Melo,
when he was approximately six years old. Baptized Francisco, Zumbi was taught the sacraments, learned Portuguese and Latin, and helped with
daily mass. Despite attempts to subjugate him, Zumbi escaped in 1670 and, at the age of 15, returned to his birthplace. Zumbi became known for
his physical prowess and cunningness in battle and he was a respected military strategist by the time he was in his early twenties. By 1678, the
governor of the captaincy of Pernambuco, Pedro Almeida, weary of the longstanding conflict with Palmares, approached its leader Ganga
Zumba with an olive branch. Almeida offered freedom for all runaway slaves if Palmares would submit to Portuguese authority, a proposal
which Ganga Zumba favored. But Zumbi was distrustful of the Portuguese. Further, he refused to accept freedom for the people of Palmares
while other Africans remained enslaved. He rejected Almeida's overture and challenged Ganga Zumba's leadership. Vowing to continue the
resistance to Portuguese oppression, Zumbi became the new leader of Palmares. Fifteen years after Zumbi assumed leadership of Palmares,
Portuguese military commanders Domingos Jorge Velho and Bernardo Vieira de Melo mounted an artillery assault on the quilombo. February
6, 1694, after 67 years of ceaseless conflict with the cafuzos, or Maroons, of Palmares, the Portuguese succeeded in destroying Cerca do Macaco,
the republic's central settlement. Before the king Ganga Zumba was dead, Zumbi had taken it upon himself to fight for Palmares' independence.
In doing so he became known as the commander-in-chief in 1675. Due to his heroic efforts it increased his prestige. Palmares' warriors were no
match for the Portuguese artillery; the republic fell, and Zumbi was wounded in one leg. Though he survived and managed to elude the
Portuguese and continue the rebellion for almost two years, he was betrayed by a mulato who belonged to the quilombo and had been captured
by the Paulistas, and, in return for his life, led them to Zumbi's hideout. Zumbi was captured and beheaded on the spot November 20, 1695. The
Portuguese transported Zumbi's head to Recife, where it was displayed in the central praça as proof that, contrary to popular legend among
African slaves, Zumbi was not immortal. This was also done as a warning of what would happen to others if they tried to be as brave as him.
Remnants of quilombo dwellers continued to reside in the region for another hundred years. November 20 is celebrated, chiefly in Brazil, as a
day of Afro-Brazilian consciousness. The day has special meaning for those Brazilians of African descent who honor Zumbi as a hero, freedom
fighter, and symbol of freedom. Zumbi has become a hero of the 20th-century Afro-Brazilian political movement, as well as a national hero in
Brazil. Zumbi dos Palmares International Airport is the name of the airport serving Maceió, Brazil. Subject of the 1974 Jorge Ben song "Zumbi".
Gilberto Gil released a CD called Z300 Anos de Zumbi. Quilombo, 1985, film by Carlos Diegues about Palmares. The band name Chico Science

& Nação Zumbi (later just Nação Zumbi after the death of frontman Chico Science). Soulfly has the song titled "Zumbi", and mentioned in
various lyrics as well. He was mentioned in the Sepultura song "Ratamahatta." His name is given to a fighter in the Macromedia Flash game
Capoeira Fighter 2 & 3.
Haïtian Maroons
The French encountered many forms of slave resistance during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The African slaves that fled to
remote mountainous areas were called marron (French) or mawon (Haitian Creole), meaning "escaped slave". The maroons formed close-knit
communities which practiced small-scale agriculture and hunting, and were known for sneaking back to their plantations to free family
members and friends. They also joined the Taíno settlements on a few occasions, who escaped the Spanish in the seventeenth century. Certain
maroon factions became formidable enough that they made treaties with local colonial authorities, sometimes negotiating their own
independence in exchange for helping to hunt down other escaped slaves. Other slave resistance efforts against the French plantation system
were more direct. The maroon leader Mackandal led an unsuccessful movement to poison the drinking water of the plantation owners in the
1750s. Another maroon named Boukman, declared war on the French plantation owners in 1791, sparking off the Haitian Revolution. A statue
called the Le Negre Marron or the Neg Mawon is an iconic bust, which lies in the heart of Port-au-Prince.
Haïtian Maroon leader in Saint-Domingue
François Mackandal (died 1758) was a Haïtian Maroon leader in Saint-Domingue. He was an African who is sometimes
described as Haitian vodou priest, or houngan. Some sources describe him as a Muslim, leading some scholars to speculate that
he was from Senegal, Mali, or Guinea, though this assertion is tenuous given the lack of biographical information from this era,
and is highly contested. Haitian historian Thomas Madiou states that Mackandal "had instruction and possessed the Arabic
language very well." But given the predominance of Haitian Vodou on the island, most assume Mackandal to be associated with
this faith instead. In the book "Open door to Liberty," Mackandal was mentioned, talking about his life as a vodou priest and joining Maroons to
kill whites in Saint Domingue, till he was captured and burned alive by French colonial authorities. The association of Mackandal with "black
magic" seems to be a result of his use of poison, derived from natural plants: The slave Mackandal, a houngan knowledgeable of poisons,
organized a widespread plot to poison the masters, their water supplies and animals. The movement spread great terror among the slave owners
and killed hundreds before the secret of Mackandal was tortured from a slave. (emphasis added) Mackandal created poisons from island herbs.
He distributed the poison to slaves, who added it to the meals and refreshments they served the French plantation owners and planters. He
became a charismatic guerrilla leader who united the different Maroon bands and created a network of secret organizations connected with
slaves still on plantations. He led Maroons to raid plantations at night, torch property, and kill the owners. In 1758, the French fearing that
Mackandal would drive all whites from the colony, tortured an ally of Makandal into divulging information that led to Makandal's capture and
subsequent burning at the stake in the public square of Cap-Français, now Cap-Haïtien. Beyond the sketch of historical events outlined above, a
colorful and varied range of myths about the man's life exist. Various supernatural accounts of his execution, and of his escaping capture by the
French authorities, are preserved in island folklore, and are widely depicted in paintings and popular art. It is speculated that Mackandal lost his
right arm in a farming accident when it was caught in a sugarcane press and crushed between the rollers. One of the most well-known portraits
of Mackandal is that in Alejo Carpentier's magical realist novel, The Kingdom of this World. Mackandal's public torture and execution (via
burning at the stake) is depicted vividly in Guy Endore's 1934 novel Babouk. Both Mackandal's rebel conspiracy and his brutal killing are shown
as influential on Babouk (based on Boukman), who helps to lead a 1791 slave revolt. A fictionalized version of Mackandal also appears in Nalo
Hopkinson's novel, The Salt Roads and in Mikelson Toussaint-Fils’s novel, Bloody trails: the Messiah of the islands (in French, Les sentiers
rouges: Le Messie des iles). In Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods, a boy named Agasu is enslaved in Africa and brought to Haiti, where he
eventually loses his arm and leads a rebellion against the European establishment. This account is very similar to that of Mackandal's. C G S
Millworth's novel, Makandal's Legacy tells of Makandal's fictional son, Jericho, and the gift of immortality he received as a result of his father's
pact with the voodoo spirits, the lwa. The Harvard ethnobotanist and Anthropologist, Wade Davis, writes about Francois Macandal in his novel
"The Serpent and the Rainbow." In the chapter "Tell my Horse" Davis explores the historical beginnings of vodoun culture and speculates
Mackandal as a chief propagator of the Vodoun religion. In the video game Assassin's Creed III: Liberation, the character Agaté mentions
François Mackandal as having been his Assassin mentor, and also recalls how Mackandal was burned at the stake following his failed attempt to
poison the colonists of Saint-Domingue. The game portrays a false Mackandal who is actually another character called Baptiste, who according
to Agaté was once a brother and has also been trained by the real Mackandal. The character uses a Skull face painting and like the real
Mackandal he is missing his right arm. Mackandal is also mentioned many times in Assassin's Creed Rogue.
Garifuna people
The Garifuna (/ɡəˈrɪfʉnə/ gə-rif-uu-nə; pl. Garinagu in Garifuna) are descendants of West African, Central African, Island Carib, and Arawak
people. The British colonial administration used the term Black Carib and Garifuna to distinguish them from Yellow and Red Carib, the
Amerindian population that did not intermarry with Africans. Caribs who had not intermarried with Africans are still living in the islands of the
Lesser Antilles. These Island Caribs lived throughout the southern Lesser Antilles such as Dominica, St Vincent and Trinidad, supposedly
having conquered them from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. Today the Garifuna people live primarily in Central America where they
speak the Garifuna language. They live along the Caribbean Coast in Belize, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras including the mainland, and
on the island of Roatán. There are also Garifunas in Puerto Rico and diaspora communities of Garifuna in the United States, particularly in Los
Angeles, Miami, New York City, New Orleans, Houston, Seattle other major cities.
List of Chiefs of Garifuna people

Joseph Chatoyer (died March 14, 1795) was a Garifuna (Carib) chief who led a revolt against the British colonial
government of Saint Vincent in 1795. He is now considered a national hero of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines also Belize,
Costa Rica and other Carib countries he fought for during the war. (Camillo Gonsalves, Permanent Representative of Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines to the United Nations, described him in 2011 as his country's "sole national hero".) For two
centuries, the indigenous Carib population of the island succeeded in resisting European attempts at colonization by
retreating to the mountainous, densely forested interior of the island. They were there joined by runaway African slaves,
forming a unique new culture which combined elements of African and Amerindian heritage. By the 1770s, both Britain and
France had made inroads on Saint Vincent. In 1772, the native population rebelled. Led by Chatoyer, the First Carib War forced the British to
sign a treaty with them—it was the first time Britain had been forced to sign an accord with indigenous people in the Caribbean. By 1795, it
became apparent to the local population that Britain had no intention of keeping to the treaty and rose in rebellion. This time, however, the
Caribs were joined by a group of French radicals inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution. In the Second Carib War, Chatoyer divided the
island with his brother Duvalle, another chieftain. Duvalle had a Guadeloupean lieutenant by the name of Massoteau. Working his way along
the coast, Chatoyer met up with his French supporters at Chateaubelair, and together the forces worked their way to Dorsetshire Hill, from
where they would launch their attack on Kingstown. On March 14, a battalion of British soldiers led by General Ralph Abercromby, marched
toward Dorsetshire Hill. That night, Chatoyer was killed by Major Alexander Leith. Though the rebellion continued until October 1796 under
the leadership of Duvalle, Chatoyer's death led to the desertion of the French supporters and turned the tide of the war. As a national hero of
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, a monument to him stands on Dorsetshire Hill, where he died. A play based on his life, The Drama of King
Shotaway, was the first play written by an African-American.
Duvalle (fl. 1795) was a Garifuna chief who commanded troops on the leeward side of Saint Vincent after the death of his brother Joseph
Chatoyer in the anti-British rebellion of 1795-1796. He succeeded Chief Joseph Chatoyer as leader of the Black Caribs/Garifunas of St. Vincent
resisting British takeover of the island after Chatoyer was killed on March 14, 1795. While some Caribs fought alongside the British, Duvalle
made an alliance with the French. His camp was taken by British forces and Duvalle capitulated in October 1796 when the rebellion was crushed
and his people deported to Baliceaux. In Garifuna memory Chiefs Chatoyer and Duvalle, in an effort to maintain their stronghold in St. Vincent
as the only non-enslaved group of Black people in the colonial Americas or their time, first fought off the French, then the British, then became
allies with the French against the British, only to be betrayed by the French and deported by the British from St. Vincent to Central America.
Cimarrons in Panama
The Cimarrons in Panama, were enslaved Africans who had escaped from their Spanish masters and lived together as outlaws. In the 1570s, they
allied with Sir Francis Drake of England to defeat the Spanish conquest. In Sir Francis Drake Revived (1572), Drake describes the Cimarrons as
"a black people which about eighty years past fled from the Spaniards their masters, by reason of their cruelty, and are since grown to a nation,
under two kings of their own. The one inhabiteth to the west, the other to the east of the way from Nombre de Dios".
List of Leaders of Cimarrons in Panama
Bayano, also known as Ballano or Vaino, was an African enslaved by Spaniards who led the biggest slave revolts of 16th century Panama.
Captured from the Mandinka community in West Africa, it is alleged that he and his comrades were Muslim. Different tales tell of their revolt
in 1552 beginning either on the ship en route, or after landing in Panama's Darien province along its modern-day border with Colombia. Rebel
slaves, known as cimarrones, set up autonomous regions known as palenques, many of which successfully fended off Spanish control for
centuries using guerrilla war and alliances with pirates, or indigenous nations who were in similar circumstances. King Bayano's forces
numbered between four and twelve hundred Cimarrons, depending upon different sources, and set up a palenque known as Ronconcholon near
modern-day Chepo River, also known as Rio Bayano. They fought their guerrilla war for over five years while building their community. The
account written by Dr. Abdul Khabeer Muhammad based on the belief that Bayano's followers were Mandinka, and as Mandinka had been
influenced by Islam, argued that they created democratic councils and built mosques. However, the most important primary source, written in
1581 by Pedro de Aguado, devotes space to their religious life, and describes the activities of a "bishop" who guided the community in prayer,
baptized them, and delivered sermons, in a manner that Aguado believed to be essentially Christian. Bayano gained truces with Panama's
colonial governor, Pedro de Ursúa, but Ursúa subsequently captured the guerrilla leader and sent him to Peru and then to Spain, where he died.
Bayano's revolt coincided with others, including those of Felipillo and Luis de Mozambique. Bayano's name has become immortal in the
Panamanian consciousness through the naming of a major river, a lake, a valley, a dam, and several companies after him.
Felipillo was the leader of a sixteenth-century maroon band in Panama. Felipillo was a Spanish speaking (Ladino) slave who managed a boat
for the pearl fisheries on the Pearl Islands on Panama's Pacific side. In 1549, he led a revolt in which slaves fled the islands as well as cattle
ranches on the mainland, and then fled into the mountains. From their base Felipillo and his followers raided Spanish ranches and travelers
until 1551 when he and 30 of his followers were surprised and captured by Captain Francisco Carreño. Felipillo was subsequently executed and
the remainder of his followers sold as slaves.

Maroon Colony of fugitive slaves in the highlands near Veracruz
Slave rebellions occurred in Mexico as in other parts of the Americas, with the first in Veracruz in 1537. Runaway slaves were called cimarrones,
who mostly fled to the highlands between Veracruz and Puebla, with a number making their way to the Costa Chica region in what are now
Guerrero and Oaxaca. Runaways in Veracruz formed settlements called “palenques” which would fight off Spanish authorities. The most famous
of these was led by Gaspar Yanga, who fought the Spanish for forty years until the Spanish recognized their autonomy in 1608, making San
Lorenzo de los Negros (today Yanga) the first community of free blacks in the Americas.
African leader of a Maroon Colony of fugitive slaves in the highlands near Veracruz
Gaspar Yanga often simply Yanga or Nyanga (c.1545-?) was an African leader of a maroon colony of fugitive slaves in
the highlands near Veracruz, Mexico during the early period of Spanish colonial rule. He is known for successfully resisting
a Spanish attack on the colony in 1609, although both sides suffered losses. The maroons continued their raids. Finally in
1618, Yanga achieved an agreement with the colonial government for self-rule of the settlement, later called San Lorenzo
de los Negros and also San Lorenzo de Cerralvo. Located in today's Veracruz province, in 1932 the town was renamed as
Yanga in his honor. In the late 19th century, Yanga was named as a "national hero of Mexico" and “El Primer Libertador de
las Americas.” Yanga, aka Nyanga, was said to be of the Bran people and a member of the royal family of Gabon. He was
captured and sold into slavery in Mexico, where he was called Gaspar Yanga. Before the end of the slave trade, New Spain
had the second-highest number of African slaves after Brazil and developed the largest free black population in the
Americas. Around 1570, Yanga led a band of slaves in escaping to the highlands near Veracruz. They built a small maroon
colony, or palenque. Its isolation helped protect it for more than 30 years, and other fugitive slaves found their way there. Because the people
survived in part by raiding caravans taking goods traveling the Camino Real (Royal Road) between Veracruz and Mexico City, in 1609 the
Spanish colonial government decided to undertake a campaign to regain control of this territory. Led by the soldier Pedro González de Herrera,
about 550 Spanish troops set out from Puebla in January; an estimated 100 were Spanish regulars and the rest conscripts and adventurers. The
maroons were an irregular force of 100 fighters having some type of firearm, and 400 more armed with stones, machetes, bows and arrows, and
the like. These maroon troops were led by Francisco de la Matosa, an Angolan. Yanga—who was quite old by this time decided to use his troops'
superior knowledge of the terrain to resist the Spaniards, with the goal of causing them enough pain to draw them to the negotiating table.
Upon the approach of the Spanish troops, Yanga sent terms of peace via a captured Spaniard. He asked for a treaty akin to those that had settled
hostilities between Indians and Spaniards: an area of self-rule in return for tribute and promises to support the Spanish if they were attacked. In
addition, Yanga said this proposed district would return any slaves who might flee to it. This last concession was necessary to soothe the worries
of the many slave owners in the region. The Spaniards refused the terms and went into battle, resulting in heavy losses for both sides. The
Spaniards advanced into the maroon settlement and burned it. But, the maroons fled into the surrounding terrain, which they knew well, and
the Spaniards could not achieve a conclusive victory. The resulting stalemate lasted years; finally, the Spanish agreed to parley. Yanga's terms
were agreed to, with the additional provisos that only Franciscan priests would tend to the people, and that Yanga's family would be granted the
right of rule. In 1618 the treaty was signed. By 1630 the town of San Lorenzo de los Negros de Cerralvo was established. Located in today's
Veracruz province, the town in the 21st century is known as Yanga. In 1871, five decades after Mexican independence, Yanga was designated as
a "national hero of Mexico" and El Primer Libertador de las Americas. This was based largely on an account by historian Vicente Riva Palacio.
The influential Riva Palacio was also a novelist, short story writer, military general and mayor of Mexico City. In the late 1860s he found in
Inquisition archives accounts of Yanga and of the 1609 Spanish expedition against him, as well as the later agreement. He published an account
of Yanga in an anthology in 1870, and as a separate pamphlet in 1873. Reprints have followed, including a recent edition in 1997. Much of the
subsequent writing about Yanga was influenced by the works of Riva Palacio. He characterized the maroons of San Lorenzo de los Negros as
proud men who would not be defeated.
Maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque
San Basilio de Palenque or Palenque de San Basilio is a Palenque village and corregimiento in the Municipality of Mahates, Bolivar in northern
Colombia. In 2005 the village was declared Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Palenque is also
considered the first free town in America. Spaniards introduced kidnapped African slaves in South America through the Magdalena River
Valley. Its mouth is close to the important port of Cartagena de Indias where ships full of Africans arrived. Some Africans escaped and set up
Palenque de San Basilio, a town close to Cartagena. They tried to free all African slaves arriving at Cartagena and were quite successful.
Therefore, the Spanish Crown issued a Royal Decree (1691), guaranteeing freedom to the Palenque de San Basilio Africans. These Africans were
the First Free Africans in America.
Leader of the Maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque
Benkos Biohó (late 16th century-1621), also known as Domingo Biohó, was Leader of the Maroon community
of San Basilio de Palenque some time in the early 16th century. He was born in the Bissagos Islands off the coast

of Guinea Bissau where he was seized by the Portuguese Pedro Gomez Reynel, the dealer, sold to businessman Juan Palacios, and later, after
transportation to what is now Colombia in South America, sold again to the Spaniard Alonso del Campo in 1596, in Cartagena de Indias. He
established the maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque some time in the 16th century. He was betrayed and hanged by the governor of
Cartagena in 1619. The former African king escaped from the slave port of Cartagena with ten others and founded San Basilio de Palenque,
then known as the "village of the Maroons". In 1713 it became the first free village in the Americas by decree from the King of Spain, when he
gave up sending his troops on futile missions to attack their fortified mountain hideaway. Biohó made his first escape when the boat that was
transporting him down the Magdalena River sank. He was recaptured, but escaped again in 1599 into the marshy lands southeast of Cartagena.
He organised an army that came to dominate all of the Montes de Maria region. He also formed an intelligence network and used the
information collected to help organise more escapes and to guide the runaway slaves into the liberated territory, known as settlement. He used
the title "king of Arcabuco". On July 18, 1605, the Governor of Cartagena, Gerónimo de Suazo y Casasola, unable to defeat the Maroons, offered
a peace treaty to Biohó, recognising the autonomy of the Matuna Bioho Palenque and accepting his entrance into the city armed and dressed in
Spanish fashion, while the palenque promised to stop receiving more runaway slaves, cease their aid in escape attempts and stop addressing
Biohó as "king". Peace was finalised in 1612 under the governorship of Diego Fernandez de Velasco. The treaty was violated by the Spaniards in
1619 when they captured Biohó as he was walking carelessly into the city. He was hanged and quartered on March 16, 1621. Governor Garcia
Giron who ordered the execution, argued bitterly that "it was dangerous the respect Biohó generated in the population" and that "his lies and
enchantment would drive the nations of Guinea away from the city." By the end of the seventeenth century, the area of Montes de Maria had
over 600 Maroons, under the command of Domingo Padilla, who claimed for himself the title of captain while his wife Jane adopted that of
viceroy, and successfully challenged further attempts at sovereignty from the colonial authorities. San Basilio de Palenque was declared
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2005. At about 50 miles east of Cartagena, on hills of strategic
value were used as lookout posts, still hear the names of the runaway Neighborhood: Sincerin, Mahates, Gambote.
Ngäbe (Guaymí) People
The Ngäbe or Guaymí people are an indigenous group living mainly within the Ngäbe-Buglé comarca in the Western Panamanian provinces of
Veraguas, Chiriquí and Bocas del Toro. The Ngäbe also have five indigenous territories in southwestern Costa Rica encompassing 23,600
hectares: Coto Brus, Abrojos Montezuma, Conte Burica, Altos de San Antonio and Guaymi de Osa. There are approximately 200,000-250,000
speakers of Ngäbere today. Guaymí is an outdated name derived from the Buglere term for them (guaymiri). Local newspapers and other media
often alternatively spell the name Ngäbe as Ngobe or Ngöbe because Spanish does not contain the sound represented by ä, a low-back rounded
a, slightly higher than the English aw in the word saw and Spanish speakers hear ä as either an o or an a. Ngäbe means people in their native
language- Ngäbere. A sizable number of Ngäbe have migrated to Costa Rica in search of work on the coffee fincas. Ngäbere and Buglere are
distinct languages in the Chibchan language family. They are mutually unintelligible.
Chief (Cacique) of Ngäbe (Guaymí) people
Urracáor Ubarragá Maniá Tigrí was an amerindian Ngäbe chieftain or cacique who fought effectively against the Spanish
conquistadors. Captured at one point, Urracá managed to escape a Spanish bound ship and rejoin his own people, thus
continuing to lead the fight against the Spanish until his death in 1531. He is also remembered as el caudillo amerindio de
Veragua, adversary of the Spanish Empire, the great rebel in the current territory of Panama, and the one who faced the
Spanish conquistadors. His face can be found on the smallest-denomination centesimo coin of Panama. Shortly after the
foundation of Panama City in 1519, the Spanish Governor-Captain Pedrarias Dávila began moving into the country, wanting
to find a gold-rich village. The Spanish conquered the Veragua province, which is particularly rich in gold mining, and Urracá's territorial area
was in the vicinity of the present town of Nata de los Caballeros, founded on May 20, 1520 to serve as a basis for exploration of the rest of
Central America. Urracá bravely faced the Spanish expedition for almost nine years, and repeatedly defeated the conquistadors, led by Gaspar
de Espinosa. When Espinoza was called back to Panama by Pedrarias Dávila, Francisco de Compañón was commissioned to his post. Urracá then
attacked the population, but Compañón managed to send a report on the situation to Panama and Pedrarias so decided to send a battalion led by
Juan Ponce de León. Urracá succeeded in making alliances with tribes traditionally enemies of his, in order to defeat the Spaniards. Caciques
such as Ponca, Dures, Duraria, Bulaba, Guisia, Guaniaga, Tabor, Guracona, Guaniagos and other great masters of Veragua united under his
command. However, the arrival of Ponce de León forced his allies to raise the siege, prompting Pedrarias himself to reach Nata with new forces.
There were bloody clashes, without any of the parties achieving complete victory. In a subsequent battle, Urracá forces managed to defeat
Captain Diego de Albitres, who escaped and accounted to the governor of Castilla del Oro. The Spanish, led by Compañón decided to capture
Urracá with a trick, and emissaries to Urracá's lands were sent in order to propose peace negotiations in Nata de los Caballeros. Urracá accepted
the invitation and attended the scene along with two of his men, but Compañón captured and sent him to Nombre de Dios to be sent to Spain.
However, Urracá escaped and reunited with his people, yet maintaining his resistance against the Spanish forces for several years. Opposite the
facade of Escuela Normal in the city of Santiago, capital of the province of Veragua, stands a statue of Urracá with a warrior expression as if
willing to attack the Spanish conquistadors. In his honor, the Asociación Nacional de Scouts de Panamá calls Scout Urracá the highest rank
awarded to those who have made outstanding community service. "... He was so brave and courageous, wise and skillful in war, not just to defeat
the Spaniards who oppressed him ... being a man of judgment and courageous, and knowing full well how it is a war against the enemy ..." -
Bartolomé de las Casas, History of the Indies.
Ponca was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Dures was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Duraria was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.

Bulaba was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Guisia was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Guaniaga was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Tabor was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Guracona was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Guaniagos was the Chief (Cacique) of indigenous tribe in the present Province of Veraguas in Panama in late 1520s.
Bunuba People
The Bunuba (also known as Bunaba, Punapa, Punuba) are a group of Indigenous Australians, who traditionally speak the Bunuba language.
They are the traditional owners of the southern West Kimberley, in Western Australia, and live in and around the town of Fitzroy Crossing.
Indigenous Australians have lived in the Kimberley region for over 40,000 years and continues to be home to groups, including the Bunuba,
who practice traditional law in the oldest continuous culture in the world. The traditional land of the Bunuba covers 3500 square kilometers
north of Fitzroy Crossing. The native title was recognised in 2012 and are administered by the Bunuba Dawangarri Aboriginal Corporation. The
area is composed mostly of cattle stations and national parks, the Bunuba acquired Leopold Downs in 1991 and Fairfield Downs stations in 1995.
Together the properties occupy an area of 4,046 square kilometres (1,562 sq mi) and have a maximum carrying capacity of 20,000 head of cattle.
In 2012 the Australian Agricultural Company entered an agreement with the Bunuba where AACo would manage the operations and the
Bunuba would receive and annual rent and training opportunities and have complete access to their lands.
Chief of Bunuba People
Jandamarra, Tjandamurra (c. 1873-April 1, 1897), (the Europeans called him "Pigeon") was an Indigenous Australian of the Bunuba people
who led one of the few organised armed insurrections documented against European settlement in Australia. The Bunuba land was situated in
the southern part of the Kimberley region in the far north of the state of Western Australia, and stretched from the town of Fitzroy Crossing to
the King Leopold Ranges ; it included the Napier and Oscar Ranges. From about the age of 11, Jandamarra was working for the settlers as an
unpaid Aboriginal worker. In his teens, he was initiated into the law of the Bunuba. When Jandamarra's close friend, an Englishman named
Richardson, joined the police force in the 1890s Jandamarra, a skilled horseman and marksman, was employed as his native tracker. Unusually
for the time, Jandamarra was treated as an equal and the pair gained a reputation as the "most outstanding" team in the police force at that time.
Aboriginal people were spearing stock, an effective form of resistance against the settlers. Jandamarra was ordered to track down his own
people. The captives, among them his uncle, chief Ellemarra, were taken to Lillimooloora Station. Chief Ellemarra forced Jandamarra to decide
where his loyalties lie: to kill his friend Richardson or be outcast from his tribe. He shot Richardson and became an armed fugitive. On
November 10, 1894, Jandamarra and some followers attacked five white men who were driving cattle to set up a large station in the heart of
Bunuba land.[citation needed] Two of these men were killed and guns and ammunition captured. This was the first time that guns were used
against European settlers in an organised attack. In late 1894, two weeks after Richardson was shot, the police and Jandamarra’s band faced each
other at the Windjana Gorge, a sacred place in Bunuba culture. After eight hours of standoff Ellemarra was killed, Jandamarra was wounded but
escaped. Western Australia's first Premier, John Forrest, ordered the rebellion to be crushed. Police attacked Aboriginal camps around Fitzroy
Crossing. Many Aboriginal people were killed, some purely on suspicion that they had ties to Jandamarra's band. For three years, Jandamarra
led a guerrilla war against police and European settlers. His hit and run tactics and his vanishing tricks became almost mythical. In one famous
incident a police patrol followed him to his hideout at the entrance to Tunnel Creek in the Napier Range, but Jandamarra disappeared
mysteriously. It was many years later that it was discovered that Tunnel Creek has a collapsed section that allows entry and egress from the top
of the Range. Jandamarra was held in awe by other Aboriginal people who believed he was immortal, his body simply a physical manifestation
of a spirit that resided in a water soak near Tunnel Creek. It was believed that only an Aborigine with similar mystical powers could kill him.
Police chasing Jandamarra were also in awe at his ability to cross the rugged ranges with no effect on his bare feet, despite their boots being cut
to shreds by the sharp rocks. Jandamarra's war was relatively short-lived and ended when police recruited Micki by holding his children
hostage.[citation needed] Micki, a remarkable Aboriginal tracker was also reputed to possess magical powers, and was neither a Bunuba
tribesman, nor did he fear Jandamarra. Micki tracked Jandamarra down and shot him dead at Tunnel Creek on April 1, 1897. The white troopers
cut off Jandamarra's head as proof that he was dead and it was preserved and sent to a firearms company in England where it was used as an
example of the effectiveness of the companies firearms. The head of another Bunuba was labelled as Jandamarra and put on public display in
Perth. His body was buried by his family at the Napier Range where it was placed inside a boab tree. Jandamarra's life has been the subject of
two novels, Ion Idriess's Outlaws of the Leopold (1952) and Mudrooroo's Long Live Sandawarra (1972). Mudrooroo's novel, in counterpart to
Idriess's, was written for an Indigenous audience to bring to their attention a hero of their own and cuts between the story of Jandamarra (called
Sandawarra) and the contemporary story of young urbanised Sandy and his friends who are inspired by Jandamarra. More recently the story of
Jandamarra, put down in writing by Howard Pedersen, was the subject of the Western Australian Premier's Book Award-winning history,
Jandamarra and the Bunuba Resistance. A stage play (Jandamarra) was produced by the Black Swan Theatre Company in 2008. Jandamarra's
War, a documentary about his life, from the ABC and Indigenous independent production company Wawili Pitjas first screened on the 12th of
May 2011. The ruins of the Lillimulura Police Station, which are of historical significance because of their connection to Jandamarra, are a few
kilometres south of Windjana Gorge on the road to Tunnel Creek. Both Windjana Gorge and Tunnel Creek are popular tourist attractions and
visitors interested in learning more about Jandamarra are well advised to visit these ruins.

Ben Lomond (Plangermaireener) tribe
The original inhabitants of the area were the people of the Ben Lomond Nation, which consisted of at least three clans totalling 150–200 people.
Three clan names are known but their locations are somewhat conjectural - the clans were recorded as Plangermaireener, Plindermairhemener
and Tonenerweenerlarmenne. The Plangermaireener clan is recorded as variously inhabiting the south-east aspect of the Ben Lomond region
and also has been associated with the coastal tribes to the south-east. This clan was likely to have occupied the region of the modern day Fingal
Valley to the St Mary's Plains and east coast region. 'Plangermaireener' is sometimes used as a blanket term for the Ben Lomond Nation which
reflects the suffix 'mairener', recorded as meaning 'people' or 'tribe'. The Plindermairhemener are recorded in association with the south and
south-western aspects of the region and are likely to have occupied the South Esk Valley from the Avoca region up to at least the Nile
River.mTheir country was bordered by the South Esk River to the south and west. The location of the Tonenerweenerlarmenne is uncertain but
were probably centred in the remaining Ben Lomond Nation territory from White Hills to the headwaters of the North and South-Esk rivers or
the upper South-Esk Valley. This notwithstanding, the Palawa were a nomadic people and likely occupied their clan lands seasonally. The clans
of the Ben Lomond Nation were migratory and the Aborigines hunted along the valleys of the South Esk and North Esk rivers, their tributaries
and the highlands to the northeast; as well as making forays to the plateau in summer. There are records of aboriginal huts or dwellings around
the foothills of Stacks Bluff and around the headwaters of the South Esk River near modern day Mathinna. On the plateau there is evidence of
artifacts around Lake Youl that suggests regular occupation of this site by aborigines after the last ice age. The clans of the Ben Lomond Nation
were displaced in the early 1800s by extensive colonial occupation up the South Esk river and its tributaries. This particularly manifested along
the mountain's western and northern boundaries, which lay closest to the settled areas of Launceston and Norfolk Plains (now Longford). The
presence of farms and stockmen interrupted the migratory tribal life of the Aborigines and, although initial relations were peaceable,
displacement was accelerated by continuing intrusion into country, abduction of aboriginal women and violent conflict with both settlers and
with rival tribes. In particular, women became scarce due to the abduction by sealers of women in coastal areas, consequently leading to
internecine raids for women across the interior. Children, also, were a target for abduction by settlers. For example, the prominent settler James
Cox, at Clarendon on the Nile River, raised the Aboriginal William 'Black Bill' Ponsonby from a child. The aboriginal people were forced into an
ever more marginal existence and; with numbers depleted by disease, murder and abduction, were forced into sustained conflict with occupying
settlers. These remnants of the Ben Lomond nation allied with members of the North Midland nation in order to conduct guerilla style raids on
remote stock huts and farms along the South Esk into the 1820s and 1830s during the Black War, but by October 1830 they had been reduced to
just 10 individuals.
Chief of the Ben Lomond (Plangermaireener) tribe
Mannalargenna (ca. 1770-1835), a Tasmanian Aborigine, was the chief of the Ben Lomond tribe (Plangermaireener). His wife was
Tanleboneyer and he had five known children, a son, Neerhepeererminer and daughters Woretermoeteyenner, Wottecowidyer, Wobbelty and
Teekoolterme. Following the arrival of the Europeans in the area, he led a guerrilla styled resistance attacks against British soldiers in Tasmania
during the period known as the Black War. In 1829 he freed four aboriginal women and a boy from John Batman's house where they had been
held for a year. While it seems as though he joined George Robinson's mission to persuade aboriginal people to "surrender", it is claimed that he
was actually directing Robinson away from the people. He was promised that if he helped Robinson he would not be sent to Flinders Island, but
this promise was broken and he died in captivity at Wybalenna in 1835.
Noongar People
The Noongar (/ˈnʊŋɑː/; alternatively spelt Nyungar, Nyoongar, Nyoongah, Nyungah, or Noonga) are an Indigenous Australian people who live
in the south-west corner of Western Australia, from Geraldton on the west coast to Esperance on the south coast. Traditionally, they inhabited
the region from Jurien Bay to the southern coast of Western Australia, and east to what is now Ravensthorpe and Southern Cross. Noongar
country is occupied by 14 different groups, they are: Amangu, Ballardong, Yued, Kaneang, Koreng, Mineng, Njakinjaki, Njunga, Pibelmen,
Binjareb, Wardandi, Whadjuk, Wilman and Wudjari. The Noongar traditionally spoke dialects of the Noongar language, a member of the large
Pama-Nyungan language family, but generally today speak Australian Aboriginal English (a dialect of the English language) combined with
Noongar words and grammar.
Leader of Noongar people
Midgegooroo (died May 22, 1833) was an Indigenous Australian of the Nyungar nation, who played a key role in Indigenous resistance to
white settlement in the area of Perth, Western Australia. Everything documented about Midgegooroo (variously spelled in the record as
‘Midgeegaroo’, ‘Midgegarew’, ‘Midgegoorong’, Midgegoroo’, Midjegoorong’, ‘Midjigoroo’, ‘Midgigeroo’, Midjigeroo’, ‘Migegaroo’, Migegaroom,
‘Migegooroo’, Midgecarro’, ‘Widgegooroo’) is mediated through the eyes of the colonisers, some of whom, notably G.F. Moore, Robert Menli
Lyon and Francis Armstrong, derived their information from discussions with contemporary Noongar people, in particular the son of
Midgegooroo, Yagan. Largely due to his exploits in opposing colonisation and his relationship with Lyon and Moore, Yagan has a much sharper
historical profile than his father. Midgegooroo was executed by firing squad and without trial under the authority of Lieutenant Governor
Frederick Irwin in 1833. Nothing is known of Midgegooroo's life prior to the arrival of white settlers in 1829. At that time, Midgegooroo was the
leader of his home country, Beeliar, which stretched from the Indian Ocean to the Canning River, south of the Swan River. Robert Menli Lyon
reported that the northernmost land in Beeliar adjoined 'Melville Water and the Canning, and was bordered 'by the mountains on the east; by
the sea on the west; and by a line, due east, from Mangles Bay, on the south.’ Midgegooroo's main camp (‘headquarters’) was a place known as
‘Mendyarrup, situated somewhere in Gaudoo’, suggesting that it was in the vicinity of Blackwall Reach and Point Walter. However,
Midgegooroo's family had some rights to use resources on a large part of what is now metropolitan Perth, and were able to move freely about an
even larger area, presumably due to kinship ties with neighbours. For example, he was seen on some occasions as far afield as near Lake
Monger and the Helena River. In 1830, Midgegooroo was reported to be an older man, short in stature with long hair and a ‘remarkable bump’
on his forehead, a physical description repeated on occasions over the next two and a half years, including in a deposition presented in evidence
before his execution. Midgegooroo appears to have remained aloof from the colonists. There is evidence that he occasionally engaged in
friendly communications with some local farmers, including Erin Entwhistle, a man he speared in 1831. Unlike some of the other named

Aboriginal people of the region, including Yagan, Weeip and Yellagonga, Midgegooroo does not appear to have ever performed casual labour
for colonists in any capacity, and continued to move around Beeliar with his wives and children. He was described as consistently hostile to the
presence of Europeans on his country; ‘a dangerous and furious ruffian.’ He had at least two wives, the older described as ‘rather tall and
wanting her front teeth’, the younger of whom was named Ganiup, and at least four sons, Yagan, Narral, Billy and Willim, and at least one
brother. He appears to have spent much of his time ‘taking care of the women and children of the tribe.‘ Early relationships between Noongar
and colonists at the Swan River colony have been documented by Neville Green and Bevan Carter. Both document a story in which Aboriginals
of the Swan and Canning River areas consistently demonstrated their opposition to colonisation, initially manifested by shouted warnings and
aggressive postures, but increasingly by hostility and violence. Lieutenant Governor Sir James Stirling, in his proclamation of the colony in June
1829, warned that Aboriginal people were protected by British laws and any colonist convicted of ‘behaving in a fraudulent, cruel or felonious
Manner towards the Aborigines of the Country’ would be dealt with ‘as if the same had been committed against any other of His Majesty’s
subjects.’ Nonetheless, the first ten years of colonisation witnessed a significant level of violence in which a number of Europeans and
Aboriginal people lost their lives. The actual death toll is unknown, but Carter in particular argues that the numbers of Aboriginal dead far
exceeded the losses in the European community. It took some time before Swan River colonisers in the first four years of the settlement began
to record the names of the Aboriginals of the Swan River region, but it is highly likely that Midgegooroo would have been one of those who
observed the first British explorations in 1827 and the subsequent establishment in June 1829 of the port of Fremantle, the capital at Perth,
satellite settlements at Guildford and further inland at York, and the network of small farms around the area. His first appearance in the
colonial record may have been in May 1830 when an old man, tentatively identified by Sylvia Hallam and Lois Tilbrook as Midgegooroo, was
found and beaten by a military detachment plucking two turkeys which had been stolen from a farm on the Canning River. The next day, a
group of eight Aboriginal men, including ‘Dencil’ attacked a farm near Kelmscott and injured a settler named J.R. Phillips ‘with whom they had
always been friendly.’ If Hallam and Tilbrook are correct and the old man was indeed Midgegooroo, he would quite early have been subjected to
European violence in retaliation for actions he did not fully comprehend. In December 1830, Midgegooroo was camping by Lake Monger when
two white labourers who were passing by stopped to shake hands with a group of indigenous women. When the two men returned later that day,
Midgegooroo scared them off by threatening to spear one of them. In about February 1831, Midgegooroo was reported to have come to Lionel
Samson’s store in Fremantle and was given biscuits by a servant James Lacey. ‘Midgegooroo was not satisfied, I was obliged to put him out of the
store by force. As I was in the act of shutting the door he threw a spear at me through the open space of the door-way; it lodged in the opposite
side. I went out of the store with a pickaxe in my hand to drive him out of the yard – he retreated when he saw me, and as I supposed he was
going away, I threw down the pickaxe – he ran towards it, picked it up, and was in the act of throwing it at me, upon which I ran away, he then
threw the pickaxe down the well.’ A few weeks later, Midgegooroo was involved in an incident that came to play a crucial part in his eventual
execution. In apparent retaliation for the killing of an Aboriginal man in the act of taking potatoes and a fowl from the farm of Archibald
Butler near Point Walter, Midgegooroo and Yagan attacked Butler’s homestead and killed a servant Erin Entwhistle, whose son Ralph, then aged
about ten, gave a deposition identifying Midgegooroo as the principal offender: "They thrust spears through the wattle wall of the house – my
father was ill at the time – he went out and was instantly speared. I saw the tall native called Yagan throw the first spear – which entered my
father’s breast, and another native Midgegooroo threw the second spear, which brought my father to the ground. I am quite sure the native now
in Perth jail is the very same who threw the second spear at my father – I know him by the remarkable Bump on his forehead – and I had full
time to mark him on the day of the Murder, for when my father fell, I and my brother ran into the inner room, and hid ourselves beneath the
bed-stead. Midgegooroo came in and pulled all the clothes and bedding off the bed-stead, but there was a sack tied to the bottom of it, which he
could not pull off, and by which we were still hid from him. I saw an old women rather tall and wanting her front teeth and who I have since
been told by Midgegooroo himself is his wife, break my father’s legs, and cut his head to pieces with an axe – Munday was one of the natives
who attacked the house, but I did not see him throw a spear. My father had always been kind to Midgegooroo’s tribe, and on good terms with
them." In May 1833, colonist Charles Bourne recalled having sat on a jury inquiring into the death of Entwhistle which heard the evidence of
Ralph Entwhistle and his younger brother. ‘The description they gave so fully convinced the Jury that Midgegooroo was one of the principle
perpetrators of the murder, that the Coroner, at their request, promised to recommend to the Government to proclaim him and the whole tribe
outlaws.’ Charles Bourne figured again in the story when, in about May 1832, Midgegooroo and his wife attempted to break into their house in
Fremantle. ‘My wife told me’, he recalled, ‘that they had thrown two spears at her, and I saw the spears laying on the floor. Their violence was
such that my wife was obliged to take a sword to them.’ Later he was reported as having tried to take provisions from Thomas Hunt at his
sawpit on the Canning River. Finally, he was reported as having set his dingos on a settler's pigs. A police constable Thomas Hunt reported that
he had known Midgegooroo for three years: "When I lived on the opposite side of the river [on the Canning River] he and his wife used
frequently to visit my residence. He was always present when they attempted to plunder and acted either as the spy or the instigator. He has
come to my tent door, and pointed to any provisions which might be hanging up and openly thrust in some other of his tribe to take them away.
I have frequently been obliged to make a show of hostility before he would desist. He has also set two native dogs at my pigs, which they have
followed to the very door of my tent. He and his tribe have repeatedly robbed me whilst I was working at a saw pit on the Canning, and on those
occasions I have watched him, and distinctly observed that he acted as a spy, and gave warnings when we approached. I have heard almost every
person who has known him, speak of him as a dangerous and furious ruffian." In May 1832, Yagan was arrested for the murder of William Gaze
on the Canning River, an incident that lead to his declaration as an outlaw, imprisonment on Carnac Island with Lyon, and subsequent escape.
In March 1833, a number of Noongar men from King George’s Sound visited Perth at the instigation of the Government. This was the second
visit of King George’s Sound people that year, apparently for the purpose of encouraging ‘amicable relationships on the Swan like those at the
Sound.’ Yagan and ten of his countrymen had met the first visitors at Lake Monger and, when the next group arrived, he was keen to present a
corroboree for them in Perth before an ‘overflowing audience’, which included the Lieutenant Governor Frederick Irwin. Yagan acted as ‘master
of ceremonies, and acquitted himself with infinite dignity and grace.’ Although Yagan’s group was referred to as ‘Midgegooroo’s group’, it is
unclear whether the old man also attended. In April 1833, an incident occurred in Fremantle that led directly to the declaration of Midgegooroo
and Yagan as outlaws. A group of Aboriginal people, including a classificatory brother of Yagan named Domjun, broke into stores occupied by
Mr. Downing. William Chidlow, who lived nearby: "… perceived two or three natives in the act of breaking into the stores; he aroused some of
his neighbours and each being armed, they surprized the natives in the fact [sic.], Chidlow fired and Domjum fell; the guns of the persons who
accompanied Chidlow were discharged at the natives, as they fled; and there is every reason took effect, but did not prove fatal. Domjum was
conveyed to the jail where he received medical attendance; the ball lodged in his head, and although the brains were exuding from the cavity,
he lingered for three days before he expired." The next morning, Yagan and a number of others crossed the Swan River near Preston Point and
told Mr. Weavell’s servant that they were going to the Canning River to ‘spear ‘white man’, and fixing his spear into a throwing stick, he rushed
into the bush, followed by his infuriated tribe.’ At noon, Yagan, Midgegooroo, Munday, Migo and ‘about 30 Natives’, who ‘appeared to be
friendly’, encountered Mr. Phillips and four other white men, including Thomas and John Velvick, who were employed as farm labourers at the
entrance of Bull’s Creek on the Canning River. The white men were loading a quantity of provisions for Phillips’ farm at Maddington, onto carts
when Midgegooroo inquired about the number of men in the first cart which had already left the scene. According to a witness, Thomas Yule:
"There were about thirty natives present, amongst whom I saw Yagan, Midgegooroo, Migo, and Munday. Their conduct was perfectly friendly.

They appeared very anxious to know how many persons were to accompany the carts and the direction they were going. A few potatoes were
given to them which they had roasted and eaten. When the carts were loaded and departed, the Natives went off in almost a parallel direction. I
saw two of them pick up spears at a distance of about one hundred yards from Flaherty’s stores; I separated from Mr Phillips and came on to
Fremantle." Frederick Irwin described the episode in his dispatch to the Secretary of State for Colonies: "They left the place at the same time
with the carts, and in a parallel, tho’ distant line. The foremost cart had proceeded four miles and was in advance of the rest a quarter of a Mile,
when the Natives suddenly surrounded it and murdered with circumstances of great barbarity, the two Drivers named John and Thomas
Velvick, whose cries brought up the proprietor of the Cart Mr Phillips of the Canning, who arrived in time to recognize distinctly a Native of
great notoriety throughout the settlement named Yagan, while the latter was in the act of repeatedly thrusting his spear into the body of one of
the deceased. The surprise appears to have been so complete that the deceased had no time to take hold of their muskets which were in the cart.
The fortunate and distinct recognition of the native above mentioned by Mr Phillips, a gentleman of unquestionable character, satisfactorily
identified the tribe actually committing the murder, with that of which the native shot at Fremantle was a member, and the movements of
which have above been traced from Fremantle to the vicinity of the scene of the murders. The Head or leader of this tribe, an elderly man well
known by the name of Midgegooroo, is father of the above mentioned Yagan, and the native killed at Fremantle, and has long borne a bad
character as the repeated perpetrator of several acts of bloodshed and robbery. He, Yagan, and another of the tribe named Munday (remarkable
even during the friendly visits of his tribe to Perth for his sullen behaviour and ungovernable temper) were recognized by several credible
witnesses as being present, and making the enquiries before alluded to, before the loading of the Carts at Bull’s Creek." According to his
account, Irwin immediately conferred with his Executive Council ‘to take such steps for a prompt and summary retaliation, as the means at my
disposal admitted.’ A proclamation was issued and published in the Perth Gazette offering a reward of 30 pounds for the capture ‘dead or alive’
of Yagan, and 20 pounds of ‘Midgigooroo’ and Munday. The proclamation declared Yagan, Midgegooroo and Munday to be outlaws ‘deprived of
the protection of British laws, and I do hereby authorize and command all and every His Majesty’s subjects residents in any part of this colony to
capture, or aid or assist in capturing the body of the said ‘Egan’ DEAD OR ALIVE, and to produce the said body forthwith before the nearest
Justice of the Peace.’ Frederick Irwin rationalized his actions to the Secretary of State in the following terms: This pecuniary stimulus has had
the hoped for effect, by bringing forward some efficient volunteers among the Settlers whose and occupations have necessarily given them a
more intimate knowledge of the haunts of the natives in the neighbourhood of the settled district than is possessed by the Military, but no
volunteers have received permission to act unless headed by a Magistrate or a Constable. Parties of the Military have also been in constant
movement, traversing the bush is such directions as reports or conjecture rendered most likely to lead to a discovery of the lurking place of the
offending tribes. These parties have all received express instructions to attempt the lives of no other than the three outlaws, unless hostility on
the part of others of the tribe should render it necessary in self defense. I am happy to say these measures have already been attended with
considerable effect. The whole of this hostile tribe have been harassed by the constant succession of parties sent against them, and in some
instances have been hotly pursued to a considerable distance in different directions. By the time Irwin’s dispatch had been received in London,
Midgegooroo had been captured and executed. Despite his efforts to convince his superiors that his actions were justified, Irwin was criticized by
the Secretary of State, who would have preferred a sentence of imprisonment, believing that execution would do little to improve relationships
between the Aboroginals and the colonists. But as Irwin intended, the search for Midgegooroo, Yagan and Munday proceeded quickly as the
military and private settlers combed the region. One volunteer party led by a colonist named Thomas Hunt (according to G.F. Moore, ‘a most
appropriate name’ who had previously been a constable in London) headed south ‘in the direction of the Murray’ and came across a number of
‘native huts’ not far from the south shore of the Swan. They ‘routed’ the Aboriginal people there, and pursued a group south, shooting and
killing one man who was believed to be the brother of Midgegooroo and according to Moore, bringing his ears home ‘as a token.’ According to
the Perth Gazette, throughout the period immediately after the proclamation, Midgegooroo remained near the property of the Drummonds on
the Helena River ‘employed as he usually had been of late in taking care of the women and children of the tribe’ and clearly unaware of his
outlaw status and his impending doom. On Thursday 16 May, a military party led by Captain Ellis, acting on information that Midgegooroo was
in the area, joined forces with a number of civilians, including Thomas Hardey and J. Hancock. After camping overnight, the next morning they
came across Midgegooroo and his young son: The old man finding a retreat impossible, became desperate; Jeffers, a private of the 63rd …
rushed forward and seized him by the hair, Captain Ellis seized his spears and broke them in his hand, he still retained the barbed ends, with
which he struck at Jeffers repeatedly; the alarm he created by crying out for Yagan, and the apprehensions of his escaping, required the exercise
of the greatest firmness on the part of Captain Ellis to accomplish his being brought in alive. The capture of this man as effected in a masterly
manner, and redounds highly to the credit of Captain Ellis. Midgegooroo in his dungeon presents a most pitiable object. In the same issue, the
Perth Gazette went on to invite citizens to ‘forward the ends of justice’ by coming forward with their evidence of Midgegooroo’s wrongdoings,
indicative of the close relationship between the early colonial media, the Government and the nascent system of justice. The Perth Gazette
constitutes one of the principle records of the events over the next few days, and it is difficult to be definite about the chronological sequence
between Midgegooroo’s capture on May 17, and execution on May 22. It appears likely that Irwin spent the period weighing up his alternatives,
consulting with the Executive Council as well as men such as G.F. Moore who, as well as being a private colonist, held the official post of
Commissioner of the Civil Court. On Monday May 20, Moore records a meeting with Irwin and hints that his personal view was that
Midgegooroo should be transported but there was a strong public sentiment that he should be executed; ‘there is a great puzzle to know what to
do with him. The populace cry loudly for his blood, but it is a hard thing to shoot him in cold blood. There is a strong intention of sending him
into perpetual banishment in some out of the way place.’ Irwin told the Secretary of State he had conducted a ‘patient examination’ and had
received statements from ‘several credible witnesses’, twelve-year-old Ralph Entwhistle, John Staunton of the 63rd Regiment of Foot, Charles
Bourne, constable Thomas Hunt, James Lacey, Thomas Yule (sworn before Magistrates at Fremantle) and John Ellis. Each gave brief details of
Midgegooroo’s alleged crimes, and identified the prisoner as the same man. Irwin reported that he gave ‘much anxious consideration’ to
Midgegooroo’s punishment: "The experiment of confinement, which had been tried to some extent in the case of the three Natives whose
transportation to Carnac Island and ultimate escape I have reported to your Lordship in a former dispatch appeared to have produced no good
effect on the subjects of that trial, and the age of the prisoner in question apparently exceeding fifty years, forbad any sanguine hopes from such
an experiment in his case." There was no trial, even in the sense of an informal hearing. Midgegooroo was clearly not allowed the opportunity
to give evidence or defend himself and indeed it is probable that he did not understand what was being alleged. By May 22, Irwin had made up
his mind: "With the unanimous advice of the Council, I therefore decided on his execution as the only sure mode of securing the Colony from
an enemy, who was doubly dangerous from his apparently implacable hostility and from his influence as an acknowledged Chief. The latter
circumstance being also calculated to render his death a more striking example." The Perth Gazette recorded the execution as follows: "In the
absence of a Sherriff, the warrant was directed to the Magistrates of the District of Perth, the duty therefore devolved upon J. Morgan Esq., as
Government Resident, who immediately proceeded to carry the sentence into execution. The death warrant was read aloud to the persons
assembled who immediately afterwards went inside the Jail, with the Constables and the necessary attendants, to prepare the Prisoner for his
fate. Midgegooroo, on seeing that preparations were making [sic.] to punish him, yelled and struggled most violently to escape. These efforts
availed him little, in less than five minutes he was pinioned and blindfolded, and bound to the outer door of the Jail. The Resident then reported
to his Honor the Lieutenant Governor (who was on the spot accompanied by the Members of the Council), that all was prepared, - the warrant

being declared final – he turned around and gave the signal to the party of the 63rd [which had volunteered] to advance and halt at 6 paces, -
they then fired – and Midgegooroo fell. – The whole arrangement and execution after the death warrant had been handed over to the Civil
Authorities, did not occupy half an hour." Irwin reported simply: ‘He was accordingly shot, in front of the jail at Perth on the 22 Ultimo.’ Moore
also recorded the execution although it is not clear whether he was a witness: ‘The native Midgegoroo, after being fully identified as being a
principal in 3 murders at least, was fastened to the gaol door & fired on by a Military party, receiving 3 balls in his head, one in his body.’
According to the Perth Gazette, the execution was witnessed by a ‘great number of persons … although the Execution was sudden and the hour
unknown.’ "The feeling which was generally expressed was that of satisfaction at what had taken place, and in some instances loud and
vehement exaltation, which the solemnity of the scene, - a fellow human being – although a native – launched into eternity – ought to have
suppressed." The aftermath It appears from the extant record that, while there was a crowd in attendance at the execution, few if any Aboriginal
people were present. The boy who was captured along with Midgegooroo, who was identified as his son ‘Billy’ (later referred to also as ‘young
Midgegooroo’) was estimated to be between five and eight years old. He was removed ‘out of sound and hearing of what was to happen to his
father and has since been forwarded to the Government Schooner, Ellen, now lying off Garden Island, with particular instructions from the
Magistrates to ensure him every protection and kind treatment.’ Irwin informed the Secretary of State that ‘the child has been kept in ignorance
of his father’s fate, and it is my present intention to retain him in confinement, and by kind treatment I am in hope from his tender age he may
be so inured to civilized habits as to make it improbable he will revert to a barbarous life when grown up.’ The Noongar population appears to
have remained unaware of Midgegooroo’s fate, possibly to ensure that the news would not reach the feared Yagan. Four days after the
execution, G.F. Moore recorded an encounter with Yagan near his homestead when he arrived with Munday, Migo and seven others, possibly
with the aim of finding out from Moore what had happened to his father. Moore, caught by surprise, decided to conceal the truth from Yagan,
whereupon Yagan told him that if Midgegooroo’s life was taken, he would retaliate by killing three white men. Six days later, it appears that
news of the killing had still not penetrated the Noongar community for, when Moore was visited on June 2, by Weeip, Yagan’s son Narral, and
some women, they asked him again about Midgegooroo and his young son. Moore again concealed the execution but assured them that his son
‘would come back again by & bye.’ Two days later, Moore recorded that thefts of sheep and goats continued on the Canning River, and
expressed his despair at the prospects for a people in whom he felt ‘a very great interest’: ‘These things are very dispiriting. I fear it must come to
an act of extermination between us at last if we cannot graze our flocks in safety.’ It was not until July 11, that the colonists succeeded in killing
Yagan, his death at the hands of sixteen-year-old James Keats on the Upper Swan, who duly collected his reward and left the colony. The Perth
Gazette recorded its satisfaction at the deaths and believed that most of the citizenry supported the ruthless actions of the Government.
Midgegooroo’s execution, it claimed, met with ‘general satisfaction … his name has long rung in our ears, associated with every enormity
committed by the natives; we therefore join cordially in commending this prompt and decisive measure.’ On the other hand, it is clear that a
number of colonists were unhappy with the actions of the government. Robert Lyon, who published his account of the period in 1839 after he
had left the colony, wrote that while the killing of Midgegooroo and Yagan was ‘applauded by a certain class’, they were ‘far from being
universally approved. Many were silent, but some of the most respectable of the settlers loudly expressed their disapprobation.’ There was
criticism also from other Australian colonies about the execution of Midgegooroo. The Hobart Town Review of August 20, 1833 was full of
vitriol for Irwin’s actions: "It is hard to conceive any offence on the part of the poor unfortunate wretch that could justify the putting him to
death, even in the open field, but to slay him in cool blood to us appears a cruel murder without palliation." Irwin, however, was convinced that
his actions were merited. Writing in England about two years after the events of 1833, he asserted that ‘these acts of justice so completely
succeeded in their object of intimidating the natives on the Swan and Canning Rivers that recent accounts from the colony represent the
shepherds and others in the habit of going about the country, as having for a considerable laid aside their usual precaution of carrying firearms,
so peaceable had the conduct of those tribes become.’ Shortly after the death of Yagan, the Perth Gazette expressed hope that the Aboriginal
people of the Swan and Canning Rivers would stop harassing colonists. At the same time, the way in which Yagan met his death was ‘revolting
to our feelings to hear this lauded as a meritorious deed.’ ‘What a fearful lesson of instruction have we given the savage!’ the newspaper
lamented. Munday approached the Lieutenant Governor seeking to make peace, and his outlaw status was annulled. Remarking on the apparent
desire of Aboriginal visitors to the Perth town area to ‘renew the friendly understanding’, the newspaper nevertheless warned that ‘they ought …
never to be out of the sight of some authorized persons, who should have the power of controlling the conduct of individuals towards them, at
the same time as they protect the public from any aggression on the part of the natives.’ Early in September 1833, Munday and Migo were taken
by a young colonist named Francis Armstrong, later to be appointed to manage a ration depot at Mt. Eliza, to meet the Lieutenant Governor.
With Armstrong acting as interpreter, Migo and Munday told the Lieutenant Governor that they ‘wished to come to an amicable treaty with us,
and were desirous to know whether the white people would shoot any more of their black people.’ "Being assured that they would not, they
proceeded to give the names of all the black men of the tribes in this immediate neighbourhood who had been killed with a description of
where they were shot and the persons who had shot them. The number amounted to sixteen, killed, and nearly twice as many wounded; indeed
it is supposed that few have escaped uninjured. The accuracy with which they mark out the persons who have been implicated in these attacks,
should serve as a caution to the public in regulating their conduct towards them. … After all the names of the dead were given, they intimated
that they were still afraid that, before long, more would be added to the number, but being assured again that it would not be the case, unless
they “quippled”, committed theft, they said then no more white men would be speared. They seemed perfectly aware that it was our intention to
shoot them if they ‘quippled’; they argued however that it was opposed to their laws, - which as banishment from the tribe, or spearing through
the leg. The death of Domjun at Fremantle, who was shot in the act of carrying away a bag of flour, they say was not merited, that the
punishment was too severe for the offence; and further, that it was wrong to endanger the lives of others for the act of one, - two of his
companions having been severely wounded. They say that only one life would have been taken for this occurrence, had they not met with the
Velvicks at the Canning, who had previously behaved ill towards them: the attempt which was made at the Canning to break their spears, it
seems, increased their irritation." Migo and Munday went on to describe the arrest of Midgegooroo: "They were not far off, and heard his cries;
the party who took him were all known to them, and they followed them to within a very short distance of Perth; they evince some anxiety now
to be made acquainted with the names of the soldiers who shot him, and still continue their enquiries about the son; both of which questions it
is prudent to avoid answering, notwithstanding their proferred amnesty. Midgegooroo’s wives, when they had ascertained that he was captured,
scratched and disfigured themselves, - a usual practice among them - , and when his death was fully ascertained, Yellowgonga and Dommera
fought a duel for the one, and Munday took the other." The Lieutenant Governor proposed that a meeting of all the Swan and Canning people
should be held, but Munday and Migo told him this would have to wait until the ‘yellow season’, December, January and February when the
banksias flowered. After the meeting, Migo and Munday were seen ‘in earnest conversation with members of their tribe, communicating, it was
supposed, the results of the interview.’ A day later, the newspaper reported that a large ‘corrobara’ was held in Perth, but that it had been
interrupted by ‘some blackguards throwing a bucket of water over them.’ It also reported that a few days previously, a white woman had taken
some wood from under a tree, which it had occupied Munday some time to cut. As it was not intended for her, he called to her to put it down,
she however persisted in carrying it off, he threw his saw down and was soon on the ground after her. He appeared terribly enraged; the female
gave him some bread and he was pacified. The town would have been up in arms if Munday had speared the female, but there can be no
question that she as richly deserved punishment as Domjum merited his fate. Thus, the Aboriginal people of the Swan and Canning were able

for the first time to put their side of the story before the government, and even the Gazette, which had been unrelenting in its calls for harsh
punishment, conceded that they might have a point and that justice, Swan River Colony style, was at best inconsistent. Munday and Migo
argued forcefully that their people had been extremely badly treated. Even in the context of the early nineteenth century, death was an extreme
penalty for the theft of flour and biscuits. Their people had consistently been roughly treated, but their story had been left untold. The rough
treatment at the hands of people such as the Velvicks had been left out of the discourse of ‘native barbarity’, and the dispositions about the role
of Midgegooroo, Yagan and Munday in their deaths failed to mention that, on that day at Bull’s Creek, the colonists had tried to seize and break
their spears. The colonial government and the colonists of Perth, however, had no intention of sharing their new possessions with the
Aboriginals, who were henceforth to be dependent on government rations dispensed from ration points. Thus began the long and inexorable
history of the dispossession of Western Australian Aboriginal people from their lands and the loss of their freedoms of movement. In Perth, the
ruthless killing of Midgegooroo and Yagan certainly shocked the people of the Swan and Canning but, far from improving relationships
between coloniser and colonized, violence and robbery continued for some years in the region and further afield. Aboriginal people of the
Murray River felt the full force of colonial fury just over a year after Munday and Migo had expressed their desire for a treaty, when a large
number of their people were massacred in a combined action near Pinjarra in October 1834. As the Western Australian frontier spread over the
vast land area of the colony, other Aboriginal people were to experience much the same pattern of dispossession, death, incarceration and
government repression. Midgegooroo's land rights passed to his son Yagan, then to his other son Narral. Munday assumed responsibility for his
older wife, and his younger wife Ganiup became the wife of a Noongar named Dommera. By June 2008, the Department of Environment and
Conservation, Conservation Commission and the Geographic Names Committee approved the renaming of the Canning National Park to
Midgegooroo National Park.
Bidjigal People
The Bidjigal (also spelt Bediagal) people are a group of Indigenous Australians living to the West of Sydney. Their geographical location is
confusing, as they seem to have been based in southern Sydney, in the region between the Cooks River and the Georges River and yet also seem
to have inhabited land in Hills District of Sydney, in what is now Baulkham Hills. Others say that the Bidjigal people span from La Perouse,
Botany Bay down to the Illawarra. The language group to which they belong is Dharawal, which spanned from Sydney to Jervis Bay. Attenbrow
(2002) discusses their possible origin and location, and concludes that the question is "somewhat vexed", while Kohen (1993) suggests that there
may have been some confusion between two distinct groups: the Bidjigal (living in the Baulham Hills area) and the Bediagal at Botany Bay in
the Salt Pan Creek area. If this is the case, then this article is about the Bidjigal people living in the Baulkham Hills area. The Bidjigal are
sometimes said to be a clan of the Dharuk people, and sometimes a clan of the Eora people, and this may result from the confusion described
above. However, it is also possible that they were a distinct group with their own Bidjigal language. The name Bidjigal means plains-dweller in
the Dharuk language. Perhaps the most famous Bidjigal person was Pemulwuy, who successfully led Aboriginal Resistance forces against the
British Army before finally being captured and killed (and eventually beheaded). The name of the Bidjigal is today remembered by the name of
Bidjigal Reserve, in Baulkham Hills, Castle Hill, Carlingford, North Rocks and Northmead to the North-West of Sydney. The Bidjigal Reserve
was known as Excelsior Park until 2004. It is the site of the earliest known Aboriginal occupation of Sydney.
Chief of Bidjigal people
Pemulwuy (aka Pimbloy, Pemulvoy, Pemulwoy, Pemulwye) (c1750-June 2, 1802) was an Aboriginal
Australian man born around 1750 in the area of Botany Bay in New South Wales. He is noted for his
resistance to the European settlement of Australia which began with the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788.
He is believed to have been a member of the Bidjigal (Bediagal) clan of the Eora people. Pemulwuy is a
member of the Bidjigal people, who were the original inhabitants of Toongabbie and Parramatta in Sydney.
He lived near Botany Bay. Pemulwuy was born with a turned eye. According to historian Eric Willmot:
Normally, a child that showed an obvious deformity would've been, well, people would have expected that
child to be sent back, to be reborn again. It was generally thought that humans, like everything, came from
the land. And that a woman, the actual act of conception, was a woman being infected by a child's spirit from the land. And that child grows
within her. And so he was different and he became more different. He became better than everybody else. Whatever anyone else could do,
Pemulwuy did it better. He could run further, he was one of the best, he could use a spear like no-one else could. And so, around him, was
created an aura of difference. So much so that he was said to be a clever man. In an Aboriginal society, clever man is often a man who deals
with the spiritual nature of things and sorcery even. When Pemulwuy grew into manhood he became Bembul Wuyan, which represents "the
earth and the crow". According to historian Richard Green "he wasn't very impressed with the mix of cultures. He preferred that we stayed
within our own peoples." Another name for him was "Butu Wargun" which means "crow". Pemulwuy became a kadaicha man of his tribe.
Pemulwuy would hunt meat and provide it to the food-challenged new colony in exchange for goods. However in 1790 Pemulwuy began a
twelve year guerilla war against the British which only ended on his death. On December 9, 1790, a shooting party left for Botany Bay, including
a sergeant of marines and three convicts, including Governor Phillip's gamekeeper John McIntyre. According to Watkin Tench: About one
o’clock, the sergeant was awakened by a rustling noise in the bushes near him, and supposing it to proceed from a kangaroo, called to his
comrades, who instantly jumped up. On looking about more narrowly, they saw two natives with spears in their hands, creeping towards them,
and three others a little farther behind. As this naturally created alarm, McIntyre said, “don’t be afraid, I know them,” and immediately laying
down his gun, stepped forward, and spoke to them in their own language. The Indians, finding they were discovered, kept slowly retreating, and
McIntyre accompanied them about a hundred yards, talking familiarly all the while. One of them now jumped on a fallen tree and, without
giving the least warning of his intention, launched his spear at McIntyre and lodged it in his left side. The person who committed this wanton
act was described as a young man with a speck or blemish on his left eye. That he had been lately among us was evident from his being newly
shaved. The group was pursued by the settlers with muskets, but they escaped. McIntyre was taken back to the settlement, gravely wounded.
Tench suspected that McIntyre had previously killed Aboriginal people, and noted the fear and hatred that the Aboriginal people, including
Bennelong (an Aboriginal man who Governor Phillip had captured, in hopes of interaction with the Aboriginals) showed towards him. "The
poor wretch now began to utter the most dreadful exclamations, and to accuse himself of the commission of crimes of the deepest dye,

accompanied with such expressions of his despair of God’s mercy, as are too terrible to repeat," wrote Tench of McIntyre. The gameskeeper died
on December 12. Before then, Colbee and several other aboriginals, came in to see the body. "Their behaviour indicated that they had already
heard of the accident, as they repeated twice or thrice the name of the murderer Pimelwi, saying that he lived at Botany Bay," wrote Tench.
Several historians believe it is likely Pemulwuy killed McInyre out of payback. Governor Phillip ordered two military expeditions against the
Bidjigal led by Tench in retaliation for the attack on McIntyre. He regarded the Bidjigal as the most aggressive towards the British settlers and
intended to make an example of them. He ordered that six of their people be captured or if they could not be captured that they be put to death.
It was Phillip's intention to execute two of the captured people and to send the remainder to Norfolk Island. He also ordered that he "strictly
forbids, under penalty of the severest punishment, any soldier or other person, not expressly ordered out for that purpose, ever to fire on any
native except in his own defence; or to molest him in any shape, or to bring away any spears, or other articles which they may find belonging to
those people." The Aboriginal people present in Sydney refused to assist in tracking, with Colbee feigning injury. The first expedition failed, with
the heavy loads carried by the British military making them no match for the speed of the Aboriginal people. According to Richard Green, "with
simple spears, rocks, boomerangs, stones, he [Pemulwuy] defeated the British army that they sent here. Every single soldier except for Watkin
Tench, that they sent in pursuit of Pemulwuy either walked back into the community with their saddle over their shoulders or they didn't make
it back." During the second expedition they took women prisoners and shot at two men. One of whom, Bangai, was wounded and later found
dead. Pemulwuy persuaded the Eora, Dharug and Tharawal people to join his campaign against the newcomers. From 1792 Pemulwuy led raids
on settlers from Parramatta, Georges River, Prospect, Toongabbie, Brickfield and Hawkesbury River. His most common tactic was to burn crops
and kill livestock. Captain Paterson sent a search party to find him but was unsuccessful. In May 1795, Pemulwuy or one of his followers speared
a convict near present-day Chippendale. In December 1795, Pemulwuy and his warriors attacked a work party at Botany Bay which included
Black Caesar. Caesar managed to crack Pemulwuy's skull and many thought he had killed him, but the warrior survived and escaped. But this
critically injured him afterwards. In March 1797, Pemulwuy led a group of aboriginal warriors, estimated to be at least 100, in an attack on a
government farm at Toongabbie. At dawn the next day government troops and settlers followed them to Parramatta. Pemulwuy was shot seven
times and taken to hospital. Five others were killed instantly. This incident has more recently become known as the Battle of Parramatta.
Despite still having buckshot in his head and body, and wearing a leg-iron, Pemulwuy escaped from the hospital. This added to the belief that he
was a carradhy (clever man or doctor). Pemulwuy recommenced his fighting against the British by November 1797. However his injuries had
affected his ability as a fighter and his resistance was on a smaller and more sporadic scale for the rest of his life. Convicts William Knight and
Thomas Thrush escaped and joined the aboriginal resistance. Governor Philip Gidley King issued an order on November 22, 1801 for bringing
Pemulwuy in dead or alive, with an associated reward. The order attributed the killing of two men, the dangerous wounding of several, and a
number of robberies to Pemulwuy. On June 2, 1802 Pemulwuy was shot and killed by British sailor Henry Hacking, the first mate of the English
sloop Lady Nelson. "After being wounded, all the people believed that he was immune to British bullets," says Richard Green. "So he'd stand out
in front and, you know, stand right out in front of them and take them on, you know? So after 12 years, his time ran out. He got his shot and he
took it." Following the death of Pemulwuy Governor King wrote to Lord Hobart that on the death of Pemulwuy he was given his head by the
Aboriginal people as Pemulwuy "had been the cause of all that had happened". The Governor issued orders with immediate effect to not "molest
or ill-treat any native", and to re-admit them to the areas of Parramatta and Prospect from which they had been forcibly excluded. Pemulwuy's
head was preserved in spirits. It was sent to England to Sir Joseph Banks accompanied by a letter from Governor King, who wrote: "Although a
terrible pest to the colony, he was a brave and independent character." Pemulway's son Tedbury continued the struggle for a number of years
before being killed in 1810. Repatriation of the skull of Pemulwuy has been requested by Sydney Aboriginal people. It has not yet been located
in order to be repatriated. In 2010 Prince William announced he would return Pemulwuy's skull to his Aboriginal relatives. The Sydney suburb
of Pemulwuy, New South Wales is named after him, as well as Pemulwuy Park in Redfern, New South Wales. In the 1980s the band Redgum
composed a song about Pemulwuy entitled "Water and Stone". Australian composer Paul Jarman composed a choral work entitled Pemulwuy. It
has become an Australian choral standard, and was performed by the Biralee Blokes in their victory in the ABC Choir of the Year 2006. In 1987
Weldons published "Pemulwuy: The Rainbow Warrior" by Eric Willmot, a best-selling novel providing a fictionalised account using early
colonial documents as source. Matilda Media re-released the book in 1994 The redevelopment of The Block in the Sydney suburb of Redfern by
the Aboriginal Housing Company has been called the Pemulwuy Project. In 2008 Marlene Cummins released an eponymous song about
Pemulwuy. This was later presented to Prince William along with a petition to bring Pemulwuy's head back to his people. In 2015 the National
Museum of Australia installed a plaque honouring his role in Australian history as part of the Defining Moments project.
Binjareb Group
The Binjareb, Pindjarup or Pinjareb is the name of the Indigenous Australian group of Noongar speakers, living in the region of Southwest,
Western Australia between Port Kennedy on the coast, between Rockingham and Mandurah to Australind on the Leschenault Inlet, and
between a point between Byford and Armadale on the Darling Scarp, south to Benger near Brunswick Junction.
Leader of Binjareb group
Calyute (fl. 1833-1840) also known as Kalyute, Galyute or Wongir, was an Indigenous Australian resistance leader who was involved in a
number of reprisal attacks with white settlers and members of other tribes in the early days of the Swan River Colony, in Western Australia. He
was a member of the Pindjarup people from around the Murray River area south of Perth. Calyute's family included two brothers, Woodan and
Yanmar, two wives, Mindup and Yamup, and two sons, Ninia and Monang. The arrival of Thomas Peel and his settlement at the mouth of the
Murray River had displaced Pinjarup from an important food source, as the effect of white settlement on the Pindjarup lands at that time were
considerable. In 24 April 1834, Calyute led a raid of 20 to 30 men and women on Shenton's Mill, in South Perth, where they stole half a ton of
flour. It is speculated that the increased tensions were related to a dispute a few months before between the Pindjarup people and Noongars of
the Swan River area. Loss of the white settlers' livestock by the aborigines' dogs, and the killing of kangaroo by settlers may have also raised
tensions between the groups. Following the raid, and at the prompting of Thomas Peel, who was the major white landholder taking land in the
Murray District in which Calyute's people generally lived, a party of soldiers led by Captain Ellis searched for and captured Calyute and two
other Pindjarup named Yedong and Monang. All three were seriously injured during the capture, but still brought back to Perth where they
were publicly flogged. Calyute received sixty lashes and was then confined to Fremantle Prison until June 10, 1834. In July, a few weeks after his
release from Fremantle, a group including Calyute and Yedong raided Peel's property near Mandurah, killing a young servant of Peel's, Private

Hugh Nesbitt and injuring former Sergeant Edward Barron. Although spontaneous incidents had occurred previously, this was the first time
that a settler, friendly to the natives, had been lured into the bush and murdered. Calyute's motive was apparently in payback retaliation for his
harsh treatment at the hands of authorities in Perth. Previously, on June 1, 1833, Charles McFaull, the then editor of the Perth Gazette had
written, largely in response to unnassociated raids by another Aboriginal leader, Yagan: (...) although we have ever been the advocates of a
humane and conciliatory line of procedure, this unprovoked attack must not be allowed to pass over without the infliction of the severest
chastisement: and we cordially join our brother colonists to the one universal call - for a summary and fearful example. We feel and know from
experience that to punish with severity the perpetrators of these atrocities will be found in the end an act of the greatest kindness and humanity.
(Green, 1984) Responding to pressure from the increasingly nervous settlers, and against previous efforts in which he had advocated tolerance
when dealing with conflicts between the settlers and the natives, Governor James Stirling assembled a party of 25 soldiers and settlers to hunt
the perpetrators of the raid on Peel's property. The party included Stirling himself, John Septimus Roe and Thomas Peel. On October 28, 1834
the armed soldiers ambushed the Pindjarup campsite on the banks of the Murray River, south of the present day town of Pinjarra. Between 60
and 80 Pinjarup people came under fire with the number of dead disputed. Calyute, Yedong and a number of others avoided capture and
escaped towards Lake Clifton. Little is known of his later life, but in May 1840 his group attacked a Noongar camp near Perth, spearing five
people. There are no other records of Calyute and he is believed to have died at an old age.
Mixtec Peoples
The Mixtec /ˈmiːʃtɛk/, or Mixtecos, are indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and
Puebla, as well as the state of Guerrero's Región Montañas, and Región Costa Chica, which covers parts of the Mexican states of Oaxaca,
Guerrero and Puebla. The Mixtec region and the Mixtec peoples are traditionally divided into three groups, two based on their original
economic cast and the third on the region they settled. High Mixtecs or mixteco alto were of the upper class and generally more well-to-do, the
Low Mixtecs or "mixteco bajo" were generally poorer. In recent times, an economic reversal or equalizing has been seen. The third group is
Coastal Mixtecs "mixteco de la costa". This group's language is closely related to that of the Low Mixtecs and are currently inhabiting the Pacific
slope of Oaxaca and Guerrero. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Otomanguean language family. In pre-Columbian times, a
number of Mixtecan city states competed with each other and with the Zapotec kingdoms. The major Mixtec polity was Tututepec which rose to
prominence in the 11th century under the leadership of Eight Deer Jaguar Claw - the only Mixtec king to ever unite the Highland and Lowland
polities into a single state. Like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtec were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their
indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbia Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million. Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec
people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States.
Mixtec Ruler
Eight Deer Jaguar Claw (Mixtec: Iya Nacuaa Teyusi Ñaña) was a powerful Mixtec ruler in 11th century
Oaxaca referred to in the 15th century deerskin manuscript Codex Zouche-Nuttall, and other Mixtec
manuscripts. His surname is alternatively translated Tiger-Claw and Ocelot-Claw. John Pohl has dated
his life as having lasted from 1063 until his death by sacrifice in 1115. Consonant with standard Aztec
practice, the "Eight Deer" component of his name refers to his day of birth within the 260-day Aztec cycle,
which cycles through 13 numbers and 20 various signs (e.g., animals, plants, natural phenomena). Born
on the Mixtec Calendar date from which he got his name, 8 Deer was the son of the high priest of
Tilantongo 5 Crocodile “Sun of Rain”. His mother was Lady 9 Eagle “Cocoa-Flower”, queen of
Tecamachalco. He also had a brother 12 Earthquake “Bloody Jaguar” and 9 Flower “Copalball with
Arrow” who were both faithful war companions of 8 Deer. He also had a half-sister 6 Lizard “Jade-Fan”.
First the fiancee and lover of 8 Deer himself, she was finally married to 8 Deer's archenemy 11 Wind “Bloody Jaguar”, the king of the city "Xipe's
Bundle", also known as Red and White Bundle. The lords of Xipe's Bundle had rights to the throne of Tilantongo and were therefore the most
important rivals to 8 Deer's power. Lord 8 Deer is remembered for his military expansion. The Codex Zouche-Nuttall counts 94 cities conquered
during his reign. Almost always pictured wearing a jaguar helmet, he supported the powerful Toltec ruler of Cholula, Lord 4 Jaguar “Face of
the Night” in his attempts at expansionism, and was thus awarded a turquoise nose ornament, a symbol of Toltec royal authority. The Codices
also tell of his several marriages which seem to have been part of a political strategy to achieve dominance by marrying into different Mixtec
royal lineages. He married 13 Serpent, daughter of his own stepsister and former fiancee 6 Lizard. In 1101 8 Deer finally conquered Xipe's
Bundle, killed his wife's father and his stepsister's husband 11 Wind and tortured and killed his brothers-in-law, except the youngest one by the
name of 4 Wind. In 1115 4 Wind lead an alliance between different Mixtec kingdoms against 8 Deer who was taken prisoner and sacrificed by 4
Wind, his own nephew and brother-in-law. 8 Deer was the only Mixtec king ever to unite kingdoms of the three Mixtec areas: Tilantongo in the
Mixteca Alta area with Teozacualco of the Mixteca Baja area and Tututepec of the coastal Mixteca area. His reputation as a great ruler has given
him a legendary status among the Mixtecs; some aspects of his life story as it is told in the pictographic codices seem to merge with myth.
Furthermore, actual knowledge of his life is hindered by the lack of complete understanding of the Mixtec codices, and although the study of
the codices has advanced much over the past 20 years, it is still difficult to achieve a definitive interpretation of their narrative. The narrative, as
it is currently understood, is a tragic story of a man who achieves greatness but falls victim to his own hunger for power. The above biography
of 8 Deer is based on the Codex's interpretation by Mixtec specialist John Pohl.

Taíno People
The Taíno are an Arawak people who were indigenous peoples of the Caribbean and Florida. At the time of European contact in the late 15th
century, they were the principal inhabitants of most of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (presently Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and Puerto
Rico in the Greater Antilles, the northern Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas, where they were known as the Lucayans. They spoke the Taíno
language, one of the Arawakan languages. The ancestors of the Taíno entered the Caribbean from South America. At the time of contact, the
Taíno were divided into three broad groups, known as the Western Taíno (Jamaica, most of Cuba, and the Bahamas), the Classic Taíno
(Hispaniola and Puerto Rico) and the Eastern Taíno (northern Lesser Antilles), and other groups of Taíno tribes of Florida, such as the Tequesta,
Calusa, Jaega, Ais, and other groups. Taíno groups were in conflict with the Caribs of the southern Lesser Antilles. At the time of Columbus'
arrival in 1492, there were five Taíno chiefdoms and territories on Hispaniola, each led by a principal Cacique (chieftain), to whom tribute was
paid. Ayiti ("land of high mountains") was the indigenous Taíno name for the mountainous side of the island of Hispaniola, which has retained
its name as Haïti in French. Cuba, the largest island of the Antilles, was originally divided into 29 chiefdoms. Most of the native settlements
later became the site of Spanish colonial cities retaining the original Taíno names, for instance; Havana, Batabanó, Camagüey, Baracoa and
Bayamo. The name Cuba comes from the Taíno language; however the exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as
"where fertile land is abundant" (cubao), or "great place" (coabana). Puerto Rico also was divided into chiefdoms. As the hereditary head chief of
Taíno tribes, the cacique was paid significant tribute. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the largest Taíno population centers may have
contained over 3,000 people each. The Taíno were historically enemies of the neighboring Carib tribes, another group with origins in South
America, who lived principally in the Lesser Antilles. The relationship between the two groups has been the subject of much study. For much of
the 15th century, the Taíno tribe was being driven to the northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because of raids by the
Carib. Women were taken as captives, resulting in many Carib women speaking Taíno. The Spaniards, who first arrived in the Bahamas, Cuba,
and Hispaniola in 1492, and later in Puerto Rico, did not bring women in the first expeditions. They took Taíno women for their common-law
wives, resulting in mestizo children. Sexual violence in Hispaniola with the Taíno women by the Spanish was also common. Scholars suggest
there was substantial mestizaje (racial and cultural mixing) in Cuba, as well, and several Indian pueblos survived into the 19th century.The
Taíno became nearly extinct as a culture following settlement by Spanish colonists, primarily due to infectious diseases to which they had no
immunity. The first recorded smallpox outbreak in Hispaniola occurred in December 1518 or January 1519. The 1518 smallpox epidemic killed
90% of the natives who had not already perished. Warfare and harsh enslavement by the colonists had also caused many deaths. By 1548, the
native population had declined to fewer than 500, and within 150 years of contact the Taino were extinct. Starting in about 1840, there have been
attempts to create a quasi-indigenous Taino identity in rural areas of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico. This trend accelerated
among the Puerto Rican community in the United States in the 1960s.
List of Taíno Caciques (Chiefs)
Abey was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque-(village) in the area of Abeyno Salinas, Puerto Rico.
Acanorex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the area now called Haiti.
Agüeybaná(died 1510) was one of the two principal and most powerful Caciques (chiefs) of the Taíno people in "Borikén" (Puerto Rico) when
the Spanish first arrived on the island on November 19, 1493. Agüeybaná, whose name means "The Great Sun," lived with his tribe in Guaynia
(Guayanilla), located near a river of the same name, on the southern part of the island. All the other Caciques were subject to and had to obey
Agüeybaná, even though they governed their own tribes. Agüeybaná received the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León upon his arrival in
1508. According to an old Taíno tradition, Agüeybaná practiced the "guatiao," a Taíno ritual in which he and Juan Ponce de León became friends
and exchanged names. Ponce de León then baptized the cacique's mother into Christianity and renamed her Inés. The cacique joined Ponce de
León in the exploration of the island. After this had been accomplished, Agüeybaná accompanied the conquistador to the island of La Española
(what today comprises the nations of the Dominican Republic and Haiti), where he was well received by the Governor Nicolás de Ovando.[6]
Agüeybaná's actions helped to maintain the peace between the Taíno and the Spaniards, a peace which was to be short-lived. The hospitality and
friendly treatment that the Spaniards received from Agüeybaná made it easy for the Spaniards to betray and conquer the island. After a short
period of peace, the Taínos were forced to work in the island's gold mines and in the construction of forts as slaves. Many Taínos died as a result
of the cruel treatment which they received. Upon Agüeybaná's death in 1510, his brother. Güeybaná (better known as Agüeybaná II) became the
most powerful Cacique in the island. Agüeybaná II was troubled by the treatment of his people by the Spanish and attacked them in battle. The
Taínos were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Yagüecas. After this, Taínos in Puerto Rico either abandoned the island, were forced to labor as
slaves, or were killed by the Spaniards. Many succumbed to the smallpox epidemic that attacked the islanders in 1519. Agüeybaná is admired in
Puerto Rico for his dedication to his people and attempting to keep the peace. Puerto Rico has named many public
buildings and streets after him: The City of Bayamón has named a high school after him. There is a street in Caguas
that honors him. An avenue in the Hato Rey area of San Juan is named after Agüeybaná. Puerto Rico once had an
equivalent to the Oscars which was awarded annually and was called the "Agüeybaná de Oro" (The Golden Agüeybaná),
in honor of the great cacique. Many songs and poems, by poets such as Juan Antonio Corretjer, among others, have
been written about Agüeybaná.
Agüeybaná II (c. 1470 – 1511), born Güeybaná, was one of the two principal and most powerful caciques of the
Taíno people in "Borikén" when the Spaniards first arrived on Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493. Agüeybaná II led the

Taínos of Puerto Rico in the Battle of Yagüecas, also known as the "Taíno rebellion of 1511" against Juan Ponce de León and the Spanish
Conquistadors. Güeybaná, better known as Agüeybaná II, was the brother of the great cacique Agüeybaná and lived with his tribe in Guaynia
(Guayanilla), located near a river of the same name on the southern part of the island. The name Agüeybaná means "The Great Sun", and he is
often appended the "II" to differentiate him from his brother Agüeybaná, the other great cacique in Puerto Rico at the time of the arrival of the
Spanish. All the other Caciques (Indian military chiefs) were subject to and had to obey Agüeybaná, even though they governed their own
tribes. Agüeybaná, the older, received Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León upon Ponce de León's arrival to Puerto Rico in 1508. According
to an old Taíno tradition, Agüeybaná practiced the "guaytiao", a Taíno ritual in which he and Juan Ponce de León became friends and exchanged
names. The hospitality and friendly treatment that the Spaniards received from Agüeybaná made it easy for the Spaniards to betray and
conquer the island later. Agüeybaná's actions helped to maintain the peace between the Taíno and the Spaniards, a peace which was to be short-
lived. Upon the senior Agüeybaná's death in 1510, his brother Güeybaná (better known as Agüeybaná II) became the most powerful Cacique in
the entire island. Agüeybaná II had his doubts about the "godly" status of the Spaniards. He came up with a plan to test the perceived godly
nature of the Spanish: he and Urayoán (cacique of Añasco) sent some of their tribe members to lure a Spaniard by the name of Diego Salcedo
into a river and drown him. They watched over Salcedo's body to make sure that he would not resuscitate. Salcedo's death was enough to
convince him and the rest of the Taíno people that the Spaniards were not gods. Agüeybaná II, held Areytos (war dances) or secret meetings
with others caciques where he organized a revolt against the Spaniards. Cristobal de Sotomayor sent a spy, Juan González, to one of the Areitos
where he learned of Agüeybaná's plans. In spite of the warning, Agüeybana II killed Sotomayor and his men, and gravely wounded González.
Juan González escaped making his way to Caparra where he reported the killings to Ponce de León. Meanwhile, Guarionex, cacique of Utuado,
attacked the village of Sotomayor (present day Aguada) and killed eighty of its inhabitants. After this, Ponce de León led the Spaniards in a
series of offensives against the Tainos that culminated in the Battle of Yagüecas. In 1511, in the region known as Yagüecas some 11,000 to
15,000 Taínos had assembled against some 80 to 100 Spaniards. Before the start of the battle, a Spanish soldier using an arquebus shot and killed
a native. It is presumed this was Agüeybaná II, because the warrior was wearing a golden necklace which only a cacique wore. After the death of
Agüeybaná II, the native warriors retracted and became disorganized. Agüeybaná II's followers opted for engaging the Spaniards via guerilla
tactics. Such guerilla warfare rebellion lasted for next 8 years, until 1519. A second round of raids erupted in 1513 when Ponce de Leon departed
the island to explore Florida. The settlement of Caparra, the seat of the island government at that time, was sacked and burned by an alliance
between Taínos and natives from the northeastern Antilles. By 1520 the Taíno presence in the Island had almost disappeared. A government
census in 1530 reports the existence of only 1,148 Taínos remaining in Puerto Rico. However, oppressive conditions for the surviving Taíno
continued. Many of those who stayed on the island soon died of either the cruel treatment that they had received or of the smallpox epidemic,
which had attacked the island in 1519. Agüeybaná II is admired in Puerto Rico for his loyalty to his people. Puerto Rico has named many public
buildings and streets after him: The City of Bayamón has named a high school after him. There is a street in Caguas that honors him. An
avenue in the Hato Rey area of San Juan is named after Agüeybaná. Puerto Rico once had an equivalent to the Oscars which was awarded
annually and was called the "Agüeybaná de Oro" (The Golden Agüeybaná), in honor of the great cacique. In the "Caracoles" sector of barrio
Playa in Ponce, Puerto Rico, there is a small park/monument dedicated to Agüeybaná II, "El Bravo" (The Brave). It is located on the southeast
corner of the intersection of Ponce By-pass (PR-2) and Avenida Hostos (PR-123). Poet Daniel de Rivera composed a poem titled "Agüeybaná El
Bravo" dedicated to him. It partially reads:
"¡Ea, compañeros! Vamos al combate:
Honor la patria a defender nos llama;
Si en paz, contento el corazón no late
La guerra nos dará fortuna y fama;
Hasta la mar que nuestra costa bate
Ondas escupe y agitada brama,
Que cual nosotros contemplar quisiera
Libre esta perla de la gente ibera."
"Hey brothers! Let's go to the fight:
The motherland calls us to defend our honor;
If our hearts do not beat peacefully
War will grant us fortune and fame;
Even the sea that beats our shores
Spits waves and rumbles with alarm,
For like us it, too, would like to see
Our pearl freed from the Iberian people."
Alonso was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of (Otoao) Utuado, Puerto Rico.
Amanex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the area in the present Haiti.
Ameyro was a Cacique (Chief) of Jamaica, who lived on the eastern extremity of the island. He and Diego Mendez became great friends,
exchanged names, which is a kind of token of brotherhood (Guatiao). Mendez engaged him to furnish provisions to his ships. He then bought an
excellent canoe from the cacique, for which he gave a splendid brass basin, a short frock or cassock, and one of the two shirts which formed his
stock of linen. The cacique furnished him with six Indians to navigate his bark, and they parted mutually well pleased.
Anacaona (from Taíno anacaona, meaning "golden flower"; from ana, meaning "flower", and caona,
meaning "gold, golden") was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess), born into a family of chiefs, and sister of Bohechío,
chief of Xaragua. Her husband was Caonabo, chief of the nearby territory of Maguana. Her brother and her
husband were two of the five highest caciques who ruled the island of Ayiti (now called Hispaniola) when
the Spaniards settled there in 1492. She was celebrated as a composer of ballads and narrative poems, called
areítos. Anacaona was born in Yaguana (today the town of Léogane, Haiti) in 1474. During Christopher
Columbus's visit to the chiefdom of Xaragua in what is now southwest Haiti in late 1496, Anacaona and her
brother Bohechío appeared as equal negotiators. On that occasion, described by Bartolomé de las Casas in
Historia de las Indias, Columbus successfully negotiated for tribute of food and cotton to be paid by the
natives to the Spanish invaders under his command. The visit is described as having taken place in a friendly atmosphere. Several months later,

Columbus arrived with a caravel to collect a part of the tribute. Anacaona and Behechío had sailed briefly aboard the caravel, near today's Port-
au-Prince in the Gulf of Gonâve as his guests. At first relations between natives and Conquistadors were cordial, the natives realizing too late
their lands were actually being stolen and their subjects enslaved. This model was later repeated in Mexico with Moctezuma II due to its
original Caribbean success. Anacaona's high status was probably strengthened by elements of matrilineal descent in the Taíno society, as
described by Peter Martyr d'Anghiera. Taíno caciques usually passed inheritance to the eldest children of their sisters. If their sisters had no
children, then they chose among the children of their brothers, and when there were none, they fell back upon one of their own. Anacaona had
one child, named Higuemota, whose dates of birth and death are lost to history. Anacaona became chief of Xaragua after her brother's death.
Her husband Caonabo, suspected of having organized the attack on La Navidad (a Spanish settlement on north-western Hispaniola), was
captured by Alonso de Ojeda and shipped to Spain, dying in a shipwreck during the journey as many other Taino leaders died on Spanish ships
away from their native lands. The Taínos, being ill-treated by the conquerors, revolted and made a long war against them. During a feast
organized by 84 regional chieftains to honor Anacaona, who was friendly to the Spaniards, the Spanish Governor Nicolás de Ovando ordered the
meeting house to be set on fire to burn them alive, similar to what centuries later occurred to Rigoberta Manchu's family in Guatemala. Cacica
Anacaona and her Taíno noblemen were arrested all accused of conspiracy for resisting occupation and executed. Prior to her execution,
Anacaona was offered clemency if she would give herself as concubine to one of the Spaniards which was common in the era. Standing with her
fellow Tainos in solidarity, the Caribbean indigenous female leader (cacica) chose execution over colluding with her Spanish enemy, her refusal
cementing her legend. Anacaona remained rebellious and independent until her violent public death. Because Anacaona refused the sexual
offer of the Spanish intruders while others were shot, Anacaona was executed by hanging. She was only 29 years old. Her immortalization in the
intertwining histories of Haiti and the Dominican Republic has resulted in the use of her name for various places in both countries. Many in
Haiti claim her as a significant icon in early Haitian history and a primordial founder of their country. Renowned Haitian American author
Edwidge Danticat wrote an award-winning novel, from The Royal Diaries series, Anacaona: Golden Flower, Haiti, 1490, in dedication to the
fallen chief, and a more recent novel has appeared about Anacaona, "Ayiti's Taino Queen/Anacaona, La Reine Taino d'Ayiti" by Maryse N.
Roumain, PhD. She is immortalized in music by Haitian folk singers Ansy and Yole Dérose in "Anacaona", as well as by Puerto Rican salsa
composer Tite Curet Alonso in his song "Anacaona" and Irka Mateo "Anacaona"
Aramaná was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) around Coa (Toa) river in Puerto Rico.
Aramoca was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the area now called Haiti.
Arasibo (born c. 1480s) was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in Puerto Rico who governed the area which is now named after him (now spelled
Arecibo). Arasibo governed a tribe whose village was located by the shore of the river "Abacoa" (now known as the "Río Grande de Arecibo").
Arasibo had been known to be a "just" and respected cacique and his tribe had led a peaceful existence before the arrival of the Spaniards. The
rivers close to the village were full of fish and turtles and so it was only natural that the members of Arasibo's tribe were fishermen. Their land
produced many fruits, such as papayas; the tribe were cultivators of corn. Arasibo loved to collect all kinds of animals and birds. He, like the rest
of the other Caciques, reported only to the "Supreme Cacique" Agüeybaná. The relationship between the Spaniards and the Taínos was peaceful
at first, however, all that changed when the Conquistadores started to enslave the natives. In 1511, Agueybana's brother Güeybaná, better known
as Agüeybaná II (The Brave), discovered that the Spaniards were not "gods" and this encouraged the Cacique to rebel against the invaders. The
rebellion failed after Juan Ponce de León's troops confronted and killed Agüeybaná II. In the Cronicals of Arecibo written by Puerto Rican
historian Cayetano Coll y Toste, Toste states that his research and investigations led him to uncover the following facts. In the year 1515, all of
the area of Arecibo including the rivers of "Rio Grande" and "Tanama" were given as a gift to a Lope Conchillos (who resided in Spain) by the
Spanish Crown. Conchillos sent a helper by the name of "Pedro Moreno" to the island to administer his lands; Moreno found Arasibo and his
tribe of about 200 Taínos living in the land; he then enslaved them and Arasibo and his people died shortly after. The crown in the coat of arms
of the City of Arecibo represents the glory of the Cacique Arasibo, who was the first known ruler of the region.
Aymamón was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of willage (yucayeque) around Culebrinas river in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican anthropologist Ricardo
Alegría suggests that the proper pronunciation and name of the cacique was Aymaco, with Aymamón being a way of designating the cacique
that ruled over the region called Aymamio, or possibly just a misunderstanding of the name's adequate pronunciation. However, historical
documents have traditionally used the name Aymamón. He is known for having ordered the kidnapping of the son of Spaniard Pedro Xuarez.
He called for a game at the batey among his subjects and offered as prize the honor of burning the Spaniard alive and hence proving their
mortality and vincibility. However, the Spanish found out about the plan and Captain Salazar was sent to rescue the young Spaniard. In the
subsequent battle, the son of Pedro Xuarez was rescued and Aymaco wounded. While healing, Aymaco called on Salazar to exchange names and
offer peace. Despite his peace offering, he later participated in the Taíno Rebellion of 1511 which was also crushed.
Ayraguay was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the present Haiti.
Ayamuynuex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the present Haiti.
Bagnamanay was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the Caguas in the present Puerto Rico.
Baguanao was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Matanzas in the present Cuba. He was father of Cibayara.
Biautex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Bojékio or Bohechio was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti. He was brother of Anacaonacacica of Xaragua.
Brizuela was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Baitiquirí in the present Cuba.
Cacicanáwas a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Cueybá in the present Cuba. Provided food and shelter to Alonso de Ojeda who was shipwrecked on
the Island of Cuba he was accompanied by seventy men and was seeking help. The pirate Bernardino de Talavera took Ojeda prisoner. A

hurricane struck Talaveras ship and Talavera made amends and helped each other, despite their efforts the ship was shipwrecked at Jagua,
Sancti Spíritus, on the south coast of Cuba. Ojeda decided to travel along the coast on foot with Talavera and his men in order to reach Maisí
Point from where they would be able to get to Hispaniola. However, the party faced a number of difficulties on route and half of the men died
of hunger, illness or other hardships that they met along the way. The sole possession remaining to Ojeda was an image of the Virgin Mary,
which he had carried with him since he left Spain. He made a promise on this image that he would build a church dedicated to her in the first
village that he reached where he was given hospitality. A little later, and with only a dozen men and the pirate Talavera still surviving, he
arrived in the district of Cueybá where the chief Cacicaná provided food and shelter. Ojeda was true to his word and he built a small hermitage
to the Virgin in the village, which was venerated by the local people. The party was rescued by Pánfilo de Narváez and taken to Jamaica, where
Talavera was imprisoned for piracy. From Jamaica Ojeda returned to Hispaniola where he learned that Fernández de Enciso had been able to
relieve the colonists who had stayed in San Sebastián modern day Municipality of Necoclí in the subregion Urabá in the department Antioquia,
Colombia.
Cacimar was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Caribe ancestry, his yucayeque (willage) was in the "Isla de Bieque" currently known as Vieques,
Puerto Rico.
Caguax was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) by the Turabo River of Caguas, Puerto Rico. Caguax was a Taíno cacique who
lived on the island of Borikén (Taíno name for Puerto Rico) before the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The city of Caguas, Puerto Rico
derives its name from him. A neighborhood there is named after him.
Caguax II was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who reigned over the territory of Sabaneque Çaguax Sagua La Grande, Cuba.
Camagüebax was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Camagüey in the present Cuba, He was father of Tínima. He was executed by Pánfilo de
Narváez and his body thrown from the highest elevation in Camagüey, the Tuabaquey hill in the Sierra de Cubitas mountains, (330 meters
/1,083 ft.) above sea level.
Canimao was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Matanzas, Cuba. He was husband of Cibayara father of Guacumao.
Canóbana was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) around Cayniabón river (Río Grande de Loíza), Canóvanas, Puerto Rico.
Caonabo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti who ruled the province of Ciguayos (Cayabo or Maguana). He married cacica
Anacaona, from the neighboring Jaragua cacicazgo. He and Maynerí destroyed La Navidad.
Caracamisa was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Cuba.
Casiguaya was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) in the present Cuba. She was wife of Guamá Captured, in she was 1521 hanged herself.
Cayacoa was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Higüey, Hispanola. After his death his wife the Cacica, baptized as Dona Ines (no relation to
Agueybana's mother) married the Spaniard Miguel Díaza.
Dona Ineswas a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) of Higüey, Hispanola. She was mother of Caciques Agueybaná and Agüeybaná II of Puerto Rico. She
was baptised by Juan Ponce de León in the year 1507. After death her first husband Cayacoa she was married the Spaniard Miguel Díaza.
Comerío was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who ruled the region in the area Comerío, Puerto Rico. He was son of the Cacique Caguax.
Cotubanamá was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Higüey, Hispanola. He was fought against the Spanish. He rebelled after a Cacique from Saona
Island was assassinated. He was captured and taken to Santo Domingo, where he was hanged.
Dagüao was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) at Santiago river, Naguabo, Puerto Rico.
Doña María was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) of the Caguas in the present Puerto Rico. She was daughter of Cacique Bagnamanay. Her Taíno
name is unknown.
Enriquillo was a Taíno Cacique in the present Dominican Republic who rebelled against the Spaniards from 1519 to
1533. His long rebellion is the best known for the early Caribbean period and he is considered a hero of indigenous
resistance for those in the modern Dominican Republic.Dominican friar Bartolome de Las Casas, who documented and
railed against Spanish abuse of the indigenous, wrote sympathetically of Enriquillo. His father was killed while attending
peace talks with the Spanish, along with eighty other regional chieftains under the direction of his aunt Anacaona in
Jaragua. During the talks, Spanish soldiers set the meeting house on fire and proceeded to kill anyone who fled the
flames. Enriquillo was then raised in a monastery in Santo Domingo. One of his mentors was Bartolomé de Las Casas.
Good relations between Christopher Columbus and the indigenous Taíno of the large island Columbus called Hispaniola
did not last more than a few days; after Columbus had tortured and killed many trying to force them to provide him with
gold, he turned to slavery and sugar cane plantations as a way to profit from his voyages. Several revolts followed in the
first half of the 16th century, the most famous of which happened in 1522. Enriquillo started the revolt with a large number of Indians from the
mountain range of Bahoruco and the Indians were able to continue the rebellion because of their better knowledge of the region. As the
Spaniards were not able to control the rebellion, a treaty was signed granting to the Indian population among others the right of Freedom and
of Possession. It had little consequences however, as by this time the Indian population was rapidly declining due to European diseases.
Enriquillo also had a wife, called Mencía, later with the noble title Doña due to Enriquillo's high standing and relations with the Spaniards. She
was molested by a Spaniard named Valenzuela. When Enriquillo tried to take the issue to the Spanish courts, nothing could be done, since it was

Doña Mencia's word against the Spaniard's word. This, according to some writers, was the tipping point for Enriquillo which led to his revolt in
the Bahoruco mountains. Most historians agree (see Sued Badillo) that Enriquillo was the same person as the cacique Guarocuya which would
mean that Enriquillo belonged to the highest house of the Jaragua cacicazgo. Guarocuya was the nephew of Anacaona, sister to the cacique of
Jaragua Bohechío and his eventual successor once Bohechío was killed. Anacaona was married to Caonabo who was the cacique of the
neighboring Maguana kingdom. A minority of historians, however, claim that Guarocuya was captured and hanged, while Enriquillo succeeded
in his revolt. Most historians believe both rebels were the same person, arguing that the tales of Guarocuya's demise are identical to the more
verifiable accounts of the capture and execution of his aunt Anacaona and the stories have been conflated. It is also well documented that the
character of Enriquillo was married to Mencía, the mestizo granddaughter of Anacaona. His name Enriquillo would come after his baptism as a
Catholic and his new given name, Enrique, in which the name Enriquillo "little Enrique," referred to his short stature. The salt water lake Lago
Enriquillo in the Dominican province of Baoruco was named after him. Looking out over it is the Trono de Enriquillo, where he is said to have
camped during the rebellion. The highest rank of the Asociación de Scouts Dominicanos was formerly named after him.
Guababo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Guacabo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Boriqueñ, who governed the area close to the Cibuco River in the present Puerto Rico.
Guacanagaríx (alternate transcriptions: Guacanacaríc, Guacanagarí) was one of the five Taíno caciques of Hispaniola (island) in the present
Haiti at the date of its European discovery in 1492, by the first of the Voyages of Christopher Columbus for Spain. He was the chief of the
cacicazgo of Marién, which occupied northwest of the island. Guacanagaríx received Christopher Columbus after the Santa María was wrecked
during his first voyage to the New World. He allowed Columbus to establish the settlement of La Navidad at his village, near present day
Caracol Bay, Haiti. The Spanish that remained there were massacred by rival tribes a few months later, just before Columbus returned on his
second voyage. Guacanagaríx refused to cooperate with other caciques, who tried to expel the Spanish from the Colony of Santo Domingo. He
was forced to flee to the mountains, where he later died.
Guacumao was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Matanzas in the present Cuba. He was son of Canimao and Cibayara.
Guaicaba was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Cuba who governed the area of Baní.
Guamá (died around 1532) was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who led a rebellion against Spanish rule in Cuba in the 1530s.
Legend states that Guamá was first warned about the Spanish conquistador by Hatuey, a Taíno cacique from what is now
Haiti. After the death of Spanish governor Diego de Velázquez (circa 1460-1524), Guamá led a series of bloody indigenous
uprisings against the Spanish that lasted for roughly 10 years. By 1530 Guamá had about fifty warriors and continued to
recruit more pacified yndios. The rebellion mainly occurred in the extensive forests of the area of Çagua, near Baracoa in
the easternmost area of Cuba, but also farther south and west in the Sierra Maestra. Archaeologists and forensic
pathologists believe that a body found in the Cuban mountains in February 2003 is indeed that of the legendary rebel chief
Guamá. According to the testimony of a captive Indian taken by the Spanish during the rebellion, Guamá was murdered by
his brother Oliguama, who buried an axe in his forehead while he slept, in 1532. According to oral tradition Oliguama, also spelled Holguoma
killed Guamá because of a sexual relationship between Guamá and Oliguama's wife. The death of Guamá and the capture and execution of his
warrior wife Casiguaya, plus the killing or dispersal of most of the group by a cuadrilla, a war party of Spanish, Indians and Blacks under the
orders of Spanish governor Manuel de Rojas, ended major resistance to the Spanish by 1533. Brizuela of Baitiquirí (Zayas, 1914) fought on until
about 1540, when he was captured and imprisoned.
Guamá II was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Güamaní was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) around Guayama, in the present Puerto Rico or Manatí, in the present Puerto
Rico.
Guamayry was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Baracoa, Cuba also known as Oliguama. brother of Guamá. took over Chieftainship after he
murdered his brother, as stated by Alexo a Taino warrior.
Guaoconel was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti in the area of Macorix de Abajo.
Guaora was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Güaraca was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) in Guayaney in the present Puerto Rico.
Guarionex, meaning "The Brave Noble Lord" was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of yucayeque (willage) Otoao or Utuado in Puerto Rico. Under his
leadership, the Caguanas laid siege to the countryside before fighting in the great battle of the Toa with Chiefs Gueybaná, Urayoán and
Orocobix, against the Spanish and Sotomayor in 1511. After the battle he was captured and sent to Spain with a boatload of captive intended for
slavery. The ship went down en route to Spain. The captives were chained down in the ship.
Guatiguaná was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti. He was the first Cacique to organize a rebellion in his land against the
Spaniards.
Guayacayex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Havana, Cuba. He starred in one of the first Aboriginal rebellions in the region of Guanima.
name given by the ancient inhabitants Present day Matanzas province. in 1510 When a Spanish ship from the mainland made landfall in
Guanima Bay, the chief Guayacayex hatched a plan for revenge against the abuses that had been committed on his neighbors in the sister island

of Ayiti/Quisqueya, he had information on the cruelty exercised by the colonizers on populations in that territory since Christopher Columbus's
first voyage in 1492. Guanima's name was changed to Matanzas, meaning "Massacre" to commemorate the events of 1510.[36]
Guayaney was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Yabucoa, Puerto Rico, he was also known as Guaraca and Guaraca del Guayaney.
Habaguanex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Havana, Cuba.
Hatuey or Hatüey (died February 2, 1512) was a Taíno Cacique (chief) from the island of Ayiti (now Hispaniola), who lived in
the early sixteenth century. He has attained legendary status for leading a group of natives in a fight against the invading
Spaniards, and thus becoming the first fighter against colonialism in the New World. He is celebrated as "Cuba's First National
Hero." In 1511, Diego Velázquez set out from Hispaniola to conquer the island of Caobana (Cuba). He was preceded, however,
by Hatuey, who fled Hispaniola with a party of four hundred in canoes and warned the inhabitants of Caobana about what to
expect from the Spaniards. Bartolomé de Las Casas later attributed the following speech to Hatuey. He showed the Taíno of
Caobana a basket of gold and jewels, saying: Here is the God the Spaniards worship. For these they fight and kill; for these they
persecute us and that is why we have to throw them into the sea... They tell us, these tyrants, that they adore a God of peace and
equality, and yet they usurp our land and make us their slaves. They speak to us of an immortal soul and of their eternal
rewards and punishments, and yet they rob our belongings, seduce our women, violate our daughters. Incapable of matching us in valor, these
cowards cover themselves with iron that our weapons cannot break. The people of Caobana did not believe Hatuey's message, and few joined
him to fight. Hatuey resorted to guerrilla tactics against the Spaniards, and was able to confine them to their fort at Baracoa. Eventually the
Spaniards succeeded in capturing him. On February 2, 1512, he was tied to a stake and burned alive at Yara. Before he was burned, a priest asked
him if he would accept Jesus and go to heaven. Las Casas recalled the reaction of the chief: Hatuey, thinking a little, asked the religious man if
Spaniards went to heaven. The religious man answered yes... The chief then said without further thought that he did not want to go there but to
hell so as not to be where they were and where he would not see such cruel people. This is the name and honor that God and our faith have
earned. The town of Hatuey, located south of Sibanicú in the Camaguey province of Cuba, was named after the Taíno hero. Hatuey also lives on
in the name of a beer brewed by Empresa Cerveceria Hatuey Santiago, a brewery in Santiago de Cuba, and one brand of a type of sugary, non-
alcoholic malt beverage called Malta. In a 2010 film shot in Bolivia, Even the Rain, Hatuey is a main character in the film-within-the-film. The
logo of the Cuban cigar and cigarette brand Cohiba is a picture of Hatuey.
Haübey was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Guahaba, in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. He organized a protest against Spanish rule in
Cuba, was jailed and burned alive.
Hayuya (born c. 1470s) was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who governed the area in Puerto Rico which now bears his name (which is now spelled
"Jayuya").
When the Spaniards arrived in "Borikén" (the Taíno name for Puerto Rico), they were greeted with open arms by the Taínos, who lived a
peaceful and organized life. This made it easy for Juan Ponce de León and his men to conquer the island. Before the Spaniards arrived, the
Taínos had a form of government where each region had a tribe headed by a Cacique. Some of the Caciques, like Hayuya, were more powerful
than others. They all, however, responded to the "Supreme Cacique", which at that time was Agueybana. The area that Hayuya dominated is
considered to be the "birth place" of the Taíno culture in the island. However, the Spaniards soon started to enslave the natives. On February
1511, Agueybana's brother Güeybaná, better known as Agüeybaná II (The Brave), and Urayoan (The Añasco Cacique), and their men drowned
Diego Salcedo. They watched Salcedo's body to see whether he would resuscitate: when he didn't, the Taínos realized that the Spaniards were not
gods and thus, the Taínos became rebellious. According to the Chronicles of the Indias which are found in Seville, Spain, Hayuya lived and
governed the area which is now named after him, in the interior central part of Puerto Rico. On September 7, 1513 Juan Ponce de León, who was
appointed governor by the "Spanish Crown", sent troops headed by Alonso Niño and Alonso de Mendoza to quash the rebellious Taínos. When
they arrived at Hayuya's village, they proceeded to raid and murder its inhabitants. They burned the village to the ground. The Taínos that
survived were taken as prisoners and some were made to work the mines as slaves. The others were sent to Spain where they were sold as slaves
for 145 "pesos". Eventually, the Taínos died from working in the mines or from the smallpox epidemic. The "National Indigenous Festival"
(Festival Nacional Indígena) which honors the memory of Hayuya and the Taíno heritage is celebrated annually on November 24 in the town of
Jayuya. There is a monument of Hayuya, the only one of its kind to be dedicated to a Taíno Cacique, located in Jayuya's Cultural Center next to
a Taíno tomb. It was sculpted by Puerto Rican artist Tomás Batista in 1969. Hayuya is also represented in the town's coat of arms.
Huarea was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in Western Jamaica, his village was located in what is now present day Montego Bay, Jamaica.
Imotonex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Lguanamá also known as Isabel de Iguanamá was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) in the present Haiti.
Inamoca was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Jacaguax was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who was according historian José Toro Sugrañes ruled in the region of current Juana Díaz, Puerto Rico.
The Jacaguas River was named in his honor.
Jibacoa was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the area Majibacoa present day Las Tunas,Cuba.
Jumacao a.k.a. Jumaca (born ca. 1480s) was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the area in Puerto Rico named after him (now
spelled Humacao). The Taínos, who lived in Puerto Rico long before the arrival of the Spaniards, were an organized and
peaceful people. The only problems they had were occasionally with the cannibals of the Carib tribes. The Cacique was
the head of the tribe and the governor of his region. They reported to the "Supreme Cacique", who during Jumacao's
time was the Cacique Agueybana. When the Spaniards arrived, Agueybana received Juan Ponce de León with open

arms. This extended friendship was soon to end because the Conquistadores started to enslave the Taínos and to destroy their way of life.
According to the "Chronicles of the Indias", which are kept in Seville, Spain, in February 1511, Agueybana's brother Güeybaná, better known as
Agüeybaná II (The Brave), Urayoan, the Cacique of Añasco and some of their men drowned the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo. They watched
over Salcedo's body to see if he came back to life. When he did not, the Taínos realized that the Spaniards were not gods after all. When the news
spread among the Taínos, they started a rebellion and attacked some Spanish settlements. After Ponce de León's troops killed the Cacique
Agueybana II, the Spanish Government reached an agreement and signed a peace treaty. However, the Spaniards in the island did not respect
the treaty and continued to enslave and destroy many of the Taíno villages. The Cacique Jumacao was the first Cacique to learn how to read and
write in Spanish. He proved this by writing a letter to King Charles I of Spain, complaining that the appointed governor of the island was not
honoring the peace treaty and that he and the other Caciques had virtually become prisoners of the governor. He also stated that he was
responsible of his own acts. The King was moved by the letter and ordered the governor to honor the terms of the treaty. The government,
however, paid no attention to the King's request and continued to abuse the Taínos. Jumacao, together with the help of the Cacique Daguao
(Cacique of Naguabo), attacked Spanish settlements and burned down the City of Santiago (founded in 1513), which was located close to the
Daguao (now Santiago) River, killing all of its inhabitants. According to the testimony of Ignacio Martinez, the sole survivor of the "Santiago
incident", the Caciques and their tribes hid in the Sierras (mountains) of Luquillo. Jumacao was never heard from again.[ There is a statue of the
Cacique in the city of Humacao. In 1975 the city of Humaco honored the Cacique Jumacao by including a crown within its Municipal Coat of
Arms, which represents the royalty of the Cacique. The City of Humacao also presents the "Cacique Jumacao Award" to the best industries in
regard to its recycling programs.
Loquillo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the area of Luquillo (named after him) located in the northeastern coast of the present Puerto Rico.
He was one of the last Cacique to fight against the Spanish invadors of the island.
Mabey was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Ayiti or Quisqueya (Kiskeya) in the present Haiti, had arrived with Cacique Hatuey fleeing the Spanish
on the neighboring island of La Hispaniola, pursued by the Spanish arrived at the Güinía Gold mines, of what is now the province of Villa Clara,
Cuba in the municipality of Manicaragua stirring up a rebellion, the Spanish to prevent the rebellion intensified the search of Mabey. The
center of operations of Cacique Mabey against the Spanish were at the foot of a hill called La Degollada. In the battle through the mountains,
Taino rebels Baconao & Abama (Husband and wife) were killed. Mabey was surrounded and cornered at the edge of a cliff where he and Gálvez
fought hand-to-hand the battle lasted various minutes, Gálvez's servant, an ambitious and cruel man saw the possibility of running away with
treasure and pretending that he was helping Gálvez pushed both of them down the cliff where they fell to their death. The Spanish arrived with
a group of captured Indians found out through Bacanao small daughter who was embracing the body of her dead mother (Abama), the truth
about the crime. Gálvez's servant was taken prisoner as so were the Taino rebels and Baconao's Daughter. The Spanish buried Gálvez and left
Mabey's cadaver to rot and be eaten by vultures. They then led the procession of indigenous prisoners to the presence of Capitan Vasco de
Porcallo, which he ordered to the gallows. There, in the Loma de la Cruz, which bisects the town Güinía neighborhoods, the 12 Indians were
hanged, the traitor (Gálvez's servant) was hung by his feet and shot in that position. There is an old legend of the town that on certain occasions
people see a blue light on the scene where these events took place, preceded by a woman's scream.
Mabó was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Boriquen, from the area of Guaynabo, in present Puerto Rico.
Mabodomaca was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the north west region near Guajataca in the present Puerto Rico. He was also known as
Mabodamaca.
Macaca was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) between Camagüey and Bayamo of the Cacicazgo of Cueyba. This Cacique introduced himself to Martín
Fernández de Enciso as (Comendador) he liked and appropriated this Spanish title which he had heard in reference to the former governor of
Santo Domingo (Comendador Mayor Nicolás de Ovando) Nicolás de Ovando. another source states that in 1510 Sebastián de Ocampo was
ordered by the governor of La Hispaniola Don Nicolás de Ovando to Coast and navigate the island of Cuba, there he was welcomed by Cacique
Macaca, he founded a chapel and thereby Naming him (Comendador).
Macuya was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the area of Coamo, Puerto Rico.
Majagua was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Boriquen, area of Bayamon, Puerto Rico.
Majúbiatibirí was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Manatiguahuraguana was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) from the area of Trinidad, Cuba.
Maniabón was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti who was reigned over what is now Puerto Padre and Las Minas in the
Municipality of Majibacoa in Las Tunas Province, Cuba.
Maniquatex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti.
Manicatoex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti. There were two Caciques in Hispaniola (In the area now called Haiti) with this
name, one was the brother of Coanabó,who led a prison uprising.

Maragüay was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of Costa Firme in Aruaca in Venezuela.
Maynerí was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Haiti, whom the Indians confessed to Christopher Columbus on his second voyage of
killing the Spaniards that he had left on the first colony and European settlement in the New World La Navidad in 1492. on landing on
November 27, 1493 he expected to see a bustling village. When he landed, however, he saw eleven corpses of his men on the beach and
discovered that La Navidad had been destroyed.
Mayobanex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the Ciguayo region in the present Dominican Republic.
Naguabo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) near the municipality of Naguabo, in the present Puerto Rico.
Orocobix was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the central mountain region of Puerto Rico called Jatibonicu in the 16th century. The Jatibonicu
territorial region covered the present day municipalities of Aibonito, Orocovis, Barranquitas, Morovis and Corozal. The Taíno language name
Orocobix or O-roco-bis literally means: 'Remembrance of the First Great Mountain.' The seat of power of Orocobix's kingdom and caney
(longhouse) was located in the town of Aibonito. Orocobix was the first cousin of Cacique Agüeybaná (The Great Sun). His wife was named "La
Cacica" Yayo, she was the mother of Cacica Catalina. Cacique Orocobix and Cacica Yayo were both later given in servitude in the year 1514 and
worked in the Royal Mines of the King of Spain, in Utuado. Orocobix also had a younger brother, named Cacique Oromico, who was the chief of
the tribal region of Horomico, that today bears the same name of the town of Hormigueros.
Ornofay was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) of the Jaragueyal region what today now is known as Ciego de Ávila, Cuba.
Tínima was a Taíno Cacica-Princess (Chiefess) of Camagüey, Cuba. She was daughter of Cacique Camagüebax, and married to Captain Vasco
Porcallo de Figueroa founder of the villa Sancti Spíritus y de Sabaneque.
Urayoán was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) famous for ordering the drowning of Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spanish were gods. He
was the cacique of "Yucayeque del Yagüeka or Yagüeca", which today lies in the region between Añasco and Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. His
territory was marked by the natural boundaries of two rivers: Guaorabo to the north and Yagüez to the south. In 1511, Urayoán and Agüeybaná
II (The Brave) conceived a plan to find out whether the Spaniards were really gods. Diego Salcedo (a Spanish soldier) was welcomed by Urayoán
into his village and was offered to stay for the night. The following day, by Urayoán's order, Salcedo was drowned while attempting to cross,
while on top of a Taíno warrior, the Guaorabo river (presently called Great Añasco River). The body of Salcedo was watched for three days after
his death. Upon confirmation of the mortality of the Spanish, Agüeybaná II ordered the Taínos to revolt.
Yacagüex was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) in the present Cuba.
Yacahüey was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) from Yucayo reigned over Havana and Matanzas in the present Cuba. She also nown as Yaguacayo,
Yaguacayex, Yacayeo, Yucayonex.
Yahíma was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) in the present Cuba. She was daughter of the Cacique Jibacoa of Cuba.
Yaureibo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) on the island of Bieques (Vieques) in Puerto Rico and brother of Cacique Cacimar on the island of
Bieques (Vieques). He died in 1514, during a surprise attack by the Spaniards as he readied his men to attack the mainland to avenge his brother
Cacimar's death.
Yuisa(Luisa) was a Taíno Cacica (Chiefess) in the region near Loíza in the present thePuerto Rico who was baptized by the Spaniards. She died
in 1515, during a Carib raid on her land. She married a Spanish man called Pedro Mexias.
Yuquibo was a Taíno Cacique (Chief) who ruled in the region of Luquillo in the present Puerto Rico. He was known as Loquillo (Crazy One)
by the Spaniards due to his constant attacks on the Conquistadors. The town of Luquillo, Puerto Rico is named for him.
Kuchkabal of Ah Canul
Ah Canul was the name of a Maya Kuchkabal of the northwest Yucatán Peninsula, before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the
sixteenth century. Ah Canul literally means "protector", derived from the verb canan which means to guard or protect. After the destruction of
Mayapan ( 1441 - 1461 ), in the peninsula of Yucatan , the Maya great rivalries were created, and 16 or 17 were formed jurisdictions Kuchkabal
separate calls. In each there was a Kuchkabal Halach Uinik (man made, man command), which had the highest military, judicial and political
authority, who lived in a major city considered the capital of the Kuchkabal. Each kuchkabal was divided into several municipalities or batabilob
(plural of batalib) which were governed by a batab. The batabob (plural of batab) obeyed the Halach Uinik and were often in their families. Each
batabil was divided into several kuchkteel or residential units. This kind of small council resided in a village and was divided into extended
families. Their representatives met to resolve important issues and the batab also part in these meetings, each batabil councils was composed of
representatives of families or lineages called ah k'ul (delegate) and representatives appointed by the batab ah kuch called kob. The halach uinik
was the high priest of each kuchkabal. Next in the religious command Ah K'in May, after the regular priests k'in ah, ah nakom sacrificers, the
chilam prophets and priests of lower rank: chako'ob. The halach uinik was the highest military authority and appointed a captain named nacom
, who coordinated the batabob also had a high military rank. For Ah Canul, the capitol is Calkiní , but there was no halach uinik, the Kuchkabal

of Ah Canul instead the Batabob had a senate. This senate was held under a Ceiba tree considered sacred, and is thus reached a consensus on the
future of their communities. According to Codex Calkiní, after the destruction of Mayapán in 1441-1443 d. C., eight of the nine brothers "batab"
Canul Mayapan leave southbound, which are: Ah Tzab Canul, Ah Dzun Canul, Ah Kin Canul, Ah Ah Pa Paal Canul or Canul, Ah Sulim Canul,
Ah Chacah Canul, Ix Ix Pacab Canul or Copacab Canul and Nah Bich Canul. For a long time it was thought that the northern territory of the
jurisdiction of Ah Canul was another independent jurisdiction called Zipatán ("Zi-lubber" whose literal translation is "the place that pays tribute")
but it is an error generated by a document which chronicles the arrival of Gaspar Suárez first greater mayor to district Zipatán Merida
(Yucatan). According to the translation of Codex Calkiní by Alfredo Barrera Vásquez, clear the area of confusion referred Zipatán, and speaks of
the Port of Sisal: ... "The place located at the northern limit of the jurisdiction of Ah Canul, and sits in their seas priest Ah Kin Canul had four
boats that fished their slaves." "Sisal, Nimum, Tiizpat and Kinchil sea where things are Canul Ah There's the underground building Coba Ah,. Ie
Kinchil Coba also in Homonché in Pachcaan is Canul sea Ah." Sisal is a very old, precolonial port, which belonged to the domain of Canul, ships
had to source seafood and probably for their trade with other Indian groups in the Gulf of Mexico, which was intense and extending to the sea
Caribbean.
List of batabs (rulers) of the Batabobs of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul
Juan Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Sisal of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1565.
Martin Pech was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Ucú of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1572.
Francisco Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Yabucu (Yahuacu) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1565.
Chan Diego was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Yabucu (Yahuacu) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1589.
Alonso was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Yabucu (Yahuacu) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1589.
Francisco Mo as a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Tzeme of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1565.
Juan Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Oxcum (Tahoxcum) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul North around 1565.
Nahau Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Maxcanú of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Na Bich Canul was a founder and batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Tuchicán of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Naun Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Tuchicán of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1541.
Pedro Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Halachó of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1567.
Francisco Cí was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Kulcab of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1567.
Augustine Cí was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Kulcab of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1567.
Chacah Canul Ah was a founder and batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Sihó of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Francisco Uicab was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Sihó of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1567.
Ah Cen Canul, better known as Napuc Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Chulilá of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Nacamal Batun was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Chulilá of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Kauitz Ah Hau was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Chulilá of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Naun Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Becal of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Nachan Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Becal of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul during 1540s.
Juan Canul was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Becal of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul around 1572.
Ah Man Canul, known as Nabatun Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Tepakán of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Francisco Chim was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Tepakán of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul in 1567.
Tzab Euan Ah was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Mopilá of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Miguel Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Mopilá of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul in 1567.

Nachan Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Nunkiní of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Jorge Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Nunkiní of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul in 1579.
Napot Canche was a Batab (ruler) one of the Batabobs of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Ah Tok Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Pocboc of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Ah Chim Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Pocboc of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Pedro Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Pocboc of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul in 1572.
Canul Calkiní was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Bacabchén of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul.
Lucas Canul was a Batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Hecelchakán of the Kuchkabal of Ah Canul in 1572.
Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab)
Ekab or Ecab was the name of a Mayan chiefdom of the northeastern Yucatán Peninsula, before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the
sixteenth century. In the fifteenth century most of Yucatan was controlled by the League of Mayapan. By 1441 there was civil unrest. The
provinces of the League rebelled and formed sixteen smaller states. These states were called Kuchkabals. Most Kuchkabals were ruled by a
Halach Uinik, but Ekab wasn't. It was divided up into several Batabil. Each Batabil was ruled over by a leader called a Batab. In Ekab the Batabs
were supposed to have equal power, but the Batabs on Cozumel had much more power than the others.
List of Batabs (rulers) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab)
Ah Kin Cutz ("wild turkey") was a Halach Uinik (ruler-priest) of the Batabob of Zama of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) in the early 16th
century.
Kinich ("Eye of the Sun") was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Zama of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) in the early 16th century. When dying
batab Kinich, he was replaced by Ah May or Taxmar.
Ah May, Taxmar was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of Zama of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) around 1511. When dying batab Kinich,
he was replaced by Ah May or Taxmar.
Julianillo was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) around 1518.
Melchorejo was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) around 1518.
Naum Pat was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Cozumel of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) during the late 1520s.
Nacom Balam was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) during the late 1520s.
Ekbox was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Ekab (Ejab) during 1540s. Chronice of Chac Xulub Chen indicates that
Batab of Ekab called Ekbox made an attack on a Spanish ship in 1547.
Kuchkabal of Chikinchel
Chikinchel (also called Chauacá) was the name of a Mayan chiefdom of the northern coast of Yucatán, before the arrival of the Spanish
conquistadors in the sixteenth century. Chauaca has also been used to name this province, but apparently it was the name of the main city.
After the destruction of Mayapan (1441–1461), in the Yucatán Peninsula, it created rivalries among the Maya, and formed 16 separate
jurisdictions.
List of Batabs (rulers) of the Batabob of Loche of the Kuchkabal of Chikinchel (Chauaca)
Luis Ná was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Aké of the Kuchkabal of Chikinchel (Chauaca) in 1549.

Jorge Dzib was a batab (ruler) of the Batabob of Loche of the Kuchkabal of Chikinchel (Chauaca) in 1549.
Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel
Mo-Chel was the founder and the first Halach Uinik (ruler) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel. He started the rule of the Chel family and the
political state ruled by them. He was originally a nobleman, the son in law of one of the principal priests at Mayapan. Another priest Ah Xupan
Nauat married his daughter Namox Chel to Mo. He is said to have foreseen the destruction of the League of Mayapan, and he fled with some
followers to Tecoh near Izamal, where he established an independent state. He named the nation Ah Kin (high priest, literally means is from
the sun) Chel (from his last name, a way of naming used by many Kuchkabal). He may have founded his capital in Tecoh because of a
pilgrimage he had once made to the coast in that area. He also believed that he could recruit followers there more easily.
Halach Uinik (ruler) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel
Namux Chel was the Halach Uinik (ruler) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel.
Kuchkabal of Tases
Tases, also Tazes or Tasees, was the name of a Maya Kuchkabal (chiefdom) of the northeastern Yucatán Peninsula, before the arrival of the
Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century.
List of Rulers of the Kuchkabal of Tases
Nahua Chan was a ruler of the Kuchkabal of Tases.
Juan Chan was a ruler of the Kuchkabal of Tases in Chandzonot.
Tixmucul, Luis Dzeb, Ts'eh was a batab (ruler) of one of the Batabob of the Kuchkabal of Tases.
Kuchkabal of Can Pesch
Can Pech, Cun Pech, Kaan Pech, or Kaan Peech, was the name of a Maya chiefdom of the southwestern Yucatán Peninsula, before the arrival of
the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth century. Can Pech was south of Ah Canul and north of Chakán Putum, on the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico.[1] In 1517 the population of the capital city Campeche was approximately 36,000 (judging by the description of the city by Bernal Diaz
del Castillo).
Founder of the Kuchkabal of Can Pesch
Ah k'iin peech was the founder of the Kuchkabal of Can Pesch in 1441. In Yucatec Kaan Peech means snake tick. Can Pech was founded by
Ah k'iin peech. Ah Kin or Ah K'iin being a rank of priest.
Kuchkabal of Chakán
Chakán was a Mayan Kuchkabal (chiefdom) of the northern Yucatán Peninsula, before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the sixteenth
century.
Batab (ruler) of Caucel of the Kuchkabal of Chakán

Ah Kin Euan was a batab (ruler) of Caucel of the Kuchkabal of Chakán.
Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel
Cupul or Kupul, (Maya: Kupul, 'toponímico; adjective') was the name of a Maya chiefdom at time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán. Cupul was
one of the most extensive and densely populated Maya provinces on the Yucatán Peninsula. It was formed in the mid-fifteenth century after the
fall of Mayapan and reached its maximum power during the sixteenth century, at the time of their own led by the Spanish conquest led by the
adelantado Francisco de Montejo. According to the Encyclopedia Yucatán in time, the Mayan voice ku-pul, means that throws the bouncing,
giving a connotation referring to the Mayan ballplayers that existed in the region.
Founder and Halach Uinik (ruler) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel
Ek Balam was the founder and the first Halach Uinik (ruler) of the Kuchkabal of Ah Kin Chel in 1441.
Miskito Kingdom
The Miskito are a Native American ethnic group in Central America, of whom many are mixed race. In the northern end of their territory, the
people are primarily of African-Native American ancestry. Their territory extends from Cape Camarón, Honduras, to Río Grande, Nicaragua
along the Mosquito Coast, in the Western Caribbean Zone. The indigenous people speak a native Miskito language, but large groups also speak
Miskito creole English, Spanish, which is the language of education and government, and other languages. The creole English came about
through frequent contact with the British for trading, as they predominated along this coast. Many are Christians. The name "Miskito" derives
from the Miskito-language ethnonym Mískitu, their name for themselves. It is not related to the Spanish word mosquito, which derives from the
word mosca, meaning "fly", also used in Spanish for the insect.
List of Kings of the Miskito Kingdom
Oldman (died 1687) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from around 1650 until his death in 1687, was the son of a Miskito leader whose
name is not recorded. This earlier king went to England, according to a memorial left in Jamaica by one of his descendants, during the reign of
Charles I (1625–49) but during the time when the Providence Island Company was operating in the region (c. 1631 to 1641). He was followed by
another visitor, alleged to be a "prince" of the same group. According to the testimony of his son Jeremy I, as recorded in 1699 by an English
witness called W. M., Oldman was taken to England and received in audience by "his brother king", Charles II "soon after the conquest of
Jamaica" (1655). He was given a lace hat as a sort of crown and a written commission "to kindly use and relieve such straggling Englishment as
should chance to come that way". He was succeeded in 1687 by his son, Jeremy I.
Jeremy I was King of the Miskito Kingdom, who came to power following the death of his father, Oldman, in 1686 or 1687. according to an
English visitor, W. M., in 1699, he was about 60 years old at that time, making his birth year about 1639. Oldman had received a commission to
protect Englishmen from the governor of Jamaica around 1655, and according to W. M. he could speak a little English and was very courteous
to Englishmen. His court was located near Cabo Gracias a Dios near the Nicaragua-Honduras border, and consisted only of a few houses, not
much different from those of his subjects. He had two "very sickly wives" and three daughters. He was probably the last person to hold the title
of king who was of indigenous ancestry, as later rulers would be Miskitos Zambos, the descendants of African slaves who survived a shipwreck
in the region in the mid-seventeenth century. M. W. describes him as dark brown with long hair, and his daughters as being handsome, but of
nutmeg complexion.
Jeremy II (c. 1639–1729) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from ? until his death in 1729. Little is known about his reign, though he
tightened relations with Great Britain through the colony of Jamaica. The dates of his succession to the throne and death are uncertain. Spanish
sources refer to the king of the Miskito at this time as Bernabé, which is either another name of his, or perhaps another king who ruled at the
same time as a rival, or during the period assigned to Jeremy. It is not clear if the king called Jeremy in the famous account of the pirate "M. W."
ruled from 1687 when Jeremy was reported in Jamaica to 1729 or whether there were two kings named Jeremy. According to Michael Olien,
given the age of Jeremy I in 1699 (age 60) it seems unlikely that he was the same Jeremy who was ruling in 1720 as this would make him 80.
The Spanish governor of Costa Rica sent him rich presents for him to come and recognize Spanish sovereignty, but when his party was on the
high seas, they were intercepted by English sloops and taken to Jamaica. On June 25, 1720, Nicholas Lawes, the governor of Jamaica signed a
formal agreement with a Miskito king named Jeremy to provide 50 men to track down Maroons (former enslaved Africans who had escaped
bondage) in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica.
Peter I (died 1739) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1729 until his death in 1739. He came to power as a result of the death of his
brother, his predecessor, probably Jeremy II. Another official, called the governor had died at the same time, and as a result there was a civil war
that resulted in the loss of property belonging to some of the English traders in the area. Peter wrote to the governor of Jamaica to seek
commissions, signed with the Great Seal of Jamaica for himself and for two officials, a "governor" to control the south and a "general" to control
the north.
Edward I (died 1755) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom on the Mosquito Coast of Central America, bordering on the Caribbean Sea, from
about 1739 until his death in 1755. He was the eldest son of Jeremy II, and was young when he took office. In 1740 the Anglo-Spanish "War of
Jenkins' Ear" broke out, and Great Britain was anxious to enlist the Miskito on their side. They wanted to take advantage of the people's enmity
to Spain as a means to conduct raids against Spanish possessions in Central America. To that end, Governor Trelawny of Jamaica created an

office of "Superindendent of the Mosquito Shore" and entrusted it to Robert Hodgson. Hodgson arrived in 1740 and met with Edward and
Governor John Briton, the other officials being either sick (Admiral Dilly) or too far away (General Hobby). According to Hodgson's report, "I
proceeded to acquaint them that, as they had long acknowledged themselves subjects of Great Britain, the governor of Jamaica had sent me to
take possession of their country in his Majesty's name; then asked if they had anything to object. They answered, they had nothing to say against
it, but were very glad I was come for that purpose. So I immediately set up the standard, and, reducing the sum of what I had said into articles, I
asked them, both jointly and separately, if they approved and would abide by them. They unanimously declared they would." "Taking possession
of the country" did not result in any effective change in sovereignty, and Hodgson soon discovered that he could not conduct military
operations without respecting Miskito political alignments. Moreover, Hodgson had to give gifts that amounted to a sort of tribute to the
Miskito. Hodgson resided at Black River, a station more or less at the extreme northwestern end of the kingdom, where English had settled since
the 1730s. According to Hodgson's report, filed in 1740, the kingdom was ruled by three chiefs or "guards." These included governor Briton to
the south of the king's domain, controlling lands of unmixed Miskito; the lands of the king himself around Sandy Bay; and general Hobby, who
controlled the Zambo or mixed-race African-Miskito to the north and west. Each of these rulers was said to be a hereditary position.
George I (died 1777) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1755 until 1776. He was brother of King Edward and son of Jeremy II and was
chosen king because Jeremy II's eldest son was still too young to rule. According to a report on the country written in 1773 by Brian Edwards,
his lands were divided into two population groups, the "Samboes" (Miskito Sambu) who were mixed indigenous and African, and "pure Indians"
(Miskito Tawira); and was further divided into four domains: the domains of the king and the general in the north and west, inhabited by
"Samboes" and the domains of the governor and admiral inhabited by "pure Indians." British settlers first reported this fourfold division in 1766
and it is possible that George created or consolidated it. Edwards also observed that in 1770, George's kingdom had a population that he
estimated numbered between 7,000 and 10,000 fighting men, which at a ratio of four civilians to one fighter would make 28,000 and 40,000
people. In addition to Miskitos, the population included 1,400 British inhabitants, of which 136 where white, 112 of mixed race and about 600
slaves, mostly concentrated around the British settlement of Black River, but other concentrations were at Cabo Gracias a Dios and at Bluefields.
One of the tensions within the Miskito domain was that between the Zambu and Tawira, since the Zambus controlled the north and west
(primarily in modern day Honduras) and were vigorously pushing their authority southward into Tawira domains (which lay mostly in today's
Nicaragua). This pattern was resisted by Dilson, who was the Admiral and thus controlled the extreme southern parts of the Miskito domain. In
June 1769 the Zambu Admiral, Israel Sella, warned the king that Dilson's brother, Jaspar Hall along with two "Mosquito men" named John
Chord and Vizer visited the Spanish at Cartago and received gifts as a part of a plan to displace the English from the shore. Spanish officials
declared that Dilson was the "governor of the Miskito nation." Dilson also involved Briton, the Governor, who also controlled a Tawira
population, in his cause. At the same time, Tempest, the Zambu General traveled to England attempt to persuade the king of England to
separate the administration of the English living in Central America from Jamaica, a move which led George to believe he was plotting his
overthrow. The threat was sufficient that George sought aid from both Dilson and Briton, but only Briton agreed to assist him. George also gave
many generous land grants to Englishmen to establish plantations. He gave many around Black River, their largest settlement, but also gave
them around Bluefields, which was in land ruled by the Tawira Admiral, a definite move to establish his authority throughout the Miskito
Kingdom. Among these grants were ones given to Dr Charles Irwin, who sought the assistance of Olaudah Equiano to recruit slaves in 1776. In
exchange, the Tawira Admiral, Dilson II continued negotiations with the Spanish. Perhaps as a result of the earlier negotiations undertaken by
Tempest, George visited Jamaica in 1774 to place his kingdom under the "sovereignty of his Majesty" the king of England, and received gifts in
exchange. He is said to have sent the king of England a barrel of soil from the Miskito Kingdom and promised to supply 5,000 fighters to the
English suppress any revolt that might break out in North America. George died during a smallpox epidemic in 1777, and was succeeded by his
son George II Frederic.
George II Frederic (1757/1758-1801) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1776 until his death in 1801. As a young man, his father
George I sent him to England to be educated. On his return voyage, in 1776, he met and was evangelized by the famous Abolitionist Olaudah
Equiano (Gustavas Vassa), though Equiano did not think his preaching was very successful. He was crowned in March 1777 by the English
Superintendent James Lawrie. Because of his youth, his uncle Isaac ruled effectively as a regent and bore the title "Duke-Regent." George always
had difficulty with his subordinates, to the north his General Tempest gave him trouble, to the south the Admiral Brinton aligned himself with
Spain, which in turn sought to use the connection to overthrow George and break the English alliance. Ultimately, however, George was able to
defeat both contenders. Thanks to his education and the political alignment of the Miskito Kingdom against Spain and the support that England
gave him, George was considered a stable ally of the British. Although there was a considerable number of Englishmen and their African slaves
residing within his territory, an Anglo-Spanish treaty of 1786 required that all Englishmen be withdrawn, which they were, left over 2,600
counting their slaves, to settle in Belize. He was a friend of the English and prepared to ally with them against the Spanish. In 1798, as Anglo-
Spanish hostilities threatened the English commercial interests and settlements in the Bay of Honduras and Belize, the English proposed
arming him to attack the Spanish, in the hopes that it would divert Spanish attention from Belize. In 1800, two of his officials, "Admiral St. John
and Colonel Wyatt" were entertained at public expense; and George himself visited Belize not long afterward. He engaged in cattle trade at
times with British subjects, and shortly after his death the government of British Honduras was looking into cattle he had recently sent to
provision the garrison. He was said to have been poisoned by his brother Stephen.
George Frederic Augustus I (died March 1824) was a King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1801 until his death in 1824. He was quite
young when his father and predecessor George II Frederic was murdered, according to the later visitor George Henderson, "attributed very
openly to the designs of his brother Stephen." George II was pro-British, while Stephen was alleged to be pro-Spanish, and the General, Robinson
managed to organize a regency to prevent Stephen from taking power until George Frederic was of age. George Frederic maintained a fairly
close connection to British authorities in Belize, for in 1802, British officials in Belize gave "the young King Frederick" and three of his "chiefs"
gifts worth ₤40. At some later point before 1804, he was sent to Jamaica to be educated. When Henderson visited in 1804, the regency was still in
practice, with a balance maintained between Stephen and Robinson. Although subject to a regency, George Frederick did carry out some royal
duties while he lived in Jamaica, as a shipper named Peter Sheppard, who regularly traded between Jamaica and the Mosquito coast during the
period 1814 to 1839, testified that he carried various officials of the kingdom and subject peoples to visit the king in Jamaica, and the very least,
he signed commissions to his officials. Stephen made overtures to Spain, and the struggle between Stephen and Robinson continued in spite of
Spanish attempts to treat Stephen as king. Stephen, for his part, continued raids on Spanish territory. On November 14, 1815, Stephen, styled the
"King Regent of the... Shore" and 33 "of the most principal inhabitants commanding the different townships of the south-eastern Mosquito
Shore..." gave their "consent, assent, and declaration to, for, and of" George Frederic as their "Sovereign King". George Frederic was crowned in
Belize on January 18, 1816. According to the Superintendent, Sir George Arthur, George specifically requested that he be crowned in Belize, "in
the presence of your chieftains," the January 18, 1816 being the Queen of England's birthday. This coronation in Belize marked a shift from

coronation in Jamaica to Belize. George Frederic, by virtue of the long time he spent in Jamaica and his absence from the court found it difficult
to establish his authority upon his return. His two most powerful subordinates had used the regency to build local power bases. General
Robinson, who ruled the Black River region, had not signed the act accepting his as king. Governor Clementi, who ruled the territory just south
of the royal court was also very powerful and refused to participate in many acts of government. Thanks to George Frederic's alleged rape of
one of the wives of the Admiral, Earnee, there was tension between the king and him as well. George Frederic made a number of grants to
various foreign groups. One of the most famous was the grant of a huge tract he made to Gregor MacGregor in 1820, an area called Poyais,
which encompassed lands once granted by George I to some Englishmen. MacGregor then created a fraudulent colonial scheme to bring
European settlers there, when the settlers arrived, the king revoked the grant and required them to pay allegiance directly to him. He agreed to
allow the Black Caribs, or Garifuna who were dissatisfied with their lives among the Spanish at Trujillo, to settle in his lands, and gave them
commissions. He died in March 1824 according to the Honduras Almanack, strangled by his wife and thrown in the river.
Robert Charles Frederic (also spelled Frederick in his own correspondence) (died 1842) was the King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1824
until his death in 1842. In his youth he was educated in Jamaica along with George Frederick, his brother. He became king following the
murder of his brother and predecessor, George Frederick by his wife, and was subsequently crowned in British Honduras (now Belize) on April
23, 1824. A number of writers in the nineteenth century described the rapid succession of several kings between George Frederic and Robert
Charles Frederic, which Olien has challenged on the basis of a careful reading of the original sources. In a series of decrees issued in October 26,
1832, Robert Charles forbade his subjects to make raids on neighboring indigenous groups and abolished slavery in his domains, effective on
November 1, 1832. That same year, he also decreed that tax rates on "all free male subjects" over the age of 14 as well as foreigners would pay
one dollar in tax (a decrease from the former rate of three dollars). These taxes were to be paid on September 1, annually to "any chiefs that I
may nominate to receive said taxes" and be further transmitted by them to the treasury. An attached schedule shows that slaves were also
charged this rate, to be paid by their masters, and other indigenous people who were working in the country would pay a much lower rate of 4
rials, payable by their employers. Robert Charles Frederic also granted special trading privileges to British merchants, for example, he issued on
to the brothers Thomas and Joseph Knap in 1833 and mentioned similar grants made earlier to Samuel and Peter Sheppard. The grants gave
exclusive trading rights in exchange for a fixed annual payment of 100 dollars. When Thomas Young met him in 1839, he spoke good English
and was dressed in a Royal Navy uniform. He tried offenders in his country using an English court system with a jury. In 1840 Robert Charles
left a will indicating that in the event of his death, "the affairs of my kingdom shall be continued in the hands of the Commissioners appointed
by me upon the nomination" of the Superintendent of the Coast, Colonel MacDonald. In addition to granting this commission full powers to act
as sovereign authority of the state, Robert Charles also established the Church of England as the official church of the kingdom. In addition to
these acts of state, Robert Charles also made provisions for his children, Princes George, William Clarence, and Alexander, and Princesses
Agnes and Victoria to be supervised by the Commission and Colonel MacDonald, their education to be provided from the revenues of the
Miskito nation, as well as support for his Queen, Juliana.
George Augustus Frederic II (around 1833-1864) was King of the Miskito Kingdom from 1845 untilhis death in 1864.
He ruled at a time when the kingdom was subject to international rivalry. He was born around 1833, the son of King Robert
Charles Frederic. In 1840 King Robert Charles, "being mindful of the uncertainty of human life", established a will which
created a council to oversee the affairs of the country in the last years of his reign, and to insure that his heir be advised
during a regency, and that the education and support of his family be maintained. The will granted considerable power to the
Superintendent, Alexander MacDonald, to appoint councillors, and gave the council full power to institute and change laws,
aside from the law establishing the Church of England as the official church. George Augustus was only about 9 when his
father died, and the Regency Council created by his father and MacDonald, having been rejected in Great Britain, was resumed with a different
composition, this time under Superintendent Patrick Walker. However, in addition to this council, there was also a regency organized within the
kingdom itself, consisting of Prince Wellington, Colonel Johnson and General Lowrey, recognized by the British government on May 4, 1843.
He was crowned in Belize on May 7, 1845, when only 12 years old. The next year, 1846, the king abolished the regency council and appointed a
new one with the original councilors appointed in honorary positions and a new staff, composed of Creole inhabitants of Bluefields to continue
the regency. The Council, acting in his name passed a number of laws, establishing a militia under local command and control; abolishing land
grants given my his father which we claimed to be irregular, abolishing "Indian Laws and Customs," primarily judicial procedures, which were
to be handled by royally appointed magistrates, and regulating woodcutting. King George supported Great Britain and allowed a variety of
Superintendents to operate within the kingdom to advance its interests, and in turn he received their support. As a part of this support, the
English declared a Protectorate over the Miskito Kingdom in 1844, and used the kingdom as a cover for the expansion of British strategic
interests in Central America. Perhaps the most notable of these initiatives was the expansion of the kingdom's center to the south, first to
Bluefields and then to San Juan del Norte, where he cooperated, with the support of British naval forces, with the expulsion of the Nicaraguan
garrison and the annexation of the town to the Miskito Kingdom in 1848. Holding this town gave Britain and the Miskito Kingdom control of an
important point in a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific. The southern expansion met strong resistance from the Republics of Nicaragua
and Honduras, as well as the United States, who wished to limit British influence in Central America. Potential violence took place as the United
States and Britain squared off between 1850 and 1854 around San Juan del Norte, ultimately leading to Britain renouncing its Protectorate role
at the Treaty of Managua in 1860. Under the terms of the treaty, Britain would recognize Nicaraguan sovereignty over the Miskito kingdom,
while reserving for its people the right to self-government, and payment of an annual stipend to the king. The treaty withdrew international
recognition of George as "king" and held him to be only the "hereditary chief" of an entity called the "Reserva Mosquita." While the treaty was
significant as far as the international standing of the Miskito Kingdom was concerned, neither Nicaragua nor Britain had been able to occupy,
tax or collect revenue from the kingdom. Consequently, the treaty had little internal significance either to the inhabitants or the domestic status
of King George. In 1861, George Agustus, now calling himself "Hereditary Chief" and giving his residence as Bluefields, Mosquito Reservation,
summoned a council to enact what amounted to a constitution of the new entity. It recognized the boundaries as established by the Treaty of
Managua, reiterated the existing laws passed in 1846, and establish a two tier governing body with power exercised by qualified elected officials
(male gender, literacy and property being specified as qualification). This system allowed for shared power between the largely Creole
population and the indigenous population. George Augustus was frequently characterized as being a simpleton and incompetent by detractors,
both from within the British government and especially by United States writers, especially E. G. Squier. These writers were inclined to present
him as a puppet of British interests, and to suppose that his kingdom was not actually capable of governing itself. Yet, many visitors described
him as cultured, well-read with a fine library, and thanks to a Jamaican education, a master of English as well as the manners of an English
gentleman.

William Henry Clarence (1856-May 5, 1879) was the Hereditary Chief of the Miskito from 1865 untul his death on May 5,
1879. He was educated privately at Kingston, Jamaica. He succeeded on the death of his uncle George Augustus Frederic II,
November 27, 1865 and was crowned, around May 23, 1866. He reigned under a Council of Regency until he came of age and
assumed full ruling powers in 1874. He was poisoned on May 5, 1879.
George William Albert Hendy (died November 8, 1888) was the Hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation from May 23, 1879 until his
death on November 8, 1888. He was the grandson of H.M. George Frederic Augustus I, King of the Miskito Nation. He was elected by the
Council of State to succeed after the death of his cousin William Henry Clarence on May 23, 1879. He died on November 8, 1888.
Andrew Hendy (died 1914) was the Hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation from November 8, 1888 until March 8, 1889 and in
1894. He was repudiated by the Mosquito and abdicated in favour of his cousin, on March 8, 1889. Retired to Nicaraguan territory
where he became a Miskitu Jefe Inspector and River Magistrat. He was subsequently chosen as a rival Chief of the Mosquito by
General Rigoberto Cabezas deposed Robert Henry Clarence in 1894. Reappointed for the third time and formally installed at the
Government Palace, Bluefields, on November 20, 1894. Accepted as chief by his own relatives and some groups of Mosquito who
resided in Rio Coco within traditional Nicaraguan territory, but opposed by the vast majority on the Mosquito Coast, who saw him
as a Nicaraguan stooge and rebelled against both in 1896, 1899 and 1900. On both occasions petitioning fo the return of their ‘rightful King’,
Robert Henry Clarence. He was married twice timees. He died at Rayapura, Rio Wangki, 1914, having had issue, at least three sons (two of
whom were educated by the Nicaraguan government in Managua, a third in the USA).
Jonathan Charles Frederick (1865 – November 11, 1890) was the Hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation from March 8,
1889 until his death on around July 8, 1890. He was the son of Princess Matilda, daughter of H.M. Robert Charles Frederic, King of
the Miskito Nation, by a junior wife. He succeeded after the abdication of his cousin, March 8, 1889. He was died from an
inflammation of the liver, resulting from a fall from and kick by his horse five days earlier, at King’s House, Bluefields, on
November 11, 1890.
Robert Henry Clarence (1873 - January 6, 1908) was Hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation from 1890 until 1894. He was
born at the Public General Hospital in Kingston, Jamaica. He was the last Hereditary Chief of the Miskito in 1890–1894 and
briefly during July to August 1894. He succeeded on the death of his cousin Jonathan Charles Frederick, Hereditary Chief of the
Miskito, in July 1890. After his downfall, he was rescued by a British warship that took him into exile together with 200 refugees to
Puerto Limon, Costa Rica, and later to Jamaica. He was granted a pension by the British government of £1,785 per annum. He was
heir apparent and head of the royal house until his death. He died after an operation at the Public General Hospital in Kingston in Jamaica on
January 6, 1908. He was married once to Irene Morrison. He had two children, one of which was a princess: Mary Clarence. He was succeeded as
head of the royal house by his cousin Robert Frederick.
Robert Frederick (1855 – after 1928) was a Heir Apparent to the Miskito Kingdom and hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation from 1908
until 1928.
Norton Cuthbert Clarence is a Pretender to the Miskito Kingdom and Hereditary Chief of the Miskito Nation since 1978.
Republic of Texas
The Republic of Texas (Spanish: República de Texas) was an independent sovereign country in North America that existed from March 2, 1836,
to February 19, 1846. It was bordered by the nation of Mexico to the southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of
Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and the United States territories encompassing the current U.S. states of Oklahoma, Kansas,
Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico to the north and west. The citizens of the republic were known as Texians. Formed as a separate nation
after gaining independence from Mexico in 1836, the republic claimed borders that included all of the present U.S. state of Texas as well as
parts of present-day Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and New Mexico based upon the Treaties of Velasco between the newly created
Texas Republic and Mexico. The eastern boundary with the United States was defined by the Adams-Onís Treaty between the United States and
Spain in 1819. Its southern and western-most boundary with Mexico was under dispute throughout the entire existence of the republic with
Texas claiming the boundary as the Rio Grande (known as the Río Bravo del Norte or Río Bravo in Mexico), and Mexico claiming the boundary
as the Nueces River. This dispute would later become a trigger for the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848 between Mexico and the
United States after the annexation of Texas by the United States on December 29, 1845.
List of Presidents of the Republic of Texas
David Gouverneur Burnet (April 14, 1788 – December 5, 1870) was an early politician within the Republic of the
Republic of Texas, serving as interim President of the Republic of Texas from March 17 until October 22, 1836 and again

from in 1841, second Vice President of the Republic of the Republic of Texas from December 31, 1838 until 1841, and Secretary of State for the
new state of Texas after it was annexed to the United States of America from 1846 until 1848. Burnet was born in Newark, New Jersey, and
attended law school in Cincinnati, Ohio. As a young man, he lived with a Comanche tribe for a year before returning to Ohio. In 1826, he moved
to Stephen F. Austin's colony in Mexican Texas. He received a land grant as an empresario but was forced to sell the land after failing to attract
enough settlers to his colony, and later lost his right to operate a sawmill after he refused to convert to Roman Catholicism.
On hearing of William Barret Travis's plea for help at the Alamo, Burnet traveled to Washington-on-the-Brazos to recruit help from the
Convention of 1836. He remained at the convention and was elected interim president on March 17, 1836. On his orders, the government fled
Washington-on-the-Brazos for Harrisburg, thus inspiring the Runaway Scrape. Burnet narrowly avoided capture by Mexican troops the following
month. After Sam Houston's victory at the Battle of San Jacinto, Burnet took custody of Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna and
negotiated the Treaties of Velasco. Many Texans were infuriated that the treaty allowed Santa Anna to escape execution, and some people called
for Burnet's arrest for treason. Burnet declined to run for president and resigned as interim president on October 22, 1836. He served as the vice
president under Mirabeau B. Lamar and participated in the Battle of Neches. He was defeated in the next presidential election by Houston.
When Texas was annexed into the United States, Burnet served as the state's first Secretary of State. The first Reconstruction state legislature
appointed him to the U.S. Senate, but he was unable to take his seat due to the Ironclad oath. Burnet County, Texas, is named for him. Burnet
was born to Dr. William Burnet and his second wife, Gertrude Gouverneur Rutgers, widow of Anthony Rutgers (a brother of Henry Rutgers who
founded Rutgers University). His father had served in the Continental Congress. Both of his parents died when Burnet was a child. In 1805,
Burnet became a clerk for a New York counting house, Robinson and Hartshorne. When the firm suffered financial difficulty, Burnet gave his
entire personal inheritance, $1,200, to try to save the company. The firm went bankrupt, and Burnet lost all of the money. Burnet volunteered to
serve the unsuccessful revolt led by Francisco de Miranda for the independence of Venezuela from Spain. He fought in Chile in 1806 and in
Venezuela in 1808. After Miranda broke with Simon Bolivar, Burnet returned to the United States. On his return Burnet moved to Cincinnati,
Ohio, to study law. He lived with his two older brothers, Jacob, who later became a U.S. Senator, and Isaac, who later served as mayor of
Cincinnati. In 1817, Burnet moved to Natchitoches, Louisiana and set up a mercantile business. After several months he developed a bloody
cough. A doctor diagnosed him with tuberculosis and suggested he move to Texas, then a part of Mexico to recuperate in the dry air. Later that
year, Burnet traveled alone into Texas. A Comanche tribe came to his aid when he fell off of his horse by the Colorado River, and he lived with
them for two years until he made a full recovery. Near the end of the year, he met Ben Milam, who had come to the village to trade with the
tribe. His cough improved, Burnet returned to Cincinnati. In his return to civilization, asked that the Mexican prisoners be released with him
and allowed to return home as well. The Comanches agreed to this proposal and the Mexican families were surprised that there was no ransom
or other agreement to the release of these prisoners.
In Cincinnati, Burnet wrote a series of articles for the Literary Gazette detailing his time spent with the Indians. Burnet practiced law for several
years, but returned to Texas after hearing of Stephen F. Austin's successful colony for Anglos. Burnet settled in San Felipe, the headquarters of
Austin's colony, in 1826. For the next 18 months he provided law advice to the 200 settlers in the town and organized the first Presbyterian
Sunday School in Texas. A deeply religious man, Burnet neither drank nor swore and always carried a Bible in his pocket. After a failed venture
with Milam, the Western Colonization and Mining Company, in 1827 Burnet traveled with Lorenzo de Zavala and Joseph Vehlein to the
Coahuila y Tejas state capitol, Saltillo. The men applied for grants as empresarios under the General Colonization Law of 1824. Burnet received
authorization to settle 300 families in East Texas, northwest of Nacogdoches, an area that had already been settled by the Cherokee. Under the
terms of his grant, a married settler could purchase a league of land 4,428 acres (20 km2)) for $200. Burnet returned to Ohio to recruit settlers,
but was unable to entice the required number of families. In 1828, he sold his land grant to the Galveston Bay and Texas Land Company for
$12,000. Burnet remained in the United States for several years, and on December 8, 1830 married Hannah Estey of Morristown, New Jersey. At
the time of their wedding he was 43 and she was 30 years old. Eager to return to Texas, Burnet and his new wife chartered the ship Call and
brought with them a steam engine to operate a saw mill. A storm grounded the ship along Bolivar Point, and, to lighten the load, they were
forced to discard all of Hannah's furniture and her hope chest. The steam engine was the only piece of cargo that was able to be saved. Burnet
established his saw mill on 17 acres (10 ha) of land along the San Jacinto River, in an area that came to be known as Burnet's Bay. Under
Mexican law, Burnet was entitled to an extra land grant because his saw mill provided a needed public service. At that time, however, the law
also required settlers to convert to Roman Catholicism to receive the extra land grant. The devout Burnet refused, angering the Mexican
authorities to the point that they cancelled his grant for operating the saw mill. The mill was finally sold to Dr. Branch T. Archer at a large loss.
Burnet was a delegate to the Convention of 1833, where he was elected the chairman of a committee which created a petition arguing that the
Mexican Congress approve separate statehood for Texas. Stephen F. Austin carried the petition to Mexico City and was promptly jailed. Shortly
after the Convention of 1833 disbanded, Antonio López de Santa Anna became the new president of Mexico. Over the next two years Santa Anna
began consolidating his political control over the country by dissolving the Mexican congress, and disbanding state legislatures. In October
1835 Santa Anna declared himself military dictator and marched north to "reassert control over Texas". During this time, Burnet had been
appointed the first judge of the Austin district and organized a court at San Felipe. From then on he was known as Judge Burnet. He and other
Texians were determined that Texas should be an independent state within Mexico. In November 1835, the Consultation of 1835 was held at San
Felipe. At the consultation, Burnet took the lead in forming a provisional state government based on the 1824 Constitution of Mexico, which
Santa Anna had already repudiated. On March 1, 1836, a constitutional convention, the Convention of 1836, was held at Washington-on-the-
Brazos. Burnet was not chosen as a delegate to the convention. On hearing of William Barret Travis's plea for help at the Alamo, Burnet
immediately set out to offer his assistance. He stopped at the convention to try to recruit others to join the fight, but soon became so "inspired by
their deliberations" that he remained as a visitor.[8] Speaking privately with many of the delegates, Burnet professed that he would be willing to
serve as president of a new republic, even if that made him a target of Santa Anna. After hearing of the fall of the Alamo, the chairman of the
convention, Richard Ellis, wanted to adjourn the convention and begin again in Nacogdoches. Burnet leaped onto a bench and made a speech
asking the delegates to stay and finish their business. They did so, and the new constitution was adopted that evening. The front–runners for the
presidency of the new country, Austin, Sam Houston, and William H. Wharton, were absent from the convention, so the nominees became
Burnet and Samuel Price Carson. Burnet won, on a vote of 29–23, in the early hours of March 17, becoming the interim president of the new
Republic of Texas. De Zavala was elected vice-president. One of Burnet's first acts as president was to transfer the capital of the new state from
Washington-on-the-Brazos to Harrisburg, which was located nearer the small Texas Navy at Galveston Island. Harrisburg was also closer to the
border with the United States and would allow easier communication with U.S. officials. The move took on a sense of urgency when the
convention received word that Santa Anna was within 60 miles (100 km) of Washington-on-the-Brazos. Burnet quickly adjourned the
proceedings and the government fled, inspiring a massive fight known as the Runaway Scrape. Burnet personally carried the Texas Declaration
of Independence in his saddlebags. Sam Houston, leading the Texan Army, also decided to strategically retreat from Gonzales after learning of
the defeat at the Alamo. On hearing of the government's flight, "Houston was pained and annoyed", maintaining it was a cowardly action that
caused a great deal of unnecessary panic. Burnet was infuriated by Houston's criticism and accused Houston of staging his own retreat because
he was afraid to fight. Within several days, Burnet had stationed a spy, Major James H. Perry, on Houston's staff. In an effort to discredit
Houston, Perry initiated a groundless rumor that Houston had begun taking opium. On March 25, Burnet declared martial law and divided

Texas into three military districts. All able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 55 were ordered to report for military duty. Four days later,
Burnet issued a proclamation declaring that a man would lose his Texas citizenship and any future claim to land if he left Texas, refused to
fight, or helped the Mexican army. In the hopes of gaining assistance from the United States, Burnet sent Carson, now his secretary of state, to
Louisiana to approach General Edmund P. Gaines. Gaines had been given orders by President Andrew Jackson not to cross the Sabine River into
Texas. A small amount of relief did come on April 9, however, with the arrival of the "Twin Sisters," two six–pound cannons that had been sent
as a gift from the people of Cincinnati to show their respect for the Burnet family (at that time Burnet's brother Isaac was mayor of Cincinnati).
Burnet immediately sent the guns to Houston. Out of safety concerns, the government was moved again on April 13, this time to Galveston.
Two days later, Santa Anna's army reached Harrisburg, to find a deserted town. On April 17, Burnet received word that the Mexican Army was
headed for his location. He and his family crowded into a rowboat immediately, leaving all of their personal effects behind. When they reached
30 yards (30 m) offshore, Colonel Juan Almonte and a troop of Mexican cavalry rode into view. Burnet stood up in the rowboat so that the army
would focus on him instead of his family. Almonte ordered the troops not to fire, as he had seen Hannah Burnet in the boat and did not want to
put her in danger. Burnet did not hear of Houston's victory at San Jacinto and subsequent capture of Santa Anna until several days after the fact.
He hurried to the battlefield, where he complained often about Houston's use of profanity. Houston's staff "complained that the president
grumbled ungraciously, was hard to please, and spent all of his time giving orders and collecting souvenirs." The two men also argued over the
distribution of $18,000 in specie that had been found in Santa Anna's treasure chest. Burnet insisted that the money should go to the Texas
treasury, but Houston had already given $3,000 to the Texas Navy and distributed the rest among his men. Santa Anna, in his distrust of civil
government, had requested that he be allowed to negotiate a treaty with Houston. His request was rejected, and Burnet took him into custody,
first to Galveston Island and then to Velasco. On May 14, 1836 the two men signed the Treaties of Velasco. In a public treaty, Santa Anna agreed
to immediately cease all hostilities and withdraw his troops south of the Rio Grande. Burnet pledged that Santa Anna would have safe passage
home. Secretly, the men also agreed that Santa Anna would "use his influence with the Mexican government to secure the recognition of Texas
Independence with its southern boundary as the Rio Grande." Mexico later repudiated the treaty. The people of Texas were incensed at the terms
of the treaty. The public, along with the Secretary of War and Secretary of the Navy, wanted to see Santa Anna executed for his actions. Despite
the criticism, Burnet made arrangements for Santa Anna to travel by boat to Mexico. His ship was delayed for several days by wind, and while it
was docked 250 volunteers commanded by Thomas Green arrived. Green demanded that Burnet resign immediately. The ship captain, afraid
for his own safety, refused to set sail unless Green approved. With few other options, Burnet ordered Santa Anna brought ashore and imprisoned
at Quintana. Many of the Texas army officers threatened to execute Santa Anna and try Burnet for treason. The majority of Burnet's time was
spent writing proclamations, orders, and letters appealing for funds and volunteers. As a system of taxation had yet to be implemented, the
Texas treasury was empty. There was no money to pay Burnet a salary, and his family soon had trouble paying for their expenses. To make ends
meet, they sold a Negro woman and boy. Filling the treasury would take more effort, and Burnet proposed that they sell land scrip in New York.
The bids dropped as low as one cent per acre, so the plan was shelved. With no money and little respect for Burnet, it was not surprising that "no
one followed orders, and the government struggled to direct the state effectively." Burnet wished to replace Thomas Rusk as commander of the
army, and sent his Secretary of War Mirabeau B. Lamar to take Rusk's place. Rusk instead proposed that General Felix Huston be named as his
replacement. Lamar called a vote of the men in the army, who overwhelmingly voted for Huston, essentially a vote of no confidence in Burnet's
decisions. The first Texas presidential election was held September 5, 1836. Burnet declined to run, and Houston was elected to become the first
president. Houston was expected to take office in December. On October 3, Burnet called the first session of the Texas Congress to order in
Columbia. Houston arrived at the session on October 9, and the Congress quickly began lobbying Burnet to resign so that Houston could begin
his duties. Burnet finally agreed to resign on October 22, the day after de Zavala resigned as Vice-President. During the transition of power,
Burnet's son Jacob died at Velasco. The Burnets returned to their home, which had been looted, leaving them with no furniture or other
household articles. To support his family, Burnet practiced law and farmed. Houston's term as president expired in 1838. Burnet declined offers
to run as his replacement, but instead agreed to run as the vice-president for his friend Mirabeau B. Lamar. Once the election returns were in,
Burnet and Houston engaged in a shouting match, with Burnet calling Houston a 'half-Indian" and Houston calling Burnet a "hog thief'". Burnet
challenged Houston to a duel, but Houston refused, saying "the people are equally disgusted with both of us." Lamar and Burnet were
inaugurated on December 10, 1838. Burnet was an active vice-president. In 1839, he briefly served as acting Secretary of State after Barnard Bee
had been sent to Mexico. Burnet served as part of a five-man commission to negotiate with Chief Bowl for the peaceful removal of the Cherokee
tribe from their territory to the northwest of Nacogdoches. After a week of negotiations the group was not close to an agreement. On July 15,
three regiments of Texas troops attacked the Cherokee at the Battle of Neches. Chief Bowl and 100 Indians were killed; the survivors retreated
into Arkansas Territory. Burnet fought in the battle as a volunteer and suffered minor wounds. In December 1840, Burnet became acting
president when Lamar took a leave of absence to seek medical treatment in New Orleans for an intestinal disorder. His first official act, on
December 16, was to deliver an address to Congress alleging that Mexican armies were preparing to invade Texas. Burnet wanted Congress to
declare war on Mexico and attempt to push the Texas southern boundary to the Sierra Madres. His proposal was defeated by supporters of
Houston, who was currently serving in the legislature. During his time as acting president, Burnet dismissed several of Lamar's appointees,
angering the president. At the conclusion of Lamar's term, Burnet agreed to run for president. Lamar and his cronies only reluctantly supported
Burnet after they could not entice Rusk to run. Burnet's primary competition was Houston, and the campaign was dominated by insults and
name–calling. Houston questioned Burnet's honesty, accusing him of taking a $250,000 bribe from Santa Anna and calling him a 'political
brawler' and a 'canting hypocrite.' Houston also accused Burnet of being a drunk. Burnet again challenged Houston to a duel, and, again,
Houston refused. Houston won the election, with 7,915 votes to Burnet's 3,619. After losing the presidential election, Burnet returned to his
farm. When Texas was annexed into the United States, Burnet served as the state's first Secretary of State under Governor James Pinckney
Henderson. His feud with Houston continued, and in 1852 Burnet wrote a pamphlet titled "Review of the Life of General Sam Houston" which
recounted many rumors and allegations of Houston's improper behavior. Houston retaliated in February 1859 by giving a speech on the floor of
the U.S. Senate that disparaged Burnet. Burnet's health deteriorated, such that he needed help with his farm work. He and his wife purchased an
African American slave and the slave's sick wife, for $1400. The man robbed them and ran away. Unable to make ends meet on their own,
Burnet and his wife rented their 300 acres (1.2 km2) to another family in 1857, while continuing to live in their house. Hannah Burnet died on
October 30, 1858. Their only surviving child, William Estey Burnet, took a leave of absence from his military service and helped Burnet move to
Galveston, where he lived with an old friend, Sidney Sherman. Burnet opposed secession and was saddened when his son joined the Confederate
States Army; but later he supported his son's efforts. Col. William Burnet was killed on March 31, 1865, at Spanish Fort, Alabama, leaving Burnet
as the only surviving member of his family. In 1865, Sherman's wife died, and Burnet left Sherman's home to live with Preston Perry. The
following year the first Reconstruction state legislature appointed Burnet and Oran Roberts to be senators from Texas. Neither man was able to
take the Ironclad oath, so they were not permitted to take their Senate seats. Burnet's last public service came in 1868, when he was appointed as
a delegate to the Democratic National Convention which nominated Horatio Seymour for president. In his later years, Burnet suffered from
senility, and before his death he carried a trunk of his private papers into an empty lot and burned them all. He died on December 5, 1870, aged
82, in Galveston. He was first buried in Magnolia Cemetery, but in 1894 his remains were moved to Galveston's Lakeview Cemetery, where he

was buried next to Sidney Sherman's grave. The county of Burnet was named in his honor when it was formed in 1852, as was the county seat. In
1936, the state of Texas erected a statue of Burnet in Clarksville.
Samuel "Sam" Houston (March 2, 1793 – July 26, 1863) was the first and third President of the Republic of Texas
from October 22, 1936 until December 10, 1938 and from December 21, 1841 until December 9, 1844. He was Member of
the U.S. House of Representatives from March 4, 1923 until March 4, 1927, from Tennessee's 7th district, 7th Governor of
Tennessee from October 1, 1927 until April 9, 1929, United States Senator from Texas from February 26, 1946 until
March 5, 1959 and 7th Governor of Texas from December 31, 1959 until February 28, 1961. He was an American
politician and soldier, best known for his role in bringing Texas into the United States as a constituent state. His victory at
the Battle of San Jacinto secured the independence of Texas from Mexico. The only American to be elected governor of
two different states (as opposed to territories or indirect selection), he was also the only governor within a future
Confederate state to oppose secession (which led to the outbreak of the American Civil War) and to refuse an oath of
allegiance to the Confederacy, a decision that led to his removal from office by the Texas secession convention. Houston
was born at Timber Ridge Plantation in Rockbridge County of Virginia, of Scots-Irish descent. After moving to Tennessee from Virginia, he
spent time with the Cherokee Nation (into which he later was adopted as a citizen and into which he married), military service in the War of
1812, and successful participation in Tennessee politics. In 1827, Houston was elected Governor of Tennessee as a Jacksonian. In 1829, he
resigned as governor and relocated to Arkansas Territory. In 1832, Houston was involved in an altercation with a U.S. Congressman, followed by
a high-profile trial. Shortly afterwards, he relocated to Coahuila y Tejas, then a Mexican state, and became a leader of the Texas Revolution.
After the war, Houston became a key figure in Texas and was elected as the first and third President of the Republic of Texas. He supported
annexation by the United States and after annexation in 1845, he became a U.S. Senator and finally a governor of Texas in 1859, whereby
Houston became the only person to have become the governor of two different U.S. states through popular election, as well as the only state
governor to have been a foreign head of state. As governor, he refused to swear loyalty to the Confederacy when Texas seceded from the Union
in 1861 with the outbreak of the American Civil War, and was removed from office. To avoid bloodshed, he refused an offer of a Union army to
put down the Confederate rebellion. Instead, he retired to Huntsville, Texas, where he died before the end of the Civil War.
The namesake of the city which, since the 1980s, has become the fourth largest city in the U.S., Houston's reputation was sufficiently large that
he was honored in numerous ways after his death, among them: a memorial museum, five U.S. naval vessels named USS Houston (AK-1, CA-30,
CL-81, SSBN-609, and SSN-713), a U.S. Army base, a national forest, a historical park, a university, and a prominent roadside statue outside of
Huntsville. Sam Houston was the son of Major Samuel Houston and Elizabeth Paxton. Houston's paternal ancestry is often traced to his great-
great grandfather Sir John Houston, who built a family estate in Scotland in the late seventeenth century. His second son, John Houston,
emigrated to Ulster, Ireland, during the Ulster plantation period. Under the system of primogeniture, he did not inherit the estate. After several
years in Ireland, John Houston immigrated in 1735 with his family to the North American colonies, where they first settled in Pennsylvania. As
it filled with Lutheran German immigrants, Houston decided to migrate south with other Scots-Irish, who settled in the backcountry of lands in
the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia.[9] A historic plaque in Townland tells the story of the Houston family. It is located in Ballyboley Forest Park
near the site of the original John Houston estate. It is dedicated to "One whose roots lay in these hills whose ancestor John Houston emigrated
from this area." The Shenandoah Valley attracted many Scots-Irish immigrants. Newcomers included the Lyle family of the Raloo area, who
helped found Timber Ridge Presbyterian Church. The Houston family settled nearby. Gradually, Houston developed his land and purchased
slaves. Their son, Robert, inherited his father's land. The youngest of Robert's five sons was Samuel Houston. Samuel Houston became a
member of Morgan's Rifle Brigade and was commissioned a major during the American Revolutionary War. At the time, militia officers were
expected to pay their own expenses. He had married Elizabeth Paxton and inherited his father's land, but he was not a good manager and got
into debt, in part because of his militia service. Their children were born on his family's plantation near Timber Ridge Church, including Sam
Houston on March 2, 1793, the fifth of nine children and the fifth son born. The senior Samuel and Elizabeth's children were Paxton 1783,
Robert 1787, James 1788, John Paxton 1790 (first clerk of Izard County, Arkansas 1819–1838), Samuel 1793, William 1794, Isabella 1796, Mary
Blair 1797, and Elizabeth Ann 1800. Today Timber Ridge Plantation has a log building which tradition claims was constructed from logs
salvaged from the Sam Houston birthplace cabin. Planning to move on and leave debts behind, the elder Samuel Houston patented land near
relatives in Maryville, the county seat of Blount County, Tennessee. He died in 1807, before he could complete the move which Elizabeth, his
five sons and three daughters undertook without him. Elizabeth took them to the eastern part of the new state, which had been admitted to the
union in 1796.Having received only a basic education on the Virginia frontier, young Sam was 14 when his family moved to Maryville. In 1809,
at age 16, Houston ran away from home, because he was dissatisfied working as a shop clerk in his older brothers' store. He went southwest,
where he lived for a few years with the Cherokee tribe led by Ahuludegi (also spelled Oolooteka) on Hiwassee Island, on the Hiwassee River
above its confluence with the Tennessee. Ahuludegi had become hereditary chief after his brother moved west; the English Americans called
him John Jolly. He became an adoptive father to Houston, giving him the Cherokee name of Colonneh, meaning "the Raven". Houston learned
fluent Cherokee while living with the tribe. He visited his family in Maryville every several months. He returned to Maryville in 1812, and at
age 19, Houston was hired for a term as schoolmaster of a one-room schoolhouse in Blount County between his town and Knoxville. Though
preceded by others in the region, the school was the first built in Tennessee since entering the Union as the 16th state. In 1813 Houston reported
for training at Camp Blount near present-day Fayetteville, Tennessee and enlisted to fight the British in the War of 1812. By December of that
year, he had been transferred to the 39th Infantry Regiment and had risen from private to third lieutenant. At the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in
March 1814, he was wounded in the groin by a Creek arrow. His wound was bandaged, and he rejoined the fight. When Andrew Jackson called
on volunteers to dislodge a group of Red Sticks from their breastwork, Houston volunteered, but during the assault he was struck by bullets in
the shoulder and arm. He returned to Maryville as a disabled veteran, but later took the army's offer of free surgery and convalesced in a New
Orleans hospital. Houston became close to Jackson, who was impressed with him and acted as a mentor. In 1817 Jackson appointed him sub-
agent in managing the business relating to Jackson's removal of the Cherokees from East Tennessee to a reservation in what is now Arkansas.
He had differences with John C. Calhoun, then Secretary of War, who chided him for appearing dressed as a Cherokee at a meeting. More
significantly, an inquiry was begun into charges related to Houston's administration of supplies for the Native Americans. Offended, he resigned
in 1818. Following six months of study at the office of Judge James Trimble, Houston passed the bar examination in Nashville, after which he
opened a legal practice in Lebanon, Tennessee. In 1818 Houston was appointed as the local prosecutor in Nashville, and was also given a
command in the state militia. In 1822 Houston was elected to the US House of Representatives for Tennessee, where he was a staunch supporter
of fellow Tennessean and Democrat Andrew Jackson. He was widely considered to be Jackson's political protégé, although their ideas about
appropriate treatment of Native Americans differed greatly. Houston was a Congressman from 1823 to 1827, re-elected in 1824. In 1827 he
declined to run for re-election to Congress. He ran for, and won, the office of governor of Tennessee in 1827, defeating Congressman Newton
Cannon and former governor Willie Blount. He planned to run for re-election in 1829, but was soon beset by rumors of alcoholism and
infidelity. He resigned from office after his wife, Eliza Allen, left him shortly after their wedding and made public statements embarrassing to

him. In 1830 and 1833 Houston visited Washington, D.C., to expose the frauds which government agents committed against the Cherokee.
While he was in Washington in April 1832, anti-Jacksonian Congressman William Stanbery of Ohio made accusations about Houston in a
speech on the floor of Congress. Attacking Jackson through his protégé, Stanbery accused Houston of being in league with John Van Fossen and
Congressman Robert S. Rose. The three men had bid on supplying rations to the various tribes of Native Americans who were being forcibly
relocated west of the Mississippi as a result of Jackson's Indian Removal Act of 1830. After Stanbery refused to answer Houston's letters about
the accusation, Houston confronted him on Pennsylvania Avenue and beat him with a hickory cane, causing serious bodily injury. In defense
Stanbery drew one of his pistols and pulled the trigger the gun misfired. On April 17 Congress ordered Houston's arrest. During his trial at the
District of Columbia City Hall, he pleaded self-defense and hired Francis Scott Key as his lawyer. Congressman Philip Doddridge provided an
eloquent argument that intimidating members of congress with physical force amounted to anarchy in refutation of federalism. Houston was
found guilty. Thanks to highly placed friends (among them James K. Polk), he was only lightly reprimanded. Stanbery filed charges against
Houston in civil court. Judge William Cranch found Houston liable and assessed him $500 in damages. Houston left the United States for
Mexico without paying the judgement. Houston's political reputation suffered further due to the publicity related to the trial for his assault of
Stanbery. He asked his second wife, Tiana Rodgers, a Cherokee, to go with him to Mexican Texas. She chose to stay at their cabin and trading
post in present-day Kansas. She later married a man named John McGrady, and died of pneumonia in 1838. Houston married again after his
divorce from Eliza Allen in 1837 and Tiana's death. Houston left for Texas in December 1832 and was immediately swept up in the politics of
what was still a territory of the Mexican state of Coahuila. Attending the Convention of 1833 as representative for Nacogdoches, Houston
emerged as a supporter of William Harris Wharton and his brother, who promoted independence from Mexico. This was the more radical
position of the American settlers and Tejanos in Texas. He also attended the Consultation of 1835. The Texas Army commissioned him as Major
General in November 1835. He negotiated a peace settlement with the Cherokee of East Texas in February 1836 to allay their fears about
independence. At the convention to declare Texan Independence in March 1836, Houston was selected as Commander-in-Chief. On March 2,
1836, his 43rd birthday, Houston signed the Texas Declaration of Independence. Mexican soldiers killed all those at the Alamo Mission at the
end of the siege on March 6. On March 11, Houston joined what constituted his army at Gonzales: 374 poorly equipped, trained, or supplied
recruits. Word of the defeat at the Alamo reached Houston and, while he waited for confirmation, he organized the recruits as the 1st Regiment
Volunteer Army of Texas. On March 13, short on rations, Houston retreated before the superior forces of Mexican General Antonio López de
Santa Anna. Heavy rain fell nearly every day, causing severe morale problems among the exposed troops struggling in mud. After four days'
march, near present-day La Grange, Houston received additional troops and continued east two days later with 600 men. At Goliad, Santa Anna
ordered the execution of approximately 400 volunteer Texas militia led by James Fannin, who had surrendered his forces on March 20. Near
present-day Columbus on March 26, Houston's forces were joined by 130 more men, and the next day learned of the Fannin disaster. Houston
continued his retreat eastward toward the Gulf coast, drawing criticism for his perceived lack of willingness to fight. On March 29, camped
along the Brazos River, two companies refused to retreat further. Houston decided to use the opportunity for rudimentary training and
discipline of his force. On April 2 he organized the 2nd Regiment, received a battalion of regulars, and on April 11 ordered all troops along the
Brazos to join the main army, approximately 1,500 men in all. He began crossing the Brazos on April 12. Finally, Santa Anna caught up with
Houston's army, but had split his own army into three separate forces in an attempt to encircle the Texans. At the Battle of San Jacinto on April
21, 1836, Houston surprised Santa Anna and the Mexican forces during their afternoon "siesta." The Texans won a decisive victory in under 18
minutes, suffering few casualties. Houston's ankle was shattered by a stray bullet. Badly beaten, Santa Anna was forced to sign the Treaty of
Velasco, granting Texas its independence. Although Houston stayed on briefly for negotiations, he returned to the United States for treatment
of his ankle wound. Houston was twice elected President of the Republic of Texas. In the 1836 election, he defeated Stephen F. Austin and Henry
Smith with a landslide of over 79% of the vote. Houston served from October 22, 1836, to December 10, 1838, and again from December 12,
1841, to December 9, 1844. While he initially sought annexation by the U.S., Houston dropped that goal during his first term. In his second
term, he strove for fiscal prudence and worked to make peace with the various tribes of Native Americans in the Republic. He also struggled to
avoid war with Mexico, whose forces invaded twice during 1842. In response to the Regulator–Moderator War of 1844, he sent in Republic
militia to put down the feud. Houston still believed that the U.S annexation of Texas was not a realistic goal and the U.S. Senate would never
pass it because of the delicate situation between the recently independent Texas and Mexico. However, Houston was a politician and as such he
sought to preserve his career by endorsing the support of annexation into the U.S. Without his endorsement, the Texas congress would have put
the question to public election and upon its likely passing would have effectively destroyed Houston's career as a Texas politician. To help save
his political reputation, Houston sent James Pinckney Henderson to Washington to help Van Zandt advocate the annexation of Texas. The
European-American settlement of Houston was founded in August 1836 by brothers J.K. Allen and A.C. Allen. It was named in Houston's honor
and served as capital. Gail Borden helped lay out Houston's streets. In 1837, during Houston's first term as President of the Republic of Texas, he
joined the masonic Holland Lodge No. 36. It was founded in Brazoria and was relocated in 1837 to what is now Houston. On December 20, 1837,
Houston presided over the convention of Freemasons that formed the Grand Lodge of the Republic of Texas, now the Grand Lodge of Texas.
The city of Houston served as the capital of the republic until President Mirabeau Lamar signed a measure that moved the capital to Austin on
January 14, 1839. Between his presidential terms (the constitution did not allow a president to serve consecutive terms), Houston was elected as
a representative from San Augustine in the Texas House of Representatives. He was a major critic of President Mirabeau Lamar, who advocated
continuing independence of Texas, annihilation of American Indians, and the extension of Texas's boundaries to the Pacific Ocean. After the
annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845, Houston was elected to the U.S. Senate by the Texas state legislature, along with Thomas
Jefferson Rusk. Houston served from February 21, 1846, until March 4, 1859. He was a Senator during the Mexican–American War, when the
U.S. defeated Mexico and acquired vast expanses of new territory in the Southwest as part of the concluding treaty. Throughout his term in the
Senate, Houston spoke out against the growing sectionalism of the country. He blamed the extremists of both the North and South, saying:
"Whatever is calculated to weaken or impair the strength of [the] Union,—whether originating at the North or the South, whether arising from
the incendiary violence of abolitionists, or from the coalition of nullifiers, will never meet with my unqualified approval." Houston supported
the Oregon Bill of 1848, which was opposed by many Southerners. In his passionate speech in support of the Compromise of 1850, echoing
Matthew 12:25, Houston said "A nation divided against itself cannot stand." Eight years later, Abraham Lincoln would express the same
sentiment. Houston opposed the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854, and correctly predicted that it would cause a sectional rift in the country that
would eventually lead to war, saying: " ... what fields of blood, what scenes of horror, what mighty cities in smoke and ruins it is brother
murdering brother ... I see my beloved South go down in the unequal contest, in a sea of blood and smoking ruin." He was one of only two
Southern senators (the other was John Bell of Tennessee) to vote against the act. At the time, he was considered a potential candidate for
President of the United States. But, his strong Unionism and opposition to the extension of slavery alienated the Texas legislature and other
southern states. Houston was a presidential candidate at the 1860 Constitutional Union Convention, but Houston finished second on the
convention ballot to John Bell. As a former President of Texas, he was the last foreign head of state to serve in the U.S. Congress. Houston ran
twice for governor of Texas as a Unionist, unsuccessfully in 1857, and successfully against Hardin R. Runnels in 1859. Upon election, he became
the only person elected to serve as governor of two U.S. states, Texas and Tennessee, by popular vote. (Whereas Thomas McKean and John
Dickinson had each served as chief executives of Delaware and then of Pennsylvania in the late 18th century, and other state governors had also

served as governors of American territories, each of them achieved at least one of his positions by indirect election or appointment.) Although
Houston was a slave owner and opposed abolition, he opposed the secession of Texas from the Union. An elected convention voted to secede
from the United States on February 1, 1861, and Texas joined the Confederate States of America on March 2, 1861. Houston refused to recognize
its legality, but the Texas legislature upheld the legitimacy of secession. The political forces that brought about Texas's secession were powerful
enough to replace the state's Unionist governor. Houston chose not to resist, stating, "I love Texas too well to bring civil strife and bloodshed
upon her. To avert this calamity, I shall make no endeavor to maintain my authority as Chief Executive of this State, except by the peaceful
exercise of my functions ... " He was evicted from his office on March 16, 1861, for refusing to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy, writing,
Fellow-Citizens, in the name of your rights and liberties, which I believe have been trampled upon, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the
nationality of Texas, which has been betrayed by the Convention, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the Constitution of Texas, I refuse to
take this oath. In the name of my own conscience and manhood, which this Convention would degrade by dragging me before it, to pander to
the malice of my enemies, I refuse to take this oath. I deny the power of this Convention to speak for Texas....I protest....against all the acts and
doings of this convention and I declare them null and void. The Texas secession convention replaced Houston with Lieutenant Governor
Edward Clark. To avoid more bloodshed in Texas, Houston turned down U.S. Col. Frederick W. Lander's offer from President Lincoln of 50,000
troops to prevent Texas's secession. He said, "Allow me to most respectfully decline any such assistance of the United States Government." After
leaving the Governor's mansion, Houston traveled to Galveston. Along the way, many people demanded an explanation for his refusal to
support the Confederacy. On April 19, 1861 from a hotel window he told a crowd: Let me tell you what is coming. After the sacrifice of countless
millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it. I tell you
that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive
people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and
perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South. On January 22, 1829, at the age of 35, Houston married
19-year-old Eliza Allen, the daughter of the well-connected planter Colonel John Allen (1776–1833) of Gallatin, Tennessee. He was a friend of
politician Andrew Jackson, soon to take office as President of the United States. Houston was then governor of Tennessee. Eliza left Houston
shortly after their marriage. She publicly said that he had sustained the "dreadful injury" of emasculation in the Creek War of 1814. Subsequent
to their separation and her statement, Houston resigned the governorship. Neither Houston nor Eliza ever discussed the reasons for their
separation; speculation and gossip credited their split to Eliza's being in love with another man. The aforementioned public statement and
Houston's resignation suggest other reasons. Houston seems to have cared for his wife's reputation and wrote to her father. Houston officially
divorced Eliza Allen Houston in 1837. (She remarried in 1840 to Dr. Elmore Douglass, becoming a stepmother to his ten children. She had four
children with him and died in 1861.) In April 1829, in part due to the scandal of his well-known separation, Houston resigned as governor of
Tennessee. He went west with the Cherokee in Indian removal to exile in Arkansas Territory. That year he was adopted by Chief John Jolly and
thus made a member of the Cherokee. Houston married Tiana Rogers (died 1838), daughter of Chief John "Hellfire" Rogers (1740–1833), a
Scots-Irish trader, and Jennie Due (1764–1806), a sister of Chief John Jolly, in a ceremony according to Cherokee customs. Tiana was in her mid-
30s, of mixed-race, and the widow of David Gentry, Jr. She had two children from her previous marriage: Gabriel, born 1819, and Joanna, born
1822. She and Houston lived together for several years. Under civil law, he was still legally married to Eliza Allen Houston. After declining to
accompany Houston to Texas in 1832, Tiana later married John McGrady. In 1838 she died of pneumonia and is buried at Fort Gibson National
Cemetery with a grave maker reading "Talahina R. wife of Gen. Sam Houston". In 1833, Houston was baptized into the Catholic faith in order to
qualify under the existing Mexican law for property ownership in Coahuila y Tejas. The sacrament was held in the living room of the Adolphus
Sterne House in Nacogdoches. On May 9, 1840, Houston, aged 47, married for a third time. His bride was 21-year-old Margaret Moffette Lea of
Marion, Alabama, the daughter of planters. They had eight children born between Houston's 51st and 68th years. Margaret acted as a tempering
influence on her much older husband and convinced him to stop drinking. Although the Houstons had numerous houses, they kept only one
continuously: Cedar Point (1840–1863) on Trinity Bay. By 1854, Margaret had spent 14 years trying to convert Houston to the Baptist church.
With the assistance of George Washington Baines, she convinced Houston to convert; he agreed to adult baptism. Spectators from neighboring
communities came to Independence, Texas to witness the event. On November 19, 1854, Houston was baptized by Rev. Rufus C. Burleson by
immersion in Little Rocky Creek, two miles southeast of Independence. The baptismal site is near a roadside historical marker by the Texas
Historical Commission located on Farm to Market Road 50 at Sam Houston Road. Sam Houston Rd. continues to Little Rocky Creek between
Independence and the nearby settlement of Sandy Hill. In 1862, Houston returned to Huntsville, Texas, and rented the Steamboat House; the
hills in Huntsville reminded him of his boyhood home in Tennessee. Houston was active in the Masonic Lodge, transferring his membership to
Forrest Lodge #19. His health deteriorated in 1863 due to a persistent cough. In mid-July, Houston developed pneumonia. He died on July 26,
1863 at Steamboat House, with his wife Margaret by his side. The inscription on his tomb reads:
A Brave Soldier. A Fearless Statesman.
A Great Orator—A Pure Patriot.
A Faithful Friend, A Loyal Citizen.
A Devoted Husband and Father.
A Consistent Christian—An Honest Man.
Sam Houston was buried in Huntsville, where he had lived in retirement. After her death, Margaret was buried in Independence at her family's
cemetery. The U.S. city of Houston in Southeast Texas was named in his honor. Huntsville, Texas, is the home of the Sam Houston Memorial
Museum and A Tribute to Courage (a 67 ft (20 m) statue), Sam Houston State University, and Houston's gravesite. A bronze equestrian
sculpture of Houston is located in Hermann Park in Houston. The Sam Houston Wayside near Lexington, Virginia, is a 38,000-pound piece of
Texas pink granite commemorating Houston's birthplace. The Sam Houston Schoolhouse in Maryville, Tennessee, is Tennessee's oldest
schoolhouse. A museum is on the grounds. USS Sam Houston, an Ethan Allen-class submarine, was named after him. The Sam Houston
National Forest, one of four national forests in Texas, was named after him. The Sam Houston Regional Library and Research Center, located
outside of Liberty, Texas has the largest known collection of photographs and illustrations of Houston. Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, is
named after him. Many cities in the U.S. have a street, school, or park named after Houston; however, New York City's Houston Street was
named for William Houstoun, and is pronounced HOW-stin. Similarly pronounced Houston County, Alabama is named for Governor George S.
Houston. The State of Texas has placed a statue of Houston inside Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol. The Sam Houston Coliseum (now
demolished) in Houston was named for him. A mural on a gas tank depicts Houston; it is located near State Hwy 225 in Houston. Sam Houston
High School, in Moss Bluff, Louisiana and Arlington, Texas Sam Houston Middle School, in the cities of Irving and Garland, Texas Sam
Houston Elementary School in Lebanon and Maryville, Tennessee; Eagle Pass, Huntsville, Conroe, Weatherford, and Bryan, Texas, and
Houston, Texas. A bust of Houston is located inside the Virginia State Capitol Building in Richmond, Virginia. Bust by Elisabet Ney created for
the Chicago World's Fair in 1893. The eponymous cities in Texas, Mississippi, and Minnesota are named after Houston. A road encircling the
city of Houston is named the Sam Houston Tollway. The actor Stephen Chase (1902–82) played Houston in the 1962 episode "Davy's Friends" of

the syndicated western television series Death Valley Days, narrated by Stanley Andrews. Tommy Rettig was cast as Joel Walter Robison, a
fighter for Texas independence. In the story line, Robison, called a "friend" of Davy Crockett, is sent on a diversion but quickly shows his military
ability and is made a first lieutenant by Sam Houston. Russell Johnson was cast as Sergeant Tate in this segment. Counties in Minnesota,
Tennessee, and Texas are named for Houston. The county seat of Texas County, Missouri is named for him. Houston's surname namesake was
the first word said from the surface of the moon: "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed."
Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar (August 16, 1798 – December 19, 1859) was a Texas politician, poet, diplomat and
soldier who was a leading Texas political figure during the Texas Republic era. He was the second President of the
Republic of Texas from December 10, 1838 until December 13, 1841. He was also 1st Vice-President of the Republic of
Texas from October 22, 1836 until December 10, 1838, 4th United States Ambassador to Nicaragua from February 8, 1858
until May 20, 1859 and 2nd United States Ambassador to Costa Rica from September 14, 1858 until May 20, 1859. Lamar
grew up at Fairfield, his father's plantation near Milledgeville, Georgia. As a child, he loved to read and educated himself
through books. Although he was accepted to Princeton University, Lamar chose not to attend. He started work as a
merchant and then ran a newspaper, but both of those enterprises failed. In 1823, Lamar's family connections helped him
to gain a position as the private secretary to Georgia Governor George M. Troup. In this position, Lamar issued press
releases and toured the state giving speeches on behalf of the governor. On one of his trips, he met Tabitha Burwell Jordan, whom he married in
1826. When Troup lost his reelection bid in 1828, Lamar established a newspaper in Columbus, Georgia, the Columbus Enquirer. This venture
was much more successful than his previous business attempts. In 1830 his wife Tabitha died of tuberculosis. Lamar was deeply affected and
took time to recover his drive. He withdrew his name from consideration for re-election to the Georgia Senate, in which he had served one term.
Lamar began to study law. He was admitted to the bar in 1833 and ran an unsuccessful campaign for a seat in the U.S. Congress. Lamar's
brother Lucius committed suicide in 1834. A grief-stricken Lamar began traveling to escape his memories. In the summer of 1835, he reached
Texas, then part of Mexico. He decided to stay, where he was visiting his friend James Fannin. He had recently settled there and was working as
a slave trader in Velasco. After a trip back to Georgia to sell property, Lamar returned to Texas. Learning of a battle for independence, he
traveled with his horse and sword to join Sam Houston's army in spring 1836, and distinguished himself with bravery at the Battle of San
Jacinto. On the eve of the battle, Lamar courageously rescued two surrounded Texans, an act that drew a salute from the Mexican lines. One of
those rescued was Thomas Jefferson Rusk, later appointed as Texas Secretary of War. Lamar was promoted that night from private to Colonel
and given command of the cavalry during the battle the following day. Houston noted in his battle report: "Our cavalry, sixty-one in number,
commanded by Mirabeau B. Lamar, (whose gallant and daring conduct on the previous day, had attracted the admiration of his comrades and
called him to that station,) placed on our right, completed our line..." Lamar was appointed as the Secretary of War in the interim Texian
government. In 1836, he was elected as vice-president of the Republic of Texas under Houston. Lamar, the unanimous choice as nominee of the
Democratic Party for president to succeed Houston, was elected, and inaugurated on December 1, 1838. Houston talked for three hours in his
farewell address, "which so unnerved Lamar that he was unable to read his inaugural speech." It was given by his aide, Algernon P. Thompson.
Several weeks later, in his first formal address to the Texas Congress, Lamar urged that the Cherokee and Comanche tribes be driven from their
lands in Texas, even if the tribes had to be destroyed. He proposed to create a national bank and to secure a loan from either the United States or
Europe. Finally, he stated his opposition to potential annexation to the United States and wanted to gain recognition of the Republic of Texas by
European nations. He ordered attacks against the Indian tribes. In 1839 Texan troops drove the Cherokee tribes from the state. Houston's friend,
Chief Bowles, was killed in battle, leaving Houston angry at Lamar. The government conducted a similar campaign against the Comanche.
Although losing many lives, the Comanche resisted leaving the area.[6] Lamar believed the “total extinction" of the Indian tribes was necessary
to make the lands available to whites. Lamar appointed a commission to select a permanent site for the capital of the Republic. After two
months of debate, they recommended the small town of Waterloo, along the Colorado River toward the center of the state. The town was
renamed Austin after the pioneer, and by October 1839, all of the records and employees were relocated there from Houston. That same year,
Lamar founded the Texas State Library (presently known as the Texas State Library and Archives Commission). During his administration,
Lamar sent three separate agents to Mexico to negotiate a peace settlement. All failed. Lamar succeeded in gaining official recognition for the
Republic from Great Britain, France, and Belgium. He did not succeed in getting loans approved from them. To fill the treasury, he authorized
issuance of a large amount of Republic of Texas paper money, known as Redbacks. The paper money was virtually worthless. Spending doubled
during Lamar's term and, combined with the worthless currency, caused financial difficulties for the government. Lamar believed that the Rio
Grande was the western boundary of Texas. He wanted to send an expedition to New Mexico to establish trade, and convince the residents, still
under Mexican rule, to join the Republic. The Texas Congress refused to fund the expedition in 1839 and 1840. In June 1841, Lamar took
$89,000 from the treasury and sent an expedition on his own initiative, a move of dubious, at best, constitutionality. Its members were arrested
when they reached Santa Fe, and told they would soon be released. Instead, under guard, they were marched to prison in Mexico City, and many
died during the journey. Lamar was known for his quote: “The cultivated mind is the guardian genius of democracy and, while guided and
controlled by virtue, the noblest attribute of man. It is the only dictator that freemen acknowledge and the only security that freemen desire.”
Lamar has been called "the Father of Texas Education" because of his provisions of land to support it. During his administration, he convinced
the legislature to set aside three leagues of land in each county to be devoted to school development. He also allotted 50 leagues of land for the
support of two universities, later developed as Texas A&M University (1876), under the Morrill Act, and the University of Texas (1883).
Although no facilities were constructed during his term, he provided the base for a statewide public school system. As Texas was a slave-holding
society, even the few free blacks did not have access to public education. A public school system was not firmly established until after the
American Civil War, when the Reconstruction era legislature created an endowment to finance a school system. In 1869, it passed a law to give
the public school fund the proceeds from sale of public lands. The constitution of that year authorized the legislature to establish school districts
and appoint directors. Freedmen's children were included in the system, despite much opposition. Houston was elected again as president after
Lamar. The latter returned to service in the army, and distinguished himself in the U.S. Army at the Battle of Monterrey during the Mexican-
American War. During this period of time, money was tight in Texas; Lamar borrowed money from his banker cousin Gazaway Bugg Lamar.
Some of the letters on this subject between the two are amusing. In late 1847, he was assigned as a post commander at Laredo, but disliked the
job as he wanted more action. Lamar was elected from Eagle Pass in the Texas Legislature for several years after Texas was annexed to the
United States in 1848. In 1857, President James Buchanan appointed Lamar as the Minister to Nicaragua, and a few months later to Costa Rica.
He served in Managua for twenty months before returning to Texas in October 1859 because of poor health. He died of a heart attack at his
Richmond plantation on December 19, 1859. Lamar's volume of collected poems, Verse Memorials, was published in 1857. Lamar County, in
northeast Texas, and Lamar, a small unincorporated community in Aransas County on the Texas Gulf Coast, are named for him. Lamar
Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in Austin, and Lamar Blvd., a major street in Downtown Houston, also carry his name, as do other streets in
many older communities across Texas. Mirabeau B. Lamar is the namesake of Lamar, Missouri. Lamar University in Beaumont was named for
him in 1932. It is the largest educational facility to be named for the former Texas President, and has an enrollment of over 14,000 students. The

campus features a commemorative bust of Lamar. The defunct Lamar University System named all of its member institutions after him; these
included Lamar State College - Port Arthur in Port Arthur, Lamar State College in Orange, and Lamar Institute of Technology in Beaumont.
High schools are named for Lamar in Houston, Arlington, and Rosenberg. Middle schools are named for Lamar in Austin, Dallas, Irving, and
Flower Mound. Elementary schools are named for Lamar in Amarillo, Corpus Christi, El Paso, San Antonio, and The Woodlands; as are
numerous other K-12 schools throughout the state. A fictional Lamar Military Academy is featured in Preston Jones' play The Oldest Living
Graduate, which is part of his A Texas Trilogy.
Anson Jones (January 20, 1798 – January 9, 1858) was a doctor, businessman, congressman, and the fourth and last
President of the Republic of Texas, from December 9, 1944 util February 16, 1946, sometimes called the "Architect of
Annexation". Jones was born on January 20, 1798, in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. There is no information between his
birth and 1820. In 1820, Jones was licensed as a doctor by the Oneida, New York, Medical Society, and began medical
practice in 1822. However, his practice did not prosper, and he moved several more times before finally being arrested in
Philadelphia by a creditor. He stayed in Philadelphia for a few more years, teaching and practicing medicine, until in 1824
he decided to go to Venezuela. Later, Jones returned to Philadelphia, earned an M.D., and reopened his practice. He never
had much success as a doctor, and in 1832 he renounced medicine and headed for New Orleans, where he entered the
mercantile trade. Once again, though, Jones's dreams were thwarted. Though he safely weathered two plagues, his
business efforts never met with any success and within a year he had no money. He was a member and Past Master of the Masonic Harmony
Lodge #52 of Philadelphia. He was a Past Grand of Independent Order of Odd Fellows Washington Lodge no.2 and Philadelphia Lodge no.13 in
Pennsylvania and a Past Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania. In 1833, Jones headed west to Texas, settling eventually in Brazoria.
Here, at last, he met with success, establishing a medical practice that prospered quickly. In 1835, he began to speak out about the growing
tensions between Texas and Mexico, and that year he attended the Consultation, a meeting held at Columbia, by Texas patriots to discuss the
fight with Mexico (the meeting's leadership did not want to call the meeting a "convention", for fear the Mexican government would view it as
an independence forum). Jones himself presented a resolution at the Consultation calling for a convention to be held to declare independence,
but he himself refused to be nominated to the convention. During the Texas Revolution, Jones served as a judge advocate and surgeon to the
Texas Army, though he insisted on holding the rank of private throughout the conflict. After the war, Jones returned to Brazoria and resumed
his medical practice. Upon his return to Brazoria, Jones found that James Collinsworth, a fellow Texas patriot and signer of the Texas
Declaration of Independence from Brazoria, had set up a law practice in Jones's office. Jones evicted Collinsworth and challenged him to a duel
(though the duel never occurred). On March 1, 1835, Jones met with four other Masons at Brazoria and petitioned the Grand Master of
Louisiana for a dispensation and a charter to form the first Masonic lodge in Texas. In December, when the lodge was set to labor, Jones was
elected its first Master. The charter for Holland Lodge No. 36 arrived in April 1836, and Jones carried it in his saddlebags during the Battle of
San Jacinto. At the formation of the Grand Lodge of the Republic of Texas in December 1837, he was elected its first Grand Master. He also
became the first Grand Master of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows in Texas. On May 17, 1840, he married Mary Smith Jones. Together,
they had four children. Jones and Collinsworth would spar again. Collinsworth was instrumental in starting the Texas Railroad, Navigation, and
Banking Company, to which Jones was vehemently opposed. Jones was elected to the Second Texas Congress as an opponent of the Company;
however, his most significant act in Congress was to call for the withdrawal of the Texas proposal for annexation by the United States. He also
helped draw up legislation to regulate medical practice, and called for the establishment of an endowment for a university. Jones expected to
return to his practice at Brazoria after his term in Congress, but Texas President Sam Houston instead appointed him Minister to the United
States, where Jones was to formally withdraw the annexation proposal. During this time, while many Texans hoped to encourage eventual
annexation by the United States, some supported waiting for annexation or even remaining independent. The United States, in the late 1830s,
was hesitant to annex Texas for fear of provoking a war with Mexico. Jones and others felt it was important that Texas gain recognition from
European states and begin to set up trade relations with them, to make annexation of Texas more attractive to the United States or, failing that,
to give Texas the strength to remain independent. Jones was recalled to Texas by new president Mirabeau Lamar in 1839. Back at home, he
found himself elected to a partial term in the Senate, where he quickly became a critic of Lamar's administration. He retired from the Senate in
1841, declining the opportunity to serve as Vice President in favor of returning to his medical practice. Late in 1841, though, he was named
Texas Secretary of State by president Houston, who had been recently been elected president again by opponents of Lamar. Jones served as
Secretary of State until 1844. During his term, the main goal of Texas foreign policy was to get either an offer of annexation from the United
States, or a recognition of Texas independence from Mexico, or, preferably, both at the same time. Anson Jones served as the fourth and last
President of Texas from 1844 until the Republic was abolished in 1846. Jones hoped that the new Texas state legislature would send him to the
United States Senate. He was not chosen, and as time went on he became increasingly bitter about this slight. Although Jones prospered as a
planter and eventually amassed an enormous estate, he was never able to get past the fact that Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk were
chosen over him to represent Texas in Washington, D.C. After the suicide of Thomas Jefferson Rusk in 1857, Jones became convinced that the
legislature would finally send him to the Senate, but he received no votes. For four days he had lodged at Houston's old Capitol Hotel, the
former seat of government of the Republic of Texas, when he fatally shot himself in his room after dinner on January 9, 1858. He was 59 years
old. Jones was buried at Glenwood Cemetery in Houston. Jones County, and its county seat, Anson, were both named for Anson Jones. Anson
Jones Elementary School in Bryan, Texas, is named for him along with Anson Jones Middle School In San Antonio, Texas. His plantation home,
known as Barrington, is preserved at Washington-on-the-Brazos State Historic Park.
Republic of Yucatán
The Republic of Yucatán (Spanish: República de Yucatán) was a sovereign state during two periods of the nineteenth century. The first Republic
of Yucatán, founded May 29, 1823, willingly joined the Mexican federation as the Federated Republic of Yucatán on December 23, 1823, less
than seven months later. The second Republic of Yucatán began in 1841, with its declaration of independence from the Mexican Federation. It
remained independent for seven years, after which it rejoined the Mexican Federation. The area of the former republic includes the modern
Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo. The Republic of Yucatán usually refers to the Second Republic (1841–1848). The
Republic of Yucatán was governed by the Constitution of 1841, one of the most advanced of its time. It guaranteed individual rights, religious
freedom and what was then a new legal form called amparo (English: protection). The 1847 Caste War caused the Republic of Yucatán to
request military aid from Mexico. This was given on the condition that the Republic rejoin the Mexican Federation.

List of Governors of the Republic of Yucatán
Santiago Méndez Ibarra (1798, Campeche, Campeche - 1872) was the Governor of the Republic of Yucatán from
August 22, 1840 until December 11, 1841, from November 14, 1843 until May 15, 1844 and October 3, 1947 until March 26,
1848 alternating that office with Miguel Barbachano mainly during his first and second terms. He was also Governor of
Yucatán from 1855 until 1857. He was a moderate who advocated a strict conservative financial policy for the government.
He was noted for his honesty, and gained no personal fortune from his years in governmental power. Santiago Méndez was
more in favor of union with Mexico than Barbachano, but twice presided over Yucatán declaring its independence, due to
frustration with Mexican dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santiago Méndez was father of Concepción Méndez
Echazarreta and grandfather of Justo Sierra Méndez. Justo Sierra O'Reilly, his son-in-law collaborated with him in policy.
Miguel Barbachano y Tarrazo (September 29, 1807-December 17, 1859) was a liberal Yucatecan politician, who was
Governor of the Republic of Yucatán from June 11, 1840 until October 13, 1841, from August 18, 1842 until November 14,
1843, from May 15 until June 2, 1845, from January 1, 1846 until January 27, 1847. He was also Governor of Yucatán from
from March 26, 1848 until February 13, 1853. Miguel Barbachano y Tarrazo was born in the city of Campeche, a son of
Manuel Barbachano and his wife, the former Maria Josefa Tarrazo. He was one of the staunchest advocates for the
independence of Yucatán from Mexico, but historical circumstances led to Yucatán twice declaring its independence while
Barbachano was out of power, and twice Barbachano arranged for Yucatán's reunification with Mexico. He generally
alternated in power with the centrist Santiago Méndez, who was more in favor of union with Mexico but was driven to
declare independence by the excesses of Mexican dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. The final reunification was due to the crisis of the
Caste War of Yucatán.
José Tiburcio López Constante (1790, Mérida, Yucatán - September 5, 1858, New Orleans, Louisiana) was the Governor of the Republic
of Yucatán from June 2, 1844 until January 2, 1846. He was also Governor of Yucatán from April 25, 1825 until October 26, 1826, from January
28, 1827 until November 10, 1829 and from September until November 1832. Yucatan's first constitution was promulgated in 1825. Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna was removed as military commander of the area and immediately resigned as governor of Yucatan. At that point, Lopez
Constant was appointed by the Congress as the new governor. He took office on April 25, 1825 and the following May 3 issued the call for the
first elections were to be held in Yucatan under the new constitution. After performing these on August 21 of that year, the legislature declared
Yucatan José Tiburcio Lopez constant as governor for the next four years and Peter de Souza as vice-governor. During this first period constant
Lopez lead the government knew relatively peaceful despite the concern that exists in the national context for the struggle between federalists
and centralists. Fostered productive activities in the state, particularly those relating to the henequen industry then began to develop. A decade
later, in 1844, Lopez was again constant Yucatan governor to be appointed by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, then president of Mexico, based on
the provisions of the Organic Bases, 1843 governing the centralist Mexico then. The designation is given, however, in the context of emergency
in which recognized the right to Yucatán to govern independently and free trade also occurring him, what had been a repeated approach the
Yucatan since joining the republic .
Domingo Barret (San Francisco de Campeche - San Francisco de Campeche) interim Governor of the Republic of Yucatán from January 21
unril October 3, 1947. He was interim governor of Yucatan in 1847 during the beginning of the so-called War of the Castes and the time when
turning Mexico war with the United States of America, Yucatan decided to remain neutral in the conflict. He belonged to the political group
Mendez Santiago Ibarra, who represented the interests against those of Campeche Merida (Yucatan) that were represented by the group of
Miguel Barbachano, during the conflict years prior to the decision of the state of Yucatan and Campeche separation just at the beginning of the
so-called Caste War, which was staged in the Yucatan Peninsula from 1847-1901. The political leader Santiago Méndez Ibarra, Gov. Domingo
Barret, and his hosts, exhausted their resources to resolve the situation and went to the extent of offering sovereignty to Yucatan couple get help
resolving the war situation worsened day by day. At the end of such a situation Campeche had no choice but to summon the internal drive,
Miguel Barbachano calling for him to return to Cuba, commissioning him to negotiate peace with the Indians. On October 3, 1847, Barrett
handed power to Mendez who later would give it to Miguel Barbachano turn to take charge of serious conflict had begun.
Republic of the Rio Grande
The Republic of the Rio Grande (Spanish: República del Río Grande) was an independent nation that insurgents against the Central Mexican
Government sought to establish in northern Mexico. The rebellion lasted from January 17 to November 6, 1840 and the Republic of the Rio
Grande was never officially recognized. After a decade of strife, Mexico won its independence from the Kingdom of Spain in 1821. After a failed
attempt at a monarchy, Mexico adopted a new constitution, the 1824 Constitution. This new constitution established los Estados Unidos
Mexicanos, or "the United Mexican States," as a federal republic, similar to the United States. In 1833, General Antonio López de Santa Anna was
elected to his first term as president and was, at the time of his election, in support of the federal republic. However, after some members of
government angered Santa Anna's political allies, Santa Anna decided to start a centralized government. Santa Anna suspended the constitution,
disbanded Congress and made himself the center of power in Mexico. This led to the eruption of a number of uprisings and secessionist
movements throughout the country, the most successful being the Texas Revolution. Less successful secession movements were attempted by
the Republic of Zacatecas and the Republic of Yucatán. At the same time there was filibuster activity in the country that sought to expand
slavery in Mexico. Many of the caudillos that initiated and participated in the rebellion also participated in later violent secessionist movements.
President of the Republic of the Rio Grande
Jesús de Cárdenas was the President of the Republic of the Rio Grande from January 17 until November 6, 1840 and Governor of
Tamaulipas from September 30, 1850 until November 19, 1852. After Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas declared independence in October
1838 and formally organized their provisional government on January 18, 1839 with Jesús de Cárdenas as President, the January 28, 1839
supporters of the rebellion placed the flag of this republic in the town square of Guerrero, Tamaulipas and every man went under the banner of
the proclaimed Republic of the Rio Grande to kiss the flag as a sign of loyalty. And after a campaign by the inner federalist entities Coahuila,

Nuevo León and Tamaulipas, their leaders agreed to hold a convention in Laredo, Texas on January 17, 1840, which declared independence
from Mexico and established provisionally the capital of the Republic of the Rio Grande in Laredo, Texas. The Republic of Rio Grande claimed
as its territory the areas of Tamaulipas and Coahuila to the north until the Nueces river and Medina respectively, and all the states of Zacatecas,
Durango, Chihuahua and Nuevo México, among those present were appointed official representatives of the Republic of the Rio Grande.
Currently in Laredo, Texas is a small museum about the "Republic of the Rio Grande" in the Plaza Zaragoza, one block away from the border
with Mexico. The museum is located approximately where the seat of government of the Republic was located, and includes the display of a
replica of the flag that flew there, it being assumed that the original flag was probably captured by the centralist Mexican Army, and perhaps it
is in the Museum Chapultepec. In Coahuila was attacked Antonio Zapata in prison "Agua Verde" and captured on March 15 near Santa Rita de
Morelos. Antonio Canales de Rosillo to learn came to his aid, being also defeated by General Mariano Arista, near Morelos. Zapata and some
Americans who fought at his side were taken near Monclova and shot. Antonio Canales de Rosillo with little remaining troops retreated to San
Antonio, Texas, while Jesus de Cardenas and the caretaker cabinet of the Republic of Rio Grande fled to Victoria, Texas. They traveled through
Texas for help, was in Austin, Houston and San Patricio, where he reorganized his army, composed at that time by 300 Mexicans, 140 Americans
and 80 Indians, although their number was increasing daily. The main leader of the Americans was Colonel Jordan, who on June 90 assigned
men to be in the vanguard of the army of Rio Grande. They moved down the inside of Tamaulipas, Ciudad Victoria without taking a single
battle, minions of Jordania treacherous driving to San Luis Potosi, but Colonel suspecting treachery, changed direction and marched towards
Saltillo. There, on October 25, 1840 were attacked by the troops of the centralist General Rafael Vásquez and although many of his men
deserted, managed to fight back and return to Texas. In November 1840 a commission of Antonio Canales de Rosillo met the General Mariano
Arista to surrender in Camargo and finally Antonio Canales de Rosillo was joined to the centralist army of Mexico as an officer and the rebel
states rejoined Mexico. The Republic of Rio Grande only lasted 283 days.
Kasanje Kingdom
The Kasanje (Kasanzi) Kingdom, also known as the Jaga Kingdom, (1620–1910) was a pre-colonial Central African state. It was formed in 1620
by a mercenary band of Imbangala, which had deserted the Portuguese ranks. The state gets its name from the leader of the band, Kasanje, who
settled his followers on the upper Kwango River. The Kasanje people were ruled by the Jaga, a king who was elected from among the three
clans who founded the kingdom. In 1680 the Portuguese traveller António de Oliveira de Cadornega estimated the kingdom had 300,000
people, of whom 100,000 were able to bear arms. However, it is noted that this claim may be exaggerated. The kingdom of Kasanje remained in
a constant state of conflict with its neighbours, especially the kingdom of Matamba then ruled by queen Nzinga Mbande. The Imbangala state
became a strong commercial center until being eclipsed by Ovimbundu trade routes in the 1850s. Kasanje was finally incorporated into
Portuguese Angola in 1910–1911.
List of Rulers (Yaka) of the Kasanje (Kasanzi) Kingdom
Kasanje was the founder of Kasanje (Kasanzi) Kingdom around 1620. The state gets its name from the leader of the band, Kasanje, who
settled his followers on the upper Kwango River.
Mbumba was a ruler (Yaka) of Kasanje (Kasanzi) Kingdom from ? until 1848 and from 1853 until ?.
Kandumba Kapenda kwa Mbangu was a ruler (Yaka) of Kasanje (Kasanzi) Kingdom from ? until 1911.
Kanhama
Kanhama Kingdom
Kanhama was a Kingdom in the present Angola founded around 1700.
List of Rulers of the Kanhama Kingdom
Simbilinga was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from ? until 1804.
Haimbili "o Bom" was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from 1804 until 1854.
Haikukutu was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from 1854 until ?.
Siefeni was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom in the second half 19th century.
Osipandika was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom in the second half 19th century.
Nampandi was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from ? until 1884.
Uedjulu was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from 1884 until 1904.

Nande was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from 1904 until 1911.
Nandume was a ruler of the Kanhama Kingdom from 1911 until 1917.
Ndongo
Kamini was a ruler of Ndongo Kingdom fom 1663 until 1683.
Ngoya Kingdom
Ngoya was a Kingdom in the present Angola.
List of Rulers (Mambouk) of the Ngoya Kingdom
Mafouk Kokelo was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom from ? until 1800.
Maitica was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Moe Gimbi I (N'Pandi Sili) was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Pucuta Poabo was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Mbatchi Nyongo (Bar' Chi-N'Congo) (died around 1830)was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom from ? until his death in 1830.
Moe Npongonga (Bar' Chi-Nbongo) (died 1830) was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom in 1830.
Moe Gimbi II was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom in 1830.
Loemba "king Jack" was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom from 1830 until around 1852.
Npuna was the regent of the Ngoya Kingdom from around 1852 until 1853.
Francisco Franque (1776-1875) was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom from 1853 until his death in 1875.
Bastian was regent of the Ngoya Kingdom from 1875 until 1882.
Domingos José Franque (1855-1941) was a ruler of the Ngoya Kingdom from 1882 until his death in 1841.
Cingolo Kingdom
Cingolo was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Cingolo Kingdom
Ekundi was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1800.
Ulundu was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1820.
Kalukongolo was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1840.
Kalueyo I was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1860.
Cimina was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1870.
Kalueyo II was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1880.
Cimbalandongolo was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1890.
Nandi was a ruler of the Cingolo Kingdom around 1900.

Ciyaka Kingdom
Ciyaka (also known as Quiyaca or Quiaca) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Ciyaka Kingdom
Atende II was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom around 1810.
Cikoko I was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom around 1820.
Kuvombo-inene was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Ndumbu III was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Handa II Kaciyombo was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom around 1835.
Njimbi Ukulundu was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1842 util 1850.
Canja I Cimbua Cahuku Luanjangombe III was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1850 until 1870.
Handa Njundo was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1870 until 1898.
Cilulu III was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1898 until 1904.
Handa III was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1904 until 1911.
Atende III was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1911 until 1915.
Cikoko II was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1915 until 1918.
Cilulu IV was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1920 until 1925.
Handa IV Kalumbombo was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1925 until 1928.
Sakulanda Luanjangombe IV was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1929 until 1939.
Cilulu V was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1939 until 1940.
Tomasi was a ruler of the Ciyaka Kingdom from 1940 until ?.
Gumba Kingdom
Gumba was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Gumba Kingdom
Ciweka was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from around 1903.
Mbati was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from ? until 1934.
Simbwyikoka was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from 1935 until 1938.
Kakope was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from 1938 until 1940.
Kafelo was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from 1940 until 1954.
Kutenga Lusase was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from 1954 until 1956.
Cilombo was a ruler of the Gumba Kingdom from 1956 until 1964.

Kalembe Kingdom
Kalembe was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Kalembe Kingdom
Njundu was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1810.
Cinguangua II was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1835.
Cikomo was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1850.
Ndumba was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1860.
Nyime was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1895.
Sakatilo was a ruler of the Kalembe Kingdom around 1900.
Kalukembe Kingdom
Kalukembe (also known as Caluquembe, Caluguembe, or Caluqueme) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Kalukembe Kingdom
Ndumbu Saciyambu was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1835.
Keita Hungulu was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1845.
Kamupula was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1850.
Ngandu Kapembe was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1860.
Pomba Kalukembe was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1880.
Muengo Njamba was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom around 1890.
Kavala Hungulu was a ruler of the Kalukembe Kingdom in the early 20th century.
Mbailundu Kingdom
Mbailundu (also known as Bailundi, Bailundo) was the largest and the most powerful of the traditional Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Mbailundu Kingdom
Katiavala I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom around 1700.
Njahulu I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom around 1720.
Somandulo was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the 18th century.
Cingi I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom around 1774 until around 1776.
Cingi II was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom around 1778.

Ekuikui I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom around 1780.
Numa I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the late 18th century.
Hundungulu I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the late 18th century.
Cisende I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the late 18th century.
Njunjulu was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the late 18th century.
Ngungi was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the early 19th century.
Civukuvuku was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom in the early 19th century.
Utondosi I was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1818 until 1832.
Bungi was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1833 until 1842.
Mbonge was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1842 until 1861.
Cisende II was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1861 until 1869.
Vasovãvã was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1869 until 1872.
Ekongo-liohombo was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1872 until 1876.
Ekuikui II (died 1893) was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1876 until 1890.
Numa II was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1890 until 1892.
Katiavala II was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1893 until 1895.
Moma was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1895 until 1896.
Kangovi was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1897 until 1898.
Hundungulu II was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1898 until 1900.
Kalandula was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1900 until 1902.
Mutu ya Kevela was the regent of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1903 until 1904.
Cisende III was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1904 until 1911.
Njahulu II Kandimba was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1911 until 1915.
Musita was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1935 until 1938.
Cinendele was a ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1938 until 1948.
Filipe Kapoko was a ceremonial ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1948 until 1970.
Félix Numa was a ceremonial ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1970 until 1982.
Congolola was a ceremonial ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1982 until 1985.
Ekuikui III (died 1996) was a ceremonial ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1985 until his death in 1996.

Utondosi II was a ceremonial ruler of the Mbailundu Kingdom from 1996 until 1999.
Augusto Cachitiopolo, known by the royal title of Ekuikui IV, (c. 1913 – January 14, 2012) was an Angolan royal and
politician, who served as the ceremonial King of Mbailundo in Huambo Province from 2002 until his death on January 14,
2012. Politically, Cachitiopolo served as a member of the National Assembly of Angola and a member of the MPLA's central
committee. King Ekuikui IV died from an illness on January 14, 2012, at the age of 98.
Ndulu Kingdom
Ndulu (also known as Andulo, Ondulu or Ondura) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Ndulu Kingdom
Cindele was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1800.
Mbundi was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1810.
Siakalembe was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1835.
Lusãse was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1850.
Elundu Civava was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom from 1870 until 1890.
Civange was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom from 1890 until ?.
Cipati was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1897.
Cisusulu was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1900.
Kasuanje was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom in the early 20th century.
Siakanjimba was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom in the early 20th century.
Ndingilinya was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom in the early 20th century.
Sihinga was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom in the early 20th century.
Congolola was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1910.
Cisokokua was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom around 1917.
Cihopio was a ruler of the Ndulu Kingdom from ? until 1935.
Sangombe Esita was a regent of the Ndulu Kingdom from 1935 until?.
Ngalangi Kingdom
Ngalangi (also known as Galangue) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Ngalangi Kingdom

Ndumba II Cihongo was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Kambuenge II was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1835.
Ndumba III Epope Kateyavilombo was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from 1844 untill 1860.
Etumbu Lutate was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from 1860 until ?.
Ndumbu I was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1886.
Ekumbi was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1890.
Cihongo II was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1895.
Ciyo was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1899.
Cipala was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1905.
Kangombe was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1916.
Ngangawe was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1920.
Cuvika was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom during 1920s.
Cikuetekole was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom around 1925.
Mbumba Kambuakatepa was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from ? until 1931.
Cingelesi was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from 1931 until 1933.
Ndumbu II was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from 1933 until 1935.
Congolola was a ruler of the Ngalangi Kingdom from ? until 1935.
Sambu Kingdom
Sambu (also known as Sambo or Sambos) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Sambu Kingdom
Handa was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the early 19th century.
Usinhalua II was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the early 19th century.
Kambangula was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom around 1820.
Congolola was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Lundungu was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Ekuikui was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the first half 19th century.
Mandi was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the second half 19th century.
Citangeleka Komundakeseke was a ruler of the Sambu Kingdom in the second half 19th century.
Viye Kingdom
Viye (also known as Bié or Bihe) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.

List of Rulers of the Viye Kingdom
Kawewe was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1795 until 1810.
Moma Vasovãvã was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1810 until 1833.
Mbandua was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1833 until 1839.
Kakembembe Hundungulu was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1839 until 1842.
Liambula was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1842 until 1847.
Kayangula was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1847 until 1850.
Mukinda was a regent of the Viye Kingdom from 1850 until 1857.
Nguvenge was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1857 until 1859.
Konya Cilemo was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1860 until 1883.
Ciponge Njambayamina was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1883 until 1886.
Ciyoka was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1886 until 1888.
Cikunyu Ndunduma was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1888 until 1890.
Kalufele was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1890 until 1895.
Kaninguluka was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1895 until 1901.
Ciyuka was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1901 until 1903 and from 1928 until 1940.
Kavova was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1903 until 1915.
Ngungu was a ruler of the Viye Kingdom from 1915 until 1928.
Wambu Kingdom
Wambu (also known as Andulo, Ondulu or Ondura) was one of the traditional independent Ovimbundu kingdoms in Angola.
List of Rulers of the Wambu Kingdom
Kahala I Kanene was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom around 1800.
Vilombo II Vinene Kaneketela II was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom around 1805.
Cingi II Cinene Livonge was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1813 until 1825.
Ngelo II Yale was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1825 until 1840.
Ciasungu Kiapungo was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom fom 1840 until April 1846.
Kapoko II was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1846 until 1860.
Atende II a Njamba was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1860 until 1870.
Vilombo III Kacingangu was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1870 until 1877.
Hungulu II Kapusukusu was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1877 until 1885.
Wambu II was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1885 until 1891.

Njamba Cimbungu was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1891 until 1894.
Livonge was a ruler of the Wambu Kingdom from 1894 until 1902.
Democratic and People's Republic of Angola
On November 11, Democratic and People's Republic of Angola (at Huambo) declared by FNLA and UNITA in opposition to MPLA backed
People's Republic of Angola. On February 11, 1976 Democratic and People's Republic of Angola suppressed by Angolan government when it
overruns FNLA positions in the north and UNITA strongholds in the south. In 1979 Democratic and People's Republic of Angola restored in
rebellion; at Cunjamba and later Jamba.
From May 31, 1991 until October 31, 1992 brief end to civil war which resumes after UNITA disputes the results of national elections. On April
4, 2002 cease-fire ends Angolan civil war, UNITA demobilizes in August 2002.
List of Presidents of the National Council of the Revolution of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola and
Presidents of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola
Holden Álvaro Roberto (January 12, 1923 – August 2, 2007) founded and led the National Liberation Front of
Angola (FNLA) from 1962 to 1999 and Presidents of the National Council of the Revolution of Democratic and People's
Republic of Angola jointly with Jonas Malheiro Savimbi from November 11, 1975 until February 11, 1976. His memoirs
are unfinished. Roberto, son of Garcia Diasiwa Roberto and Joana Lala Nekaka (and a descendant of the monarchy of the
Kongo Kingdom.), was born in São Salvador, Angola. His family moved to Léopoldville, Belgian Congo in 1925. In 1940
he graduated from a Baptist mission school. He worked for the Belgian Finance Ministry in Léopoldville, Bukavu, and
Stanleyville for eight years. In 1951 he visited Angola and witnessed Portuguese officials abusing an old man, inspiring
him to begin his political career. Roberto and Barros Necaca founded the Union of Peoples of Northern Angola (UPNA), later renamed the
Union of Peoples of Angola (UPA), on July 14, 1954. Roberto, serving as UPA President, represented Angola in the All-African Peoples Congress
of Ghana which he secretly attended in Accra, Ghana in December 1958. There he met Patrice Lumumba, the future Prime Minister of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenneth Kaunda, the future President of Zambia, and Kenyan nationalist Tom Mboya. He acquired a
Guinean passport and visited the United Nations. Jonas Savimbi, the future leader of UNITA, joined the UPA in February 1961 at the urging of
Mboya and Kenyan Prime Minister Jomo Kenyatta. Later that year Roberto appointed Savimbi Secretary-General of the UPA. The United States
National Security Council began giving Roberto aid in the 1950s, paying him $6,000 annually until 1962 when the NSC increased his salary to
$10,000 for intelligence-gathering. After visiting the United Nations, he returned to Kinshasa and organized Bakongo militants. He launched an
incursion into Angola on March 15, 1961, leading 4,000 to 5,000 militants. His forces took farms, government outposts, and trading centers,
killing everyone they encountered. At least 1,000 whites and an unknown number of natives were killed. Commenting on the incursion, Roberto
said, "this time the slaves did not cower". They massacred everything. Roberto met with United States President John F. Kennedy on April 25,
1961. When he applied for aid later that year from the Ghanaian government, President Kwame Nkrumah turned him down on the grounds
that the U.S. government was already paying him. Roberto merged the UPA with the Democratic Party of Angola to form the FNLA in March
1962 and a few weeks later established the Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile (GRAE) on March 27, appointing Savimbi to the
position of Foreign Minister. Roberto established a political alliance with Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko by divorcing his wife and
marrying a woman from Mobutu's wife's village. Roberto visited Israel in the 1960s and received aid from the Israeli government from 1963 to
1969. Savimbi left the FNLA in 1964 and founded UNITA in response to Roberto's unwillingness to spread the war outside the traditional
Kingdom of Kongo. Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People's Republic of China, invited Roberto to visit the PRC in 1964. Roberto did not go because
Moise Tshombe, the President of Katanga, told him he would not be allowed to return to the Congo. On the eve of Angola's independence from
Portugal, Zaire, in a bid to install a pro-Kinshasa government and thwart the MPLA's drive for power, deployed armored car units, paratroops,
and three battalions to Angola. However, the FNLA and Zaire's victory was narrowly averted by a massive influx of Cuban forces, who
resoundingly defeated them. In 1976, the MPLA defeated the FNLA in the Battle of Dead Road and the FNLA retreated to Zaire. While Roberto
and Agostinho Neto's proposed policies for an independent Angola were similar, Roberto drew support from western Angola and Neto drew
from eastern Angola. Neto, under the banner of nationalism and Communism, received support from the Soviet Union while Roberto, under
the banner of nationalism and anti-Communism, received support from the United States, China, and Zaire. Roberto staunchly opposed Neto's
drive to unite the Angolan rebel groups in opposition to Portugal because Roberto believed the FNLA would be absorbed by the MPLA. The
FNLA abducted MPLA members, deported them to Kinshasa, and killed them. In 1991, the FNLA and MPLA agreed to the Bicesse Accords,
allowing Roberto to return to Angola. He ran unsuccessfully for President, receiving only 2.1% of the vote. However, the FNLA won five seats in
Parliament but refused to participate in the government. Roberto died on August 2, 2007 at his home in Luanda. After Roberto's death, President
José Eduardo dos Santos eulogized, "Holden Roberto was one of the pioneers of national liberation struggle, whose name encouraged a
generation of Angolans to opt for resistance and combat for the country's independence," and released a decree
appointing a commission to arrange for a funeral ceremony.
Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934-February 22, 2002) was an Angolan political and military leader
who founded and led the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). He was also President of
the National Council of the Revolution of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola jointly with Holden Álvaro

Roberto from November 11, 1975 until February 11, 1976 and President of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola from 1979 until his
death on February 22, 2002. UNITA first waged a guerrilla war against Portuguese colonial rule, 1966–74, then confronted the rival People's
Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) during the decolonization conflict, 1974–75, and after independence in 1975 fought the ruling
MPLA in the Angolan Civil War until his death in a clash with government troops in 2002. Savimbi was born on August 3, 1934, in Munhango,
Moxico Province, a small town on the Benguela Railway, and raised in Bié Province. Savimbi's father, Lote, was a stationmaster on Angola's
Benguela railway line and a preacher of the Protestant Igreja Evangélica Congregacional de Angola, founded and maintained by American
missionaries. Both his parents were members of the Bieno group of the Ovimbundu, the people who later served as Savimbi's major political
base. In his early years, Savimbi was educated mainly in Protestant schools, but also attended Roman Catholic schools. At the age of 24, he
received a scholarship to study in Portugal. There he finished his secondary studies, with the exception of the subject "political organization" that
was compulsory during the regime established by António de Oliveira Salazar, so that he was unable to start studying medicine as originally
intended. Instead he became associated with students from Angola and other Portuguese colonies who were preparing themselves for anti-
colonial resistance and had contacts with the clandestine Portuguese Communist Party. He knew Agostinho Neto, who was at that time studying
medicine and who later went on to become president of the MPLA and Angola's first state President. Under increasing pressure from the
Portuguese secret police (PIDE), Savimbi left Portugal for Switzerland with the assistance of Portuguese and French communists and other
sympathizers, and eventually wound up in Lausanne. There he was able to obtain a new scholarship from American missionaries and studied
social sciences. He then went on to the University at Fribourg for further studies. While there, probably in August 1960, he met Holden Roberto
who was already a rising star in émigré circles. Roberto was a founding member of the UPA (União das Populações de Angola) and was already
known for his efforts to promote Angolan independence at the United Nations. He tried to recruit Savimbi who seems to have been undecided
whether to commit himself to the cause of Angolan independence at this point in his life. Savimbi sought a leadership position in the MPLA by
joining the MPLA Youth in the early 1960s. He was rebuffed by the MPLA, and joined forces with the National Liberation Front of Angola
(FNLA) in 1964. The same year he conceived UNITA with Antonio da Costa Fernandes. Savimbi went to China for help and was promised arms
and military training. Upon returning to Angola in 1966 he launched UNITA and began his career as an anti-Portuguese guerrilla fighter. He
also fought the FNLA and MPLA, as the three resistance movements tried to position themselves to lead a post-colonial Angola. Portugal later
released PIDE[clarification needed] archives revealing that Savimbi had signed a collaboration pact with Portuguese colonial authorities to fight
the MPLA. Following Angola's independence in 1975, Savimbi gradually drew the attention of powerful Chinese and, ultimately, American
policymakers and intellectuals. Trained in China during the 1960s, Savimbi was a highly successful guerrilla fighter schooled in classic Maoist
approaches to warfare, including baiting his enemies with multiple military fronts, some of which attacked and some of which consciously
retreated. Like the People's Liberation Army of Mao Zedong, Savimbi mobilized important, although ethnically confined segments of the rural
peasantry – overwhelmingly Ovimbundu as part of his military tactics. From a military strategy standpoint, he can be considered one of the
most effective guerrilla leaders of the 20th century. As the MPLA was supported by the Soviet bloc since 1974, and declared itself Marxist-
Leninist in 1977, Savimbi renounced his earlier Maoist leanings and contacts with China, presenting on the international scene as a protagonist
of anti-communism. The war between the MPLA and UNITA, whatever its internal reasons and dynamics, thus became a sub-plot to the Cold
War, with both Moscow and Washington viewing the conflict as important to the global balance of power. In 1985, with the backing of the
Reagan administration, Jack Abramoff and other U.S. conservatives organized the Democratic International in Savimbi's base in Jamba, in
Cuando Cubango Province in southeastern Angola. The meeting included several of the anti-communist guerrilla leaders of the Third World,
including Savimbi, Nicaraguan Contra leader Adolfo Calero, and Abdul Rahim Wardak, then leader of Afghan mujahideen who later became
Afghanistan's Defense Minister. Savimbi was strongly supported by the influential, conservative Heritage Foundation. Heritage foreign policy
analyst Michael Johns and other conservatives visited regularly with Savimbi in his clandestine camps in Jamba and provided the rebel leader
with ongoing political and military guidance in his war against the Angolan government. The African-American Texas State Representative
Clay Smothers of Dallas was a strong Savimbi supporter. Savimbi's U.S.-based supporters ultimately proved successfulin convincing the Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) to channel covert weapons and recruit guerrillas for Savimbi's war against Angola's Marxist government, which
greatly intensified and prolonged the conflict. During a visit to Washington, D.C. in 1986, Reagan invited Savimbi to meet with him at the White
House. Following the meeting, Reagan spoke of UNITA winning "a victory that electrifies the world." Two years later, with the Angolan Civil
War intensifying, Savimbi returned to Washington, where he was filled with gratitude and praise for the Heritage Foundation's work on
UNITA's behalf. "When we come to the Heritage Foundation", Savimbi said during a June 30, 1988 speech at the foundation, "it is like coming
back home. We know that our success here in Washington in repealing the Clark Amendment and obtaining American assistance for our cause
is very much associated with your efforts. This foundation has been a source of great support. The UNITA leadership knows this, and it is also
known in Angola." Complementing his military skills, Savimbi also impressed many with his intellectual qualities. He spoke seven languages
fluently four European, three African. In visits to foreign diplomats and in speeches before American audiences, he often cited classical Western
political and social philosophy, ultimately becoming one of the most vocal anti-communists of the Third World. Some dismiss this
intellectualism as nothing more than careful handling by his politically shrewd American supporters, who sought to present Savimbi as a clear
alternative to Angola's communist government. But others[who?] saw it as genuine and a product of the guerrilla leader's intelligence. Savimbi's
biography describes him as "an incredible linguist. He spoke four European languages, including English although he had never lived in an
English-speaking country. He was extremely well read. He was an extremely fine conversationalist and a very good listener." These contrasting
images of Savimbi would play out throughout his life, with his enemies calling him a power-hungry warmonger, and his American and other
allies calling him a critical figure in the West's bid to win the Cold War. As U.S. support began to flow liberally and leading U.S. conservatives
championed his cause, Savimbi won major strategic advantages in the late 1980s, and again in the early 1990s, after having taken part
unsuccessfully in the general elections of 1992. As a consequence, Moscow and Havana began to reevaluate their engagement in Angola, as
Soviet and Cuban fatalities mounted and Savimbi's ground control increased. By 1989, UNITA held total control of several limited areas, but
was able to develop significant guerrilla operations everywhere in Angola, with the exception of the coastal cities and Namibe Province. At the
height of his military success, in 1989 and 1990, Savimbi was beginning to launch attacks on government and military targets in and around the
country's capital, Luanda. Observers felt that the strategic balance in Angola had shifted and that Savimbi was positioning UNITA for a possible
military victory. Signaling the concern that the Soviet Union was placing on Savimbi's advance in Angola, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev
raised the Angolan war with Reagan during numerous U.S.-Soviet summits. In addition to meeting with Reagan, Savimbi also met with Reagan's
successor, George H. W. Bush, who promised Savimbi "all appropriate and effective assistance." In January 1990 and again in February 1990,
Savimbi was wounded in armed conflict with Angolan government troops. The injuries did not prevent him from again returning to
Washington, where he met with his American supporters and President Bush in an effort to further increase US military assistance to UNITA.
Savimbi's supporters warned that continued Soviet support for the MPLA was threatening broader global collaboration between Gorbachev and
the US. In February 1992, Antonio da Costa Fernandes and Nzau Puna defected from UNITA, declaring publicly that Savimbi was not interested
in a political test, but on preparing another war. Under military pressure from UNITA, the Angolan government negotiated a cease-fire with
Savimbi, and Savimbi ran for president in the national elections of 1992. Foreign monitors claimed the election to be fair. But because neither
Savimbi (40%) nor Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos (49%) obtained the 50 percent necessary to prevail, a run-off election was

scheduled. In late October 1992, Savimbi dispatched UNITA Vice President Jeremias Chitunda and UNITA senior advisor Elias Salupeto Pena to
Luanda to negotiate the details of the run-off election. On November 2, 1992 in Luanda, Chitunda and Pena's convoy was attacked by
government forces and they were both pulled from their car and shot dead. Their bodies were taken by government authorities and never seen
again. The MPLA offensive against UNITA and the FNLA has come to be known as the Halloween Massacre where over 10,000 of their voters
were massacred nationwide by MPLA forces. Alleging governmental electoral fraud and questioning the government's commitment to peace,
Savimbi withdrew from the run-off election and resumed fighting, mostly with foreign funds. UNITA again quickly advanced militarily,
encircling the nation's capital of Luanda. One of Savimbi's largest sources of financial support was the De Beers corporation, which bought
between US$500 to 800 million worth of illegally mined diamonds in 1992–93. In 1994, UNITAsigned a new peace accord. Savimbi declined the
vice-presidency that was offered to him and again renewed fighting in 1998. Savimbi also reportedly purged some of those within UNITA whom
he may have seen as threats to his leadership or as questioning his strategic course. Savimbi's foreign secretary Tito Chingunji and his family
were murdered in 1991 after Savimbi suspected that Chingunji had been in secret, unapproved negotiations with the Angolan government
during Chingunji's various diplomatic assignments in Europe and the United States. Savimbi denied his involvement in the Chingunji killing
and blamed it on UNITA dissidents. After surviving more than a dozen assassination attempts, and having been reported dead at least 15 times,
Savimbi was killed on February 22, 2002, in a battle with Angolan government troops along riverbanks in the province of Moxico, his
birthplace. In the firefight, Savimbi sustained 15 gunshot wounds to his head, throat, upper body and legs. While Savimbi returned fire, his
wounds proved fatal almost immediately; he died almost instantly. Savimbi’s somewhat mystical reputation for eluding the Angolan military
and their Soviet and Cuban military advisors led many Angolans to question the validity of reports of his 2002 death. Not until pictures of his
bloodied and bullet-ridden body appeared on Angolan state television, and the United States State Department subsequently confirmed it, did
the reports of Savimbi’s death in combat gain credence in the country. Savimbi was interred in Luena Main Cemetery in Luena, Moxico
Province. On January 3, 2008, Savimbi’s tomb was vandalised and four members of the youth wing of the MPLA were charged and arrested.
Savimbi was succeeded by António Dembo, who assumed UNITA’s leadership on an interim basis in February 2002. But Dembo had sustained
wounds in the same attack that killed Savimbi, and he died from them ten days later and was succeeded by Paulo Lukamba. Six weeks after
Savimbi's death, a ceasefire between UNITA and the MPLA was signed, but Angola remains deeply divided politically between MPLA and
UNITA supporters. Parliamentary elections in September 2008 resulted in an overwhelming majority for the MPLA, but their legitimacy was
questioned by international observers. In the years since Savimbi's death, his legacy has been a source of debate. "The mistake that Savimbi
made, the historical, big mistake he made, was to reject (the election) and go back to war," Alex Vines, head of the Africa program at London-
based Chatham House research institute said in February 2012. University of Oxford Africa expert Paula Roque says Savimbi was "a very
charismatic man, a man that exuded power and leadership. We can't forget that for a large segment of the population, UNITA represented
something." He was survived by "several wives and dozens of children," the latter numbering at least 25. Savimbi is a minor character in Call of
Duty: Black Ops II, a video game released in 2012. Savimbi and the player take part of a fictional battle during Operation Alpha Centauri
against the MPLA in 1986. He is voiced by Robert Wisdom.
António Sebastião Dembo (1944-March 3, 2002) served as Vice President (1992–2002) and later President (2002) of UNITA, an anti-
Communist rebel group that fought against the MPLA in the Angolan Civil War. He was also President of Democratic and People's Republic of
Angola from February 22 until his death on March 3, 2002. Born to Sebastião and Muhemba Nabuko in Nambuangongo, Bengo Province, he
completed his primary schooling at Muxaluando and Quimai Methodist schools. His secondary education was at El Harrach and École
Nationale d'Ingénieurs et Techniciens d'Algérie in Algeria.
António Dembo joined UNITA in 1969. After traveling throughout Africa on behalf of UNITA, he returned in 1982 to become commander for
the Northern Front and later the Northern Front chief of staff. He became UNITA's Vice President in 1992 when the Angolan Civil War
resumed, succeeding Jeremias Chitunda, who was assassinated by the Angolan government in Luanda that year. He also became the general in
charge of UNITA's Special Commandos, the Tupamaros. After the war turned against UNITA in 2001-02, Dembo's forces were constantly on the
run from government troops. Following the assassination of its leader Jonas Savimbi on February 22, 2002, Dembo became the President of
UNITA. However, Dembo was also wounded in the same attack that killed Savimbi and, already weakened by diabetes, died ten days later.
Dembo's succession of Savimbi had been pre-ordained by Savimbi and the UNITA leadership. In 1997, Savimbi and the UNITA leadership
named Dembo Savimbi's successor in the event of Savimbi's death. Consistent with this pre-ordained succession, Dembo assumed leadership of
UNITA immediately following Savimbi's death in combat. Following Dembo's death, UNITA's leadership was assumed by Isaías Samakuva, who
had served as UNITA's ambassador to Europe under Savimbi.
Paulo Armindo Lukamba "Gato" (born as Armindo Lucas Paulo on May 13, 1954) led UNITA, a former anti-colonial
movement that fought against the MPLA in the Angolan Civil War, from the death of António Dembo on March 3, 2002 until
he lost the 2003 leadership election to Isaías Samakuva. He was also Acting President (chairman of managerial commission)
of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola from March 3 until April 4, 2002. Lukamba was born in the province of
Huambo, in central Angola. Lukamba joined UNITA during the Carnation revolution in Portugal. He eventually served eight
years in France as UNITA's representative there. From 1995 until the death of Jonas Savimbi in February 2002, Lukamba
served as UNITA's Secretary-General. Upon Savimbi's death and the subsequent death of Vice President António Dembo just
10 days later from diabetes and battle wounds, Lukamba assumed control of the rebel group. Lukamba led UNITA in negotiations that ended
the Angolan Civil War in April 2002. Lukamba led UNITA's political party until 2003 when Isaías Samakuva won the leadership election.
Samakuva is the current President of UNITA. Lukamba was the fifth candidate on UNITA's national list in the September 2008 parliamentary
election. He was one of 16 UNITA candidates to win seats in the election.
List of Prime Ministers of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola
José de Assunção Alberto Ndele (born 1940) was the Prime Ministers of Democratic and People's Republic of Angola jointly with
Johnny Eduardo Pinnock from November 11, 1975 until February 11, 1976.
Johnny Eduardo Pinnock (January 19, 1946-February 23, 2000) was the Prime Ministers of Democratic and People's
Republic of Angola jointly with José de Assunção Alberto Ndele from November 11, 1975 until February 11, 1976.

Republic of Cabinda
The Republic of Cabinda (Ibinda: Kilansi kia Kabinda), also called the République du Cabinda, is an unrecognized state in southern Africa. The
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Forças Armadas de Cabinda (FLEC-FAC) claims sovereignty from Angola and proclaimed
the Republic of Cabinda as an independent country in 1975. The government of this (internationally not recognized) entity operates in exile,
with offices located in Paris and Pointe Noire, Congo. The 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco designated Cabinda a Portuguese protectorate known as
the Portuguese Congo, which was administratively separate from Portuguese West Africa (Angola). In the 20th century, Portugal decided to
integrate Cabinda into Angola, giving it the status of a district of that "overseas province". During the Portuguese Colonial War, FLEC fought for
the independence of Cabinda from the Portuguese. Independence was proclaimed on August 1, 1975, and FLEC formed a provisional
government led by Henriques Tiago. Luiz Branque Franque was elected president. In January 1975, Angola’s three national liberation
movements (People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the
Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)) met with the colonial power in Alvor, Portugal, to establish the modalities of the transition to
independence. FLEC was not invited. The Alvor Agreement was signed, establishing Angolan independence and confirming Cabinda as part of
Angola. After Angolan independence was declared in November 1975, Cabinda was occupied by the forces of the Popular Movement for the
Liberation of Angola (MPLA), which had been present in Cabinda since the mid-1960s, sustaining an anti-colonial guerrilla war that was rather
more efficient than the one run by FLEC. For much of the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC fought a low-intensity guerrilla war, attacking the troops of
what was by then the People's Republic of Angola, led by the MPLA. FLEC's tactics included attacking economic targets and kidnapping foreign
employees working in the province’s oil and construction businesses. In July 2006, after ceasefire negotiations, António Bento Bembe – as
president of the Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC – announced that the Cabindan
separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. A peace treaty was signed. FLEC-FAC from Paris contends Bembe had no authority or
mandate to negotiate with the Angolans and that the only acceptable solution is total independence.
List of Presidents of the Republic of Cabinda
Pedro Simba Macosso (born 1927) was a President of the Republic of Cabinda from January 10 until August 1, 1975. In the early 1960s,
several independence movements advocating a separate status for Cabinda came into being. The Movement for the Liberation of the Enclave of
Cabinda (MLEC) was formed in 1960 under the leadership of Luis Ranque Franque. Resulting from the merger of various émigré associations in
Brazzaville, the MLEC rapidly became the most prominent of the separatist movements. A further group was the Alliama (Mayombe National
Alliance), representing the Mayombe, a small minority of the population. In an important development, these movements united in August
1963 to form a common, united front called the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). The leadership role was taken by the
MLEC’s Ranque Franque. FLEC established a Cabindan government in exile in Kinshasa. In marked contrast with the FNLA, the FLEC’s efforts
to mobilize international support for its government in exile met with little success. In fact, the majority of OAU members, concerned that this
could encourage separatism elsewhere on the continent and duly committed to the sanctity of African state borders, firmly rejected recognition
of the FLEC’s government in exile. Later, in the course of Angola's turbulent decolonisation process, Ranque Franque proclaimed the
independence of the Republic of Cabinda in Kampala on August 1, 1975 at an OAU summit which was discussing Angola at that precise
moment. Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko called for a referendum on the future of the Cabinda. Congolese Prime Minister Henri Lopes is
reported to have said at the time that "Cabinda exists as a reality and is historically and geographically different from Angola." The Alvor
Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11. The agreement, signed by the MPLA,
FNLA, UNITA, and the Portuguese government, was never signed by the FLEC or any representatives of Cabinda. MPLA (mainly Cuban) troops
entered Cabinda via Pointe Noire on November 11, 1975 and incorporated Cabinda into Angola proper as "Cabinda Province". The Alvor
Agreement states that "Angola constitutes one indivisible unity. In this context, Cabinda is an integral and inalienable part of Angola." At the
time, Cabinda was producing nearly all of Angola's oil, which accounted for close to half of the nation's gross national product. During much of
the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC operated a low intensity, guerrilla war, attacking Angolan government troops and economic targets or creating
havoc by kidnapping foreign employees working in the province’s oil and construction businesses. In July 2006 after ceasefire negotiations in
Brazzaville, António Bento Bembe – as a president of Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, vice-president and executive secretary of FLEC –
announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. The peace was recognized by the United States, France,
Portugal, Russia, Gabon, DR Congo, Republic of the Congo, Japan, South Korea, the European Union and the African Union. After the peace
agreement, Bento Bembe was elected Minister without portfolio in the Government of Angola. FLEC-FAC from Paris contends Bembe has no
authority or mandate to negotiate with the Angolans and that the only acceptable solution is total independence.
Luis de Gonzaga Ranque Franque (1925-2007) was a President of the Republic of Cabinda from August 1975 until January 1976. In the
early 1960s, several independence movements advocating a separate status for Cabinda came into being. The Movement for the Liberation of
the Enclave of Cabinda (MLEC) was formed in 1960 under the leadership of Luis Ranque Franque. Resulting from the merger of various émigré
associations in Brazzaville, the MLEC rapidly became the most prominent of the separatist movements. A further group was the Alliama
(Mayombe National Alliance), representing the Mayombe, a small minority of the population. In an important development, these movements
united in August 1963 to form a common, united front called the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). The leadership role
was taken by the MLEC’s Ranque Franque. FLEC established a Cabindan government in exile in Kinshasa. In marked contrast with the FNLA,
the FLEC’s efforts to mobilize international support for its government in exile met with little success. In fact, the majority of OAU members,
concerned that this could encourage separatism elsewhere on the continent and duly committed to the sanctity of African state borders, firmly
rejected recognition of the FLEC’s government in exile. Later, in the course of Angola's turbulent decolonisation process, Ranque Franque
proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Cabinda in Kampala on August 1, 1975 at an OAU summit which was discussing Angola at
that precise moment. Zairian President Mobutu Sese Seko called for a referendum on the future of the Cabinda. Congolese Prime Minister
Henri Lopes is reported to have said at the time that "Cabinda exists as a reality and is historically and geographically different from Angola."
The Alvor Agreement, signed on January 15, 1975, granted Angola independence from Portugal on November 11. The agreement, signed by
the MPLA, FNLA, UNITA, and the Portuguese government, was never signed by the FLEC or any representatives of Cabinda. MPLA (mainly

Cuban) troops entered Cabinda via Pointe Noire on November 11, 1975 and incorporated Cabinda into Angola proper as "Cabinda Province".
The Alvor Agreement states that "Angola constitutes one indivisible unity. In this context, Cabinda is an integral and inalienable part of
Angola." At the time, Cabinda was producing nearly all of Angola's oil, which accounted for close to half of the nation's gross national product.
During much of the 1970s and 1980s, FLEC operated a low intensity, guerrilla war, attacking Angolan government troops and economic targets
or creating havoc by kidnapping foreign employees working in the province’s oil and construction businesses. In July 2006 after ceasefire
negotiations in Brazzaville, António Bento Bembe – as a president of Cabindan Forum for Dialogue and Peace, vice-president and executive
secretary of FLEC – announced that the Cabindan separatist forces were ready to declare a ceasefire. The peace was recognized by the United
States, France, Portugal, Russia, Gabon, DR Congo, Republic of the Congo, Japan, South Korea, the European Union and the African Union.
After the peace agreement, Bento Bembe was elected Minister without portfolio in the Government of Angola. FLEC-FAC from Paris contends
Bembe has no authority or mandate to negotiate with the Angolans and that the only acceptable solution is total independence.
Prime Minister of the Republic of Cabinda
Francisco Xavier Lubota (1942-2006) was a Prime Minister of the Republic of Cabinda from July 1975 until
January 1976 (provisonal Prime Minister from July until August 1975).
Kingdom of Chimor
Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru, beginning around 850
and ending around 1470. Chimor was the largest kingdom in the Late Intermediate period, encompassing 1000 km of coastline. The greatest
surviving ruin of this civilization is the city of Chan Chan located 4 km northwest of the modern Trujillo, Peru. The Chimú grew out of the
remnants of the Moche culture. The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but Sican was acquired through conquest. They also were
significantly influenced by the Cajamarca and the Wari. According to legend, the capital Chan Chan was founded by Taycanamo, who arrived in
the area by sea. Chimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the Inca Empire. But the Inca conquest began in the 1470s by
Topa Inca Yupanqui, defeating the emperor and descendant of Tacaynamo, Minchancaman, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac
assumed the throne in 1493. Chimú ceramics are all black. It is also known for its exquisite and intricate metal-working, and one of the most
advanced of pre-Columbian times.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of Chimor
Tacaynamo was a King of the Kingdom of Chimor from 900 until 960. According to legend, the capital Chan Chan was founded by
Taycanamo, who arrived in the area by sea.
Guacricaur was a King of the Kingdom of Chimor from 960 until 1020.
Ñancempinco was a King of the Kingdom of Chimor from 1020 until 1080.
Minchancaman, Minchan Caman, MinchanZaman, known as Cie Quich or Chimú Cápac was a King of the Kingdom of Chimor from 1440
until 1470. Chimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the Inca Empire. But the Inca conquest began in the 1470s by Topa
Inca Yupanqui, defeating the emperor and descendant of Tacaynamo, Minchancaman, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac assumed
the throne in 1493.
Kingdom of Quito
The Quitus were Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples in Ecuador who founded Quito, which is now the capital of Ecuador. The inhabitants'
existence spanned from 2000 BCE to the beginning of the Spaniards' conquest of the city in 1524. Their occupation spanned from the strip of
land from Cerro del Panecillo in the south, to plaza de San Blas in the centre is the area where these first inhabitants lived. Today this strip has
extended to become the great city it is now. The Quitus are responsible for the capital's name, and are of unknown relation to the town of
Iquitos. The Quitu people were conquered by the Cara culture. Juan de Velasco wrote in his 1767 book, Historia del Reino de Quito, the Cara
founded the Kingdom of Quito around 980. Together, the two cultures formed the Quitu-Cara culture. Historians Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño and
Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco contested the existence of such Kingdom and pointed to the dubious existence of that date, having no evidence of
Quitu remains. The Quitus existence does not prove the contested Kingdom of Quito, only gives credence, and partially supports its existence.
This belief is today seen by archeologist as an important concept, for it spared their archaeological remains from tomb robbers. Within the
country today tomb robbers are recognized to have depleted other cultures of their archeological remains, most made of gold. Excavations
made on tombs showed the Quitus shared the belief of an afterlife, where they needed to retain certain belongings, and therefore were buried
with them. Essentially the Quitus were agricultural people seen as a "pueblo alegre y festivo" (happy and festive people).
List of Kings (Shyris) of the Kingdom of Quito

Cara was a King (Shyri) and founder of the Kingdom of Quito around 980. The Quitu people were conquered by the Cara culture. Juan de
Velasco wrote in his 1767 book, Historia del Reino de Quito, the Cara founded the Kingdom of Quito around 980.
Duchicela was the Queen (Shyri) of the Kingdom of Quito from 1300 until 1370 or from 1330 until 1400.
Atauqui was the King (Shyri) of the Kingdom of Quito from 1370 until 1430 or from 1400 until 1460.
Hualcopo Duchicela popularly known as Shiri XIV (died 1463 or 1493) was the King (Shyri) of the Kingdom of Quito,
powerful ruler of Curaca confederation between Quitus, Caras and Puruháes indenegious people in the present Ecuador from
1430 until hs death in 1463 or from 1460 until his death in 1493. Their lands occupied much of the current Ecuador, and had
several allies in northern Peru today, as many tribes saw their status as the only protection against the Inca expansionism.
Hualcopo faced the invasion Inca Tupac Yupanqui commanded a bloody war that lasted five years. According to legend, after
settling in the lands of the current Ecuador and conquer the quitus, the sides formed a powerful kingdom that conquered
several neighboring tribes; King Carán, eleventh Shiri of Quito had no sons and after a council with the nobles of his kingdom
named successor to his daughter Toa, then he married the son of his rival Condorazo king of the Puruháes, he married Prince Duchicela.
Shortly after the king died Haran, and his daughter came and with it Duchicela, who became a powerful king, and his father was Condorazo
become his vassal, the old king Puruhae lamented that alliance, and went to the Collao mountains where he disappeared, was named in his
honor to a mountain with his name. Duchicela ruled for 70 years and lived for 100 years, built bridges, palaces and think more powerful armies,
allied with the Canaris of Canar, and went as far south as the province of Paita. In Riobamba a resting place for Puruhaes régulos, Duchicela
Shiry XII ordered to build a fortress and a palace for his wife Princess Toa gave birth to her son Autachi Duchicela Shiry XIII, then Hualcopo
Duchicela Shiry XIV, XV and Cacha Shiry Princess Paccha daughter, born in the fortress of Capak Kucha. Atauqui was succeeded by his son who
ruled for 60 years and did nothing noteworthy. But a major problem was that of his succession and his eldest son Guallpa was famous for his
cruelty and people hated him. After a council it was decided to name their second son, as his successor Hualcopo, Guallpa furious attempt to kill
his brother but that he learned of his plans and sent him to run. After his father died, Hualcopo ascended the throne, began to build bridges,
palaces and forts. He reformed the army and expanded its area of influence and that several allied nations who feared the Incas and seeking
protection. Hualcopo in its capital Quitu built several palaces, gardens and fortresses, enbelleciendo city. Hualcopo reigned for 33 years, but at
the end of his reign faced the invasion of Tupac Yupanqui, the king Quito Eplicachima appointed his brother, who successfully resisted the first
offensive Cusco, but the Inca allies and attacked the southern lands of the kingdom, weakening; when he came the new Inca offensive Quiteños
were not sufficiently strong to resisitir, after years of fighting and tens of thousands dead Hualcopo surrendered, dying shortly after. He was
succeeded by his son Cacha whom hoped to be a puppet Inca ruler but this would eventually rebel.
Cacha was the King (Shyri) of the Kingdom of Quito from 1463 until 1487 or from 1493 until 1517.
Paccha Duchicela (died 1525) was a Princess of ethnic groups that inhabited the provinces of Chimborazo, Bolivar,
Tungurahua and Cotopaxi part in the present Republic of Ecuador from 1487 until her death in 1525 or from 1417 until her
death in 1525. She was the daughter of Cacha Duchicela, Shiri XV of the Kingdom of Quito, one born around 1485 in the Palace
of Capac Cocha (current archaeological site of Pucara Quinchi) Cacha's capital. Its name means "the chosen" or even "fair as the
moon, majestic as the sun." After the death of his father he became legitimate heir to the throne, who agreed with the name of
Paccha Duchicela, Shiri XVI.3 After several years of fighting Tahuantinsuyo, General Nazacota Puento was defeated by the Inca
Huayna Capac, who became his wife as a political strategy, to thereby integrate all peoples of the Kingdom of Quito to
Tahuantinsuyo, thus becoming (along with the Collas, and Tocto Cusirimay Mama Coca, Cusco). According Ovieda and Valdez, chronicler of
the conquest, "the Inca Huayna Capac had sufficient reason to marry and live with it, about thirty years in the houses of joy in Quito, and having
many children in her first Atahualpa, and prefer him the same official Empress of Cuzco." She died in 1525, in Quito. Peruvian and Ecuadorian
historians have not agreed on their status as mother of Atahualpa, the last Inca, but some like Efrén Avilés Pine argue that of her marriage to
the Inca Huayna Capaça, Paccha had four children, know: Atahualpa Yupanqui Duchicela, (1500-July 26, 1533) , Quispe Sisa Duchicela, born
about 1510 first wife of Francisco Pizarro and whose descendants married into the Spanish nobility peninsular, Mateo Yupanqui Duchicela, born
about 1512 and Illescas Yupanqui Duchicela, born about 1515.
Cochasqui
Cochasquí is the largest Pre-Columbian archaeological site in Ecuador. The site with a remarkable view - which was helpful for astronomic
observations - lies some 52 km north of Quito in Pichincha Province at 3100 meters above sea level. The purpose of the site is not absolutely
clear, but on pyramid 13 it is obvious that it served as an astronomic oberservatory. Other sites such as Catequilla lie in distinctly calendary
relevant directions. It is believed to serve as a ceremonial centre for the ancient Quito culture. Fifteen pyramids and a minimum of 14 tombs are
located on a roughly 200-acre (81 ha) area. Nine of the pyramids include ramps of up to 290 yards of length. Pyramide 5, of which the base was
excavated, reaches a height of 16 yards. Most pyramids are completely covered with vegetation. Pyramide 9 shows a wall in stept, built in
Cangahua rock. The entrance fee includes a guided tour in the area and the small museum.
Lady of Cochasquí of Caranquis people
Quilago, also called Quillango or Quilago (Caranqui, circa 1490 - Cochasquí, circa 1515) was the princess of Caranquis or Caras Túpac Palla
(others named Palla Coca) indenegious people, who held the title of Lady of Cochasquí in the early 16th century. She also was a military leader
for her people during the battles of resistance against the expansion of the Inca Empire. She was killed by Huayna Capac, Emperor (Sapa Inca)
of the Inca Empire.

Tupí People
The Tupí people were one of the most important indigenous peoples in Brazil. Scholars believe they first settled in the Amazon rainforest, but
2900 years ago they started to spread southward and gradually occupied the Atlantic coast. The Tupí people inhabited almost all of Brazil's coast
when the Portuguese first arrived there. In 1500, their population was estimated at 1 million people, nearly equal to the population of Portugal
at the time. They were divided into tribes, each tribe numbering from 300 to 2,000 people. Some examples of these tribes are: Tupiniquim,
Tupinambá, Potiguara, Tabajara, Caetés, Temiminó, Tamoios. The Tupí utilised agriculture and therefore satisfied a Neolithic condition. They
grew cassava, corn, sweet potatoes, beans, peanuts, tobacco, squash, cotton and many others. There was not a unified Tupí identity despite the
fact that they were a single ethnic group that spoke a common language. From the 16th century onward, the Tupí, like other natives from the
region, were assimilated, enslaved, killed by diseases such as smallpox or Portuguese settlers and Bandeirantes (colonial Brazil scouts), nearly
leading to their complete annihilation, with the exception of a few isolated communities. The remnants of these tribes are today confined to
Indian reservations or acculturated to some degree into the dominant society. The Tupí were divided into several tribes which would constantly
engage in war with each other. In these wars the Tupí would normally try to capture their enemies to later kill them in cannibalistic rituals. The
warriors captured from other Tupí tribes were eaten as it was believed by the Indians that such act would lead to their strength being absorbed
and digested, thus in fear of absorbing weakness, they chose only to sacrifice warriors perceived to be strong and brave. For the Tupí warriors,
even when prisoners, it was a great honor to die valiantly during battle or to display courage during the festivities leading to his sacrifice. The
Tupí have also been documented to eat the remains of dead relatives as a form of honoring them. The practice of cannibalism among the Tupí
was made famous in Europe by Hans Staden, a German soldier and mariner who was captured by the Tupí in 1552. In his account published in
1557, he tells that the Tupí carried him to their village where it was claimed he was to be devoured at the next festivity. There, he allegedly won
the friendship of a powerful chief, whom he cured of a disease, and his life was spared. Cannibalistic rituals among Tupí and other tribes in
Brazil decreased steadily after European contact and religious intervention. When Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish conquistador, arrived in Santa
Catarina in 1541, for instance, he attempted to ban cannibalistic practices in the name of the King of Spain. Due to the fact that our
understanding of Tupí cannibalism relies solely on primary source accounts of primarily European writers, the very existence of cannibalism
has been disputed by some in academic circles. William Arens seeks to discredit Staden's and other writers' accounts of cannibalism in his book
The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology & Anthropophagy, where he claims that when concerning the Tupinambá, "rather than dealing with an
instance of serial documentation of cannibalism, we are more likely confronting only one source of dubious testimony which has been
incorporated almost verbatim into the written reports of others claiming to be eyewitnesses".
Leader of the Temiminó (Tupí) tribe
Araribóia (old spelling: Ararigboya) (died 1587) is the founder of the city of Niterói, in Brazil. In Tupi, his name means
"ferocious snake". He was the leader of the Temiminó (Tupí) tribe, which inhabited the territory of the present Espírito Santo
state and came to Rio de Janeiro in 1564, with Estácio de Sá's fleet. Under his leadership, the tribe assisted the Portuguese in
their war with France for total control of the Guanabara Bay. After their victory, Araribóia remained in Rio de Janeiro until
1573, when his tribe officially received the lands across the Guanabara Bay on November 22. Araribóia also received the title of
knight of the Order of Christ, Captain of the village (Capitão-Mor), a salary of 12,000 réis per year and a piece of clothing that
had belonged to King Sebastian of Portugal. In 1568 he received the Christian name of Martim Afonso, to honour Martim
Afonso de Sousa. He died in 1587.
Baal-Hermon
Baal-Hermon (‫ַּב‬‫ע‬ַּ‫ל‬ ‫רֶח‬ ְ‫ֹומ‬‫ן‬) is a biblical geographical locale of uncertain boundaries in northern Israel or southern Lebanon, perhaps on Mount
Hermon. The area is mentioned in the Book of Judges (Judges 3:3) as not being involved in the invasion of Canaan by the Israelites. It is also
mentioned in and 1 Chronicles (1 Chronicles 5:23) as an area occupied by the tribe of Manasseh.
Leader of the tribe in Baal-Hermon
Baal-Hermon is suggested to have also been the name of the leader of the tribe of the area. "Baal" meaning "Lord", in this case of a region
known as "Hermon".
Munda People
The Munda are an Adivasi ethnic group of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region speaking the Mundari language, which belongs to the Munda
subgroup of the Austroasiatic languages. They are found across much of Jharkhand as well as adjacent parts of Assam, Odisha, West Bengal,

Chhattisgarh, Bihar and into parts of Bangladesh. This tribal ethnic group is one of the largest tea tribes in India. The Munda people in Tripura
are also called Mura. In Madhya Pradesh, the Munda people are also called Mudas. There were an estimated 9,000,000 Munda people in the late
20th century.
Leader of Munda People
Birsa Munda (November 15, 1875-June 9, 1900) was an Indian tribal freedom fighter, religious leader and folk hero who
belonged to the Munda tribe. He spearheaded an Indian tribal indigenous religious millenarian movement that rose in the tribal
belt of modern day Bihar and Jharkhand in the late 19th century, during the British Raj, thereby making him an important figure
in the history of the Indian independence movement. His achievements are even more remarkable for having been accomplished
before the age of 25. His portrait hangs in the Central Hall of the Indian parliament, the only tribal leader to have been so
honored. Birsa Munda was born on November 15, 1875 at Ulihatu, Ranchi District, in what was then Bihar, on a Thursday and
hence was named after the day of his birth according to the then prevalent Munda custom. The folk songs reflect popular confusion and refer to
both Ulihatu and Chalkad as his birthplace. Ulihatu was the birthplace of Sugana Munda, father of Birsa. The claim of Ulihatu rests on Birsa’s
elder brother Komta Munda living in the village and on his house which still exists albeit in a dilapidated condition. Birsa’s father, mother
Karmi Hatu, and younger brother, Pasna Munda, left Ulihatu and proceeded to Kurumbda near Birbanki in search of employment as labourers
or crop-sharers (sajhadar) or ryots. At Kurmbda Birsa’s elder brother, Komta, and his sister, Daskir, were born. From there the family moved to
Bamba where Birsa’s elder sister Champa was born followed by himself. Birsa’s early years were spent with his parents at Chalkad. His early life
could not have been very different from that of an average Munda child. Folklore refers to his rolling and playing in sand and dust with his
friends, and his growing up strong and handsome in looks; he grazed sheep in the forest of Bohonda. When he grew up, he shared an interest in
playing the flute, in which he became expert. He went round with the tuila, the one-stringed instrument made from the pumpkin, in the hand
and the flute strung to his waist. Exciting moments of his childhood were spent on the akhara (the village dancing ground). One of his ideal
contemporaries and who went out with him, however, heard him speak of strange things. Driven by poverty Birsa was taken to Ayubhatu, his
maternal uncle’s village. Komta Munda, his eldest brother, who was ten years of age, went to Kundi Bartoli, entered the service of a Munda,
married and lived there for eight years, and then joined his father and younger brother at Chalkad. At Ayubhatu Birsa lived for two years. He
went to school at Salga, run by one Jaipal Nag. He accompanied his mother’s younger sister, Joni, who was fond of him, when she was married,
to Khatanga, her new home. He came in contact with a pracharak who visited a few families in the village which had been converted to
Christianity and attacked the old Munda order. As he was sharp in studies, Jaipal Nag recommended him to join German Mission School but,
converting to Christianity was compulsory to join the school and Birsa was thus converted as a Christian and renamed as Birsa David, which
later became as Birsa Daud. After studying for few years, he left German Mission School and came under the influence of Vaishna Devotee,
Anand Pandey and learnt much about Hindu religious teachings. He read about Ramayan, Mahabharata and other Hindu books. Birsa’s long
stay at Chaibasa from 1886 to 1890 constituted a formative period of his life. The influence of Christianity shaped his own religion.[citation
needed] This period was marked by the German and Roman Catholic Christian agitation. Chaibasa was not far for the centre of the Sardars’
activities influenced Sugana Munda in withdrawing his son from the school. The sardars agitation in which Birsa was thus caught up put the
stamp of its anti-missionary and anti-Government character on his mind. Soon after leaving Chaibasa in 1890 Birsa and his family gave up their
membership of the German mission in line with the Sardar’s movement against it. He left Corbera in the wake of the mounting Sardar
agitation. He participated in the agitation stemming from popular disaffection at the restrictions imposed upon the traditional rights of the
Mundas in the protected forest, under the leadership of Gidiun of Piring in the Porhat area. During 1893-94 all waste lands in villages, the
ownership of which was vested in the Government, were constituted into protected forests under the Indian Forest Act VII of 1882. In
Singhbhum as in Palamau and Manbhum the forest settlement operations were launched and measures were taken to determine the rights of
the forest-dwelling communities. Villages in forests were marked off in blocks of convenient size consisting not only of village sites but also
cultivable and waste lands sufficient of the needs of villages. In 1894, Birsa had grown up into a strong young man, shrewd and intelligent and
undertook the work of repairing the Dombari tank at Gorbera damaged by rains. While on a sojourn in the neighbourhood of village Sankara in
Singhbhum, he found suitable companion, presented her parents with jewels and explained to her his idea of marriage. Later, on his return
form jail he did not find her faithful to him and left her. Another woman who served him at Chalkad was the sister of Mathias Munda. On his
release form prison, the daughter of Mathura Muda of Koensar who was kept by Kali Munda, and the wife of Jaga Munda of Jiuri insisted on
becoming wives of Birsa. He rebuked them and referred the wife of Jaga Munda to her husband. Another rather well-known woman who stayed
with Birsa was Sali of Burudih. Birsa stressed monogamy at a later stage in his life. Birsa rose form the lowest ranks of the peasants, the ryots,
who unlike their namesakes elsewhere enjoyed far fewer rights in the Mundari khuntkatti system, while all privileges were monopolized by the
members of the founding lineage the ryots were no better than crop-sharers. Birsa’s own experience as a young boy, driven from place to place
in search of employment, given him an insight into the agrarian question and forest matters; he was no passive spectator but an active
participant in the movement going on in the neighbourhood. Birsa’s claim to be a messenger of God and the founder of a new religion sounded
preposterous to the mission. There were also within his sect converts from Christianity, mostly Sardars. His simple system of offering was
directed against the church which levied a tax. And the concept of one God appealed to his people who found his religion and economical relig
healer, a miracle-worker, and a preacher spread, out of all proportion to the facts. The Mundas, Oraons, and Kharias flocked to Chalkad to see
the new prophet and to be cured of their ills. Both the Oraon and Munda population up to Barwari and Chechari in Palamau became convinced
Birsaities. Contemporary and later folk songs commemorate the tremendous impact of Birsa on his people, their joy and expectations at his
advent. The name of Dharti Aba was on everybody’s lips. A folk song in Sadani showed that the first impact cut across the lines of caste Hindus
and Muslims also flocked to the new Sun of religion. Birsa Munda started to propagate the principles of Hindu religion and advised converted
tribal people to peruse their original religious system. Impressed by his teachings, he became a prophet figure to the tribal people and they
sought his blessings. Birsa Munda advised the people to worship cow and protested cow slaughter. His call against the British Raj, “Abua raj ste
jana, maharani raj tandu jana. (Let the kingdom of queen be ended and our kingdom be established.)” is remembered today in tribal areas of
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Bihar. The British colonial system intensified the transformation of the tribal agrarian system into
feudal state. As the tribals with their primitive technology could not generate a surplus, non-tribal peasantry were invited by the chiefs in
Chhotanagpur to settle on and cultivate the land. This led to the alienation of the lands held by the tribals. The new class of Thikadars were of a
more rapacious kind and eager to make most of their possessions. In 1856 Jagirdars stood at about 600, and they held from a village to 150
villages. By 1874, the authority of the old Munda or Oraon chiefs had been almost entirely effaced by that of the farmers, introduced by the
superior landlord. In some villages the aborigines had completely lost their proprietary rights, and had been reduced to the position of farm
labourers. To the twin challenges of agrarian breakdown and culture change, Birsa along with the Munda responded through a series of revolts
and uprisings under his leadership. The movement sought to assert rights of the Mundas as the real proprietors of the soil, and the expulsion of
middlemen and the British. He was treacherously caught on 3 February 1900 and died in mysterious conditions on 9 June 1900 in Ranchi Jail.

He didn't show any symptoms of cholera though British government declared that he died because of cholera. Though he lived for a very short
span of 25 years, he aroused the mind-set of the tribals and mobilized them in a small town of Chotanagpur and was a terror to the British
rulers. After his death the movement faded out. However, the movement was significant in at least two ways . First it forced the colonial
government to introduce laws so that the land of the tribals could not be easily taken away by the dikus. Second it showed once again that the
tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their anger against colonial rule. They did this in their own way, inventing
their own rituals and symbols of struggle. He was arrested on March 3, 1900 in Jamkopai forest, Chakradharpur while he was sleeping along his
tribal guerrilla army which was fighting against British forces. About 460 tribal people were arrested of which one was given with capital
punishment, 39 were awarded for transportation for life and 23 for 14 years jail. Birsa Munda died in Ranchi Jail on June 9, 1900 from cholera.
His birth anniversary which falls on November 15, is still celebrated by tribal people in as far as Mysore and Kodagu districts in Karnataka, and
official function takes place at his Samadhi Sthal, at Kokar Ranchi, the capital of Jharkhand. Today, there are a number of organizations, bodies
and structures named after him, notably Birsa Munda Airport Ranchi, Birsa Institute of Technology Sindri, Birsa Munda Vanvasi Chattravas,
Kanpur, Sidho Kanho Birsha University, Purulia, and Birsa Agricultural University. The war cry of Bihar Regiment is Birsa Munda Ki Jai
(Victory to Birsa Munda). In 2008, Hindi film based on the life of Birsa, Gandhi Se Pehle Gandhi was directed by Iqbal Durran based on his own
novel by the same name. Another Hindi film, "Ulgulan-Ek Kranti (The Revolution)" was made in 2004 by Ashok Saran, in which 500 Birsaits or
followers of Birsa acted. Ramon Magsaysay Award winner, writer-activist Mahasweta Devi’s historical fiction, Aranyer Adhikar (Right to the
Forest, 1977), a novel for which she won the Sahitya Akademi Award for Bengali in 1979, is based on his life and the Munda Rebellion against
the British Raj in the late 19th century; she later wrote an abridged version Birsa Munda, specifically for young readers. He is commemorated in
the names of the following institutions: Birsa Institute of Technology Sindri, Birsa Agricultural University, Sidho Kanho Birsha University, Birsa
Munda Athletics Stadium, Birsa Munda Airport, Birsa Institute Of Technical Education (B.I.T.E. Ramgarh), Birsa Munda Central Jail and Birsa
Seva Dal a controversial defunct organization.
Hungarian Tribes
The Magyar or Hungarian tribes (Hungarian: magyar törzsek) were the fundamental political units within whose framework the Hungarians
(Magyars) lived, until these clans from the region of Ural Mountains invaded the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.
The ethnonym of the Hungarian tribal alliance is uncertain. According to one view, following Anonymus's description, the federation was called
"Hetumoger" (Seven Magyars) ("VII principales persone qui Hetumoger dicuntur", "seven princely persons who are called Seven Magyars"),
though the word "Magyar" possibly comes from the name of the most prominent Hungarian tribe, called Megyer. The tribal name "Megyer"
became "Magyar" referring to the Hungarian people as a whole. Written sources called Magyars "Hungarians" prior to the conquest of the
Carpathian Basin when they still lived on the steppes of Eastern Europe (in 837 "Ungri" mentioned by Georgius Monachus, in 862 "Ungri" by
Annales Bertiniani, in 881 "Ungari" by the Annales ex Annalibus Iuvavensibus). The English term "Hungarian" is a derivative of the Latin
"Ungri" or "Ungari" forms. According to András Róna-Tas the locality in which the Hungarians, the Manicha-Er group, emerged was between
the Volga river and the Ural Mountains. Between the 8th and 5th centuries BC, the Magyars embarked upon their independent existence and
the early period of the proto-Hungarian language began. Around 830, the seven related tribes (Jenő, Kér, Keszi, Kürt-Gyarmat, Megyer, Nyék
and Tarján) formed a confederation in Etelköz, called "Hétmagyar" ("Seven Magyars"). Their leaders, the Seven chieftains of the Magyars, besides
Álmos, included Előd, Ond, Kond, Tas, Huba and Töhötöm, who took a blood oath, swearing eternal loyalty to Álmos. Presumably, the Magyar
tribes consisted of 108 clans. The confederation of the tribes was probably led by two high princes: the kende (their spiritual ruler) and the gyula
(their military leader). The high princes were either elected by the leaders of the tribes or appointed by the Khagan of the Khazars who had
been exerting influence over the Magyars. Around 862 the seven tribes separated from the Khazars. Before 881 three Turkic tribes rebelled
against the rule of the Khagan of the Khazars, but they were suppressed. After their defeat they left the Khazar Empire and voluntarily joined
the Hétmagyar confederation. The three tribes were organised into one tribe, called Kabar, and later they played the roles of vanguard and rear
guard during the joint military actions of the confederation. The joining of the three tribes to the previous seven created the On-ogur (Ten
Arrows), one of the possible origins for the name Hungarian. The Hungarian social structure was of Turkic origin; moreover the Hungarian
language was affected by Turkic linguistic influence.
List of Hungarian Tribal Chieftain
Ketel is a legendary Magyar tribal chieftain of perhaps Kabar origin, who lived at the end of the 9th century. He was the father of Alaptolma,
and the first known ancestor of the Koppán clan. According to the medieval Gesta Hungarorum, the leader of the Magyars, Árpád, donated a
large estate to Ketel along the Danube and Váh (Vág) rivers where he settled with his people. Today, Ketel is honoured as the legendary founder
of the city of Komárom/Komárno with his son, Alaptolma.
Szabolcs was Tribal Leader of the Magyars, the nephew of Árpád. He is also said to have been the second great leader of the Magyars. His
power center was the now unimportant village Szabolcs, where earthen ramparts from this age have been excavated. His people settled in the
area known as Szabolcs county.
Előd was – according to chronicler Anonymus – one of the seven chieftains of the Magyars (Hungarians), who led the Hungarians to the
Carpathian Basin in 895. Előd was the chieftain of the Hungarian tribe of the Nyék. The Nyék tribe occupied the region around Lake Balaton,
mainly the areas what are known today Zala and Somogy counties. According to Simon of Kéza's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, however,
Előd was the father of Álmos and not his co-leader during the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin.
Kond (Könd, Kund, Kend, Kende or Kurszán) was – according to chronicler Anonymus – one of the seven chieftains of the Magyars
(Hungarians), who led the Hungarians to the Carpathian Basin in 895. Probably he was the father of Kurszán. His second son, Kaplon was the
founder of the kindred of Kaplon.

Liüntika or Levente (died before 907) was a Hungarian tribal chieftain, the eldest son of Grand Prince Árpád. As a military leader he
participated in the Hungarian Conquest (Honfoglalás, "Landtaking"). According to the state structure of Goktürks and Khazars the Crown
Prince reigned over the joined people. This is in line with the sources, where Liüntika appeared as leader of the Kabars. The Kabars was the last
ethnic group who joined to the Hungarian people. According to Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII the Purple-born – following the narrative
of horka Bulcsú – a leader (archon) ruled the three tribes of the Kabars, even at the time of the Emperor. Constantine viewed that Lüntika was
this leader during the Conquest. Liüntika, with the Kabar people, fought against the First Bulgarian Empire, while his father, Árpád started an
offensive with the main army in alliance with the Great Moravian Empire against Pannonia and the Bulgarian border in the Great Hungarian
Plain. After the Conquest probably he became leader of Moravia, because there was a moravian castle near to the firth of Thaya, Břeclav
(Lundenburg) appeared as Laventenburch in a source dated 1054. His uncertain identity was increased by Constantine VII who mentioned him
as son of Árpád during the Bulgarian campaigns, but later, when he lists Árpád's descendants, Liüntika is not listed among children of the grand
prince. It has also tried to explain that Liüntika/Levente lost his life during the campaign and had no descendants. This seems to contradict the
aforementioned place name of Laventenburch. In other opinions his identity is same with one of other four sons, he was identified mostly with
the second eldest son, Tarhacsi/Tarkacsu/Tarkatzus/Tarhos. Péter Földes has a special theory for the contradiction: the "árpád" word meant a
function, which first used by Grand Prince Álmos, father of Árpád. He gave this name to his first-born child, the prospective heir. According to
Földes the two interpretations could then be mixed, Liüntika was son of „Árpád Álmos”, so he could be the younger brother of Grand Prince
Árpád, not his son.
Kaplon (or Cupan) was a Hungarian tribal chieftain, the second son of Kond, who was one of the seven chieftains of the Magyars according to
Anonymus, author of the Gesta Hungarorum. It is possible that Kurszán, who was killed in 904, was his elder brother. After the Hungarian
conquest of the Carpathian Basin (895 or 896–c. 907), the brothers Kücsid and Kaplon settled in the Nyírség, northeastern part of the Great
Hungarian Plain and founded a monastery in Kaplony (today: Căpleni, Romania), near the Ecsed Marsh. Chieftain Kaplon was the ancestor of
the gens (or clan) Kaplon. The Károlyi (which still exists), Bagossy, Csomaközy, Vadai and Vetési families were also originate from that genus.
Kurszán (died 904), was a kende of the Magyars in the dual leadership with Árpád serving as a gyula. While kende was roughly correspondent
to the Khazar title khagan, Árpád's role equated to the Khazar military title bek. In Latin sources he was referred to as rex and had a political
status as a sacred king until he was massacred in a political plot of Western rulers and was temporarily succeeded by Árpád. He had a crucial
role in the Hungarian Conquest (Honfoglalás). In 892/893 together with Arnulf of Carinthia he attacked Great Moravia to secure the eastern
borders of the Frankish Empire. Arnulf gave him all the captured lands in Moravia. Kurszán also occupied the southern part of Hungary that
had belonged to the Bulgarian Kingdom. He entered into an alliance with Leo VI the Wise Byzantine emperor after realizing the country's
vulnerability from the south. Together they surprisingly defeated the army of Simeon I of Bulgaria. In the summer of 904 Louis the Child
invited Kurszán and his entourage to negotiate at the river Fischa. All were murdered[6][7] there. From this point Árpád became the only
ruler[8] and occupied some of the territory of the former partner ruler. The Kurszán family settled near Óbuda where they built Kurszánvára
(meaning Castle of Kurszán). After Kurszán's death, they lived under the name Kartal. There are toponymic traces of Kurszán on the right side
of the Danube.
Alaptolma(or Tolma) is a legendary Magyar tribal chieftain who lived in the first part of the 10th century. According to the medieval Gesta
Hungarorum, Alaptolma, son of Ketel, built a castle on the estate of his father, at the confluence of the Danube and Váh (Hungarian: Vág)
rivers. This ancient castle became the core of the town of Komárom/Komárno. Today Ketel and Alaptolma are honoured as the legendary
founders of the city.
Bulcsú(or Vérbulcsú; died August 10, 955) was a Hungarian chieftain, one of the military leaders of prince Taksony of Hungary, a descendant
of Árpád. He held the title of horka. He was one of the more important figures of the Hungarian invasions of Europe. During these military
campaigns, the Magyars threatened much of Western Europe; therefore a common saying at that time was "A sagittis Hungarorum, libera nos
Domine" (Lord, save us from the arrows of the Hungarians"). He was executed after the disastrous Battle of Lechfeld, also known as the Battle of
Augsburg.
Lehel (or Lehal or Lail or Lehl or Lel) (died 955) was a Magyar chieftain, one of the military leaders of prince Taksony of
Hungary, the descendant of Árpád. He was one of the more important figures of the Magyar invasions of Europe. He was
captured at the Battle of Lechfeld, called the Battle of Augsburg by the Hungarians, and later executed in Regensburg.
Anonymus calls him the son of Tas, who was one of the "Seven chieftains of the Magyars", and descendent of Árpád. Most
historians agree that there is a mismatch in the timing, so he should be the son of Tas, but the grandson of Árpád. His
dukedom was the Principality of Nitra, whose territory was the Kabarian part. The cities of Alsólelóc and Felsőlelóc kept
the name of Lél. The dukedom could refer to the possibility of Lél being a would-be duke. With Bulcsú and Súr, he led the
Magyar forces at the Battle of Riade in 933. Lehel led the Nitrian Kabars at the Battle of Lechfeld. The commander was
horka Bulcsú, who was not a descendent of the Árpád. The other main military leader was Súr. The battle ended with the decisive defeat of the
Hungarians. Their three military leaders were captured and hanged at Regensburg. The fourteenth century Chronicon Pictum, written in Latin
by Marci de Kalt, tried to picture Lehel as a Hungarian hero who was defiant even in captivity: "In 955, (...) the Hungarians reached the city of
Augsburg. Close to the city, at the Lech-field, the Germans smashed the Hungarians, part of them were killed brutally, some others were
imprisoned. At that place Lehel and Bulcsú were also imprisoned, and taken in front of the emperor. When the emperor asked, why the
Hungarians are so cruel against the Christians, they replied, "We are the revenge of the highest God, sent to you as a scourge. You shall
imprison us and kill us, when we cease to chase you." Then the emperor called them: "Choose the type of death you wish". Then Lehel replied,
"Bring me my horn, which I will blow, then I will reply". The horn was handed to him, and during the preparation to blow it, he stepped forward,
and hit the emperor so strongly he died instantly. Then he said: "You will walk before me and serve me in the other world", as it is a common
belief within the Scythians, that whoever they killed in their lives will serve them in the other world. They were taken to custody and were
hanged quickly in Regensburg." This fiction cleverly reinterpreted the fact that Henry I, Duke of Bavaria died shortly after the battle of disease,
in Lehel's favour. Nowadays there is a horn described as "Lehel's horn" at Jászberény, in the Museum of Jász. This is a Byzantine ivory horn from
10-11th century and therefore can't have been the horn mentioned in the myth.
Kisa (Serbian: Kiš) was a Hungarian chieftain according to the dubious Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, a Magyar leader named Kisa (Serbian:
Kiš) led an invasion into Bosnia, where he was decisively defeated by Časlav, the Prince of Serbia (r. 927–960), somewhere on the Drina. Kisa's

widow requested from the Magyar chief to give her another army to avenge his death. With an "unknown number" of troops, the widow went for
Časlav, encountering him somewhere in Syrmia. In the night, the Magyars attacked the Serbs, captured Časlav and all of his male relatives. On
the command of the widow, all of them were bound by their hands and feet and thrown into the Sava river. Vladimir Ćorović dates this event to
c. 960.
List of Members of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi
Ndivarije was a Regent of the Burundi Kingdom from from around 1852 until ? during the minority of Mwami Mwezi IV Gisabo Bikata-
Bijoga, King of the Burundi Kingdom.
Macoonco (died May 9, 1905) was a King of the Burundi Kingdom in rebellion from around 1860 until his death on May 9, 1905.
Cyilima was a King of the Burundi Kingdom in rebellion from around 1860 until April 1906.
Ntarugera (died 1921) was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi from 1908 until 1915 and from 1915 until his
death in 1921.
Nduwumwe (died 1958) was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi from 1908 until 1915 and from 1915 until
August 28, 1929.
Ngezamayo was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi in 1915.
Karabona (died after 1929) was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi from 1915 until August 28, 1929.
Mbanzabugabo (died 1930) was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi from 1922 until August 28, 1929.
Pierre Baranyanka (1890-1973) was the Member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Burundi from 1923 until August 28, 1929.
Republic of Martyazo
The Republic of Martyazo (French: République de Martyazo) was a secessionist state proclaimed by Hutu rebels in Burundi on May 1, 1972. The
state was located inside the mountainous Vuzigo commune, between the Makamba and Lake Nyanza. On 9 May 1972, forces of the Tutsi-
dominated government of Michel Micombero occupied the region, ending the rebellion and existence of Martyazo. Due to its life span of little
more than a week, no formal government structures were ever established in Martyazo. Because of a lack of reliable information, academics
have dubbed the state "mysterious" and "ephemeral". Antoine Serukwavu was said to have been President of the state. The creation of Martyazo
and the killing of Prince Ntare V of Burundi were two events that together marked the beginning of the 1972 Civil War and Genocide.
President of the Republic of Martyazo
Antoine Serukwavu was a President of the Republic of Martyazo, secessionist state proclaimed by Hutu rebels in Burundi from May 1 until
May 9, 1972. The state was located inside the mountainous Vuzigo commune, between the Makamba and Lake Nyanza. On May 9, 1972, forces
of the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero occupied the region, ending the rebellion and existence of Martyazo. Due to its life
span of little more than a week, no formal government structures were ever established in Martyazo. Because of a lack of reliable information,
academics have dubbed the state "mysterious" and "ephemeral". Antoine Serukwavu was said to have been President of the state.
Kingdom of the Canary Islands
The Kingdom of the Canary Islands was founded in 1402/1404, although it had always recognized another country as their overlord. Its purpose
was probably entirely to conquer the Canaries, and to eventually be fully incorporated into the Crown of Castile when complete. Apart from
such earlier contact, one of the first known Europeans to have encountered the Canaries was the Genoan navigator Lancelotto Malocello. He
arrived on the island of Lanzarote, (which was probably named after him), in 1312 and stayed for almost two decades until he was expelled
during a revolt by the native Guanche under the leadership of their king Zonzamas. The conquest of the Canaries was started in 1402 by French-

Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt. He had set sail from France one year earlier with a small army. He started the conquest in a rather
friendly way by taking over the island of Lanzarote with the help of the locals. They would soon also take Fuerteventura and El Hierro. Their
present king Guadarfia was the grandson of Zonzamas, who was king when Lancelotto Malocello had visited the island earlier. When
Béthencourt left the island for reinforcements from Castile, unrest broke out because of fighting between Norman officer Gadifer de la Salle
and Berthin, in which the natives had been involved. However, Béthencourt managed to calm the situation when he returned, and the Guanche
leader was baptized on February 27, 1404, thus surrendering to the Europeans. Subsequently Jean de Béthencourt was proclaimed king of the
Canaries by Pope Innocent VII, even though he recognized the Castilians as overlords. The remaining islands, La Gomera, Gran Canaria,
Tenerife and La Palma, were gradually conquered over the course of a century or so. The native kings of Tenerife surrender to Javier Alonso
Fernández de Lugo, July 25, 1496. Jean de Béthencourt was, after his death, succeeded by his nephew Maciot de Béthencourt, who turned out to
be a tyrant. He established Teguise as the new capital. The Portuguese had been competing with the Castilians for the islands. The Castilians
suspected that Maciot would sell the islands to them, which he did in 1448. Neither the natives nor the Castilians approved, and this led to a
revolt which lasted until 1459 when the Portuguese were forced to leave. Portugal formally recognised Castile as the ruler of the Canary Islands
in 1479 as part of the Treaty of Alcáçovas. The military governor Alonso Fernández de Lugo finally conquered the islands of La Palma (in 1492–
1493) and Tenerife (in 1494–1496) for the Crown of Castile, thus completing the conquest of the island group.
List of Kings of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands
Jean de Béthencourt (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ də betɑ̃kuːʁ]) (1362–1425) was a French explorer who in 1402 led an
expedition to the Canary Islands, landing first on the north side of Lanzarote. From there he conquered for Castile the
islands of Fuerteventura (1405) and Hierro, ousting their local chieftains (majos and bimbaches, ancient peoples).
Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands but he recognized King Henry III of Castile, who had provided
aid during the conquest, as his overlord. The Canary Islands were apparently known to the Carthaginians of Cadiz. The
Roman writer Pliny called them "the Fortunate Islands". Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello is credited with the
rediscovery of the Canary Islands in 1312. In 1339, Majorcan Angelino Dulcert drew the first map of the Canaries,
labeling one of the islands "Lanzarote". Jean de Béthencourt, Baron of Saint-Martin-le-Gaillard, was born in Grainville-la-
Teinturière, province of Normandy, the son of Jean III Bethencourt and Marie de Bracquemont. During his conflicts with
the King of Navarre, King Charles V ordered demolished all fortresses of the region belonging to supporters of Navarre,
or those whose owners were unable to ensure their defense. Béthencourt's father was killed in May 1364 at the Battle of Cocherel, serving under
Bertrand du Guesclin,[2] and Jean was still a minor. Grainville was demolished in 1365. In 1377, the fifteen year old Bethencourt entered the
service of Louis I, Duke of Anjou, reaching the position of squire. Between 1387 and 1391 he held the honorary post of chancellor of Louis de
Valois, Duke of Touraine (later Duke of Orleans). In 1387, King Charles VI of France gave permission to rebuild the castle in Grainville, which
had been order demolished by Charles V. As lord of Grainville, Bethencourt held seven parishes and rights over all the goods that crossed his
land. He held Grainville as a vassal of the Count of Logueville, Olivier Du Guesclin, son of Bertrand du Guesclin. He later held it under Henry
V of England who had taken control as a result of his expeditions in France. Around this time, taking advantage of the instability of relations
between England and France, it is likely that Béthencourt engaged in piracy against both sides. In 1392 he married in Paris Jeanne de Fayel, the
daughter of Guillaume de Fayel and Marguerite de Chatillon. In 1390 he accompanied the Duke of Touraine on an expedition organized by
Genoese merchants to address Barbary piracy. The proposal by the Doge was presented as a crusade. As such it would give prestige to its
participants, a moratorium on their debts, immunity from lawsuits, and papal indulgence. The French force, consisting of 1,500 knights under
the leadership of Louis II, Duke of Bourbon lay siege to of Al-Mahdiya in Tunis. The French were unfamiliar with the terrain, lacked heavy siege
equipment, underestimated, and became embroiled in internal quarrels. The Berbers realized that they could not overcome the heavier armed
invaders. Tired of the oppressive heat and concerned about the upcoming winter, the French agreed to a treaty negotiated by the Genoese. It is
likely that Béthencourt heard stories regarding the Canary Islands from the Genoese, and of the presence of orchil, a lichen used to make a rare
and expensive dye. Here too, he again met up with Gadifer de la Salle, whom he had known previously during service under the Duke of
Orleans, and who would accompany him to the Canaries. At that time the Canary Islands were mainly frequented by merchants or Spanish
pirates. To finance his expedition he sold his house in Paris valued at 200 gold francs and some other small pieces of property in December
1401. His uncle, Robert de Bracquemont, French ambassador to Castile, loaned him 7,000 pounds against a mortgage of Bethencourt's estate.
According to Moreri, King Henry III of Castile entrusted the conquest of the Canaries to Braquemont who gave the commission to Béthencourt.
Béthencourt set sail from La Rochelle on May 1, 1402 with 280 men, mostly Gascon and Norman adventurers, including two Franciscan priests
(Pierre Bontier and Jean le Verrier who narrated the expedition in Le Canarien) and two Guanches who had been captured in an earlier Castilian
expedition and were already baptised. After passing Cape Finisterre, they put in to Cadiz, where he found some of his sailors so frightened that
they refused to continue the voyage. Of the eighty crew with which he set out, Béthencourt sailed with fifty-three. He arrived at Lanzarote, the
northernmost inhabited island. While Gadifer de la Salle explored the archipelago, Béthencourt left for Cádiz, where he acquired
reinforcements at the Castilian court. At this time a power struggle had broken out on the island between Gadifer and Berthin de Berneval,
another officer. Berthin spread dissention between the Normans of Béthencourt and the Gascons of Gadifer. Local leaders were drawn into the
conflict and scores died in the first months of Béthencourt's absence. During this time, Gadifer managed to conquer Fuerteventura and to
explore other islands. It was only with the return of Béthencourt in 1404 that peace was restored to the troubled island. De la Salle and
Béthencourt founded the city of Betancuria (as capital of the island of Fuerteventura) in 1404. Years later Bethencourt was defeated by the
aboriginals of the island of Gran Canaria (canarios) in the battle of Arguineguin at south of the island, getting the title of Great. He died in
1422, and was buried in the church of Grainville-la-Teinturiere. Some of his descendants had great power and fortune in the islands. Including
Ginés de Cabrera Béthencourt, famous for building the Casa de Los Coroneles (House Of The Colonels) in the municipal area that would
nowadays be known as La Oliva. To this day, Betancourt and other forms of his surname are quite frequent among Canary Islanders and people
of Canary Islander descent, in spite of his death without issue, thanks to the practice of baptising the natives with his surname and to the
offspring of his nephew Maciot de Béthencourt who succeeded him as lord of the islands.
Maciot de Béthencourt (died 1425) was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from December 1405 until 1415.
Pedro Barba de Campos was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from 1415 until October 1418.
Enrique de Guzmán, conde de Niebla (died 1425) was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from October 17, 1418 until his death
in 1425.

Guillén Peraza I was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from 1425 until ?.
Guillén Peraza II was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from ? until 1444.
Diego de Herrera was a King of the Kingdom of the Canary Islands from 1444 until 1476.
Guanches People
Guanches (also: Guanchis or Guanchetos) are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands. It is believed that they migrated to the
archipelago around 1000 BC or perhaps earlier. While it is generally considered that the Guanches no longer exist as a distinct ethnicity, traces
of their culture can still be found intermixed within Canarian customs and traditions, such as Silbo, the whistled language of La Gomera Island.
The Guanches were the only native people known to have lived in the Macaronesian region before the arrival of Europeans, as there is no
evidence that the Azores, Cape Verde, Madeira and the Savage Islands were inhabited before that time.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Adeje
Adeje was one of the nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) that had divided the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) before the
arrival of the conquering Spaniards and occupied the present day towns of Guía de Isora, Adeje and Vilaflor in the southwest of Tenerife. The
kings of Adeje were Betzenuriya, Pelicar, Tinerfe and Sunta.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Adeje
Atbitocazpe was mencey or king of Adeje, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife.
Betzenuriya was mencey or king of Adeje, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife.
Sunta was mencey or king of Adeje, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife.
Tinerfe "the Great" was legendary hero who was a guanche mencey (king) of the island of Tenerife (Canary
Islands, Spain). He was the son of mencey Sunta, who ruled the island in the days before the conquest of the
Canary Islands by Castilla. Tinerfe the Great lived in Adeje (like all his predecessors), approximately hundred
years before the conquest. The children of Tinerfe were: Acaimo or Acaymo (mencey (king) of Menceyato de
Tacoronte), Adjona: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Abona), Añaterve: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Güímar),
Bencomo: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Taoro), Beneharo: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Anaga), Pelicar:
(mencey (king) of Menceyato de Adeje), Pelinor: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Icode), Romen: (mencey (king)
of Menceyato de Daute) and Tegueste: (mencey (king) of Menceyato de Tegueste).
Pelinor was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Adeje in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the fifteenth century.
Alongside the menceyes of Abona and Güímar, Pelinor negotiated peace around 1490 with Pedro de Vera, Governor of
Gran Canaria, ratifying it with Alonso Fernández de Lugo at the beginning of the conquest in 1494. Once given
terminating the war, was the only Pelinor mencey that was not brought to the peninsula to be presented to the Catholic
Monarchs. As mencey sides of peace actively supported the conquerors, it was amply rewarded by the new Advanced. He
received the entire distribution Valle de Masca and 30 acres of land with water on the "Río de Chasna" (Valle de San
Lorenzo) and another 100 in the Valle de Santiago, both lots in their former domains of Adeje. Also, they consider
genealogists was granted a coat of arms. However, this condition of peace Guanche not fought injustices suffered by the
conquerors. Pelinor died around 1505.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Taoro
Taoro was one of nine Guanche menceyatos (native kingdoms) in which the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands) was divided at the time of the
arrival of the conquering Spaniards. It spanned the existing municipalities of Puerto de la Cruz, La Orotava, La Victoria de Acentejo, La Matanza
de Acentejo, Los Realejos and Santa Úrsula. Its mencey (King) at the time of the Spanish arrival was Bencomo and the final mencey was Bentor,
who ruled the kingdom from November 1495 until his suicide in February 1496.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Taoro
Bencomo, sometimes called Benchomo (c. 1438-November 1494), was the penultimate mencey or king of Taoro, a
Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife. He fought in the First Battle of Acentejo, a victory for the Guanches against

the invading Castilians, after having refused the terms of Alonso Fernández de Lugo. He may have perished on the heights of San Roque during
the Battle of Aguere alongside his brother Tinguaro. He had several children, including Dácil, Bentor, Ruiman, Rosalva, Chachiñama, and
Tiñate. Bentor succeeded him as mencey until his suicide in February of 1496.
Bentor, sometimes also called Ventor, Bentore, Benytomo, or Bentorey (c. 1463-February 1496) was the last mencey or
king of Taoro from November 1494 until February 1495. A native Guanche prince in the Canary Islands during the
second half of the 15th century, Bentor was the eldest grandson of Bencomo, the penultimate mencey (or king) of Taoro.
Taoro was one of nine menceyatos, or kingdoms, on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands before the Spanish
conquest of the islands. Bentor's mother was probably named Hañagua, although this is unclear. He succeeded his father
as mencey upon his father's death in November of 1495, and led the kingdom until his own death by suicide four months
later in February 1495. Bentor had five siblings: one sister (Dácil) and four brothers (Ruiman, Rosalva, Chachiñama, and
Tiñate). Bentor was born around 1463 in Tenerife to Adjona. Bentor, then the Crown Prince, participated in many battles
against the invading Spanish in 1495 alongside his father Bencomo, mencey of Taoro. Bencomo was killed during the
Battle of Aguere in November 1495 and Bentor, being the eldest son, was chosen as his successor. His uncles Tinguaro
and Adjona may also have participated in the battle, however Adjona did not perish like Tinguaro and lived on until 1507. Shortly after the
Battle of Aguere, Alonso Fernandez de Lugo sent Fernando Guanarteme to negotiate with Bentor, but he refused to hand over the territory.
Following the disastrous Second Battle of Acentejo which occurred in December of 1494 the Guanche forces were severely decimated. The
forces took refuge on the slope of the Tigaiga mountain after the battle, where Bentor committed suicide in February of 1495 by jumping off of
the hill and tumbling down the mountainside (it was seen as a way to keep one's honor instead of surrendering). As a consequence, the Guanche
resistance completely collapsed and the remaining menceys surrendered in the Peace of Los Realejos. The Canary Islands are now a Spanish
autonomous community. The Hotel Rural Bentor on the island of Tenerife is named after him.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Tacoronte
Tacoronte was one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) in which the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) was divided at the
time of the arrival of the conquering Spaniards. It occupied an area significantly greater than the current city of Tacoronte, including Santa
Úrsula, La Victoria de Acentejo, La Matanza de Acentejo and El Sauzal. It is believed that the first Mencey of Tacoronte may have been Rumén
or Romén, later succeeded by his son Acaimo.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Tacoronte
Rumén or Romén was mencey or king of Tacoronte, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife. It is believed that the first Mencey of
Tacoronte may have been Rumén or Romén, later succeeded by his son Acaimo.
Acaimo or Acaymo (died 1496) was mencey or king of Tacoronte, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife I from ?
until his death in 1496. He formed an alliance against the Spaniards with the mencey Beneharo and the mencey Bencomo.
Acaymo was also the name of the ruling mencey of Güímar during the appearance of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of
Canary Islands). According to the chronicler Fray Alonso de Espinosa, Acaymo was now the king of Güímar Guanche (where
the occurrence took place).
Aniaga was mencey or king of Tacoronte, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife fro 1496 until ?.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Abona
Abona was one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) that was divided the island of Tenerife after the death of mencey Tinerfe, in the
days before the conquest of the islands by the Crown of Castile. Occupied by the extension of existing municipalities Fasnia, Arico, Granadilla
de Abona, San Miguel de Abona and Arona, menceys were Atguaxoña and Adxoña (or Adjona).
King (Mencey) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Abona
Adjona, also written Adxoña or Atxoña (died before 1507) was the Guanche mencey (king) of the Menceyato de Abona at
the time of the conquest of Tenerife in the fifteenth century. Adjona normally lived in Vilaflor, in the territory of Abona,
although the historian Juan Bethencourt Alfonso indicates that mencey residence was located near the modern town of El Rio,
Arico. Adjona signed peace in 1490 with the governor of Gran Canaria, Pedro de Vera, ratifying the agreement with Alonso
Fernández de Lugo in 1494 shortly after his first landing, attaching his menceyato to the bando de paces (peace party) during
the conquest. After this, Adjona was brought to Spain by Lugo to be presented to the Catholic Monarchs along with the rest of
menceyes. As a mencey of the bando de paces, he returned to Tenerife and integrated into the new society. He died before
1507.

Kingdom (Menceyato) of Güímar
Güímar was one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdom) that was divided island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) at the time of the
arrival of the Castilian conquerors. Menceyatos of Güímar was occupied an area significantly greater than the actual municipality of Güímar,
including part of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, El Rosario, Candelaria, Arafo and Fasnia, himself and perhaps a small part of the town of Arico. In
Güímar saw the appearance of the image of the Virgin of Candelaria (patroness of the Canary Islands). Hence, this city played an important role
in the evangelization of the whole archipelago. It is believed that the first Mencey of Güímar could have been Acaymo, later succeeded by his
son Añaterve.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Güímar
Acaymo was the Guanche mencey (king) of Menceyato de Güímar in the second half 15th century during the appearance of the Virgin of
Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands). According to the chronicler Fray Alonso de Espinosa, Acaymo was now the king of Güímar Guanche
(where the occurrence took place).
Añaterve was the Guanche mencey (king) of Menceyato de Güímar at the time of the conquest of Tenerife in the
fifteenth century. Añaterve was the king of Güímar, in the territory of which there had been an evangelizing mission since
the mid-fifteenth century. Añaterve was the first mencey to join the peace pact with the Europeans. The peace agreement
was signed with the governor of Gran Canaria, Pedro de Vera in 1490 before being quickly ratified by the mencey with
Alonso Fernández de Lugo in 1494 shortly after the first landing of the conquering army. The mencey of Güímar actively
collaborated with the conquerors, providing auxiliary troops and supplies throughout the campaign. After the conquest in
1496, Añaterve was taken, along with six other menceyes, to Spain by Alonso Fernández de Lugo to be presented to the
Catholic Monarchs. Then he returned to Tenerife, to live under Spanish rule. His later history is not known.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Anaga
Anaga was one of the nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) in which was divided the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) before
the arrival of the conquering Spaniards. The area of the menceyato is now part of the municipalities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal
de La Laguna. The easternmost kingdom of the island, Anaga opposed a firm resistance against the Spaniards, under mencey Beneharo.
King (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Anaga
Beneharo was a leader-king Guanche of Menceyato de Anaga on the island of Tenerife. Beneharo was the first to oppose
Alonso Fernandez de Lugo, and joined the war camp, in conjunction with other menceyes, faced Lugo in the First Battle of
Acentejo in the Battle of Aguere and the Second Battle of Acentejo. He survived the conquest and took the name of
Fernando de Anaga or Pedro de los Santos. Currently the main image that represents a bronze statue is located in
Candelaria with the other menceyes Guanches of Tenerife.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Icod (Icode)
Icod or Icode is one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) that was divided the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) after the
death of mencey Tinerfe. He was ccupied part of the extension of the existing municipalities of San Juan de la Rambla, La Guancha and Icod de
los Vinos. His last mencey was Pelinor.
King (Mencey) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Icod (Icode)
Chincanairo was mencey or king of Icod or Icode, a Guanche menceyato on the island of Tenerife.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Daute
Daute was one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) that was divided the island of Tenerife (Spain) after the death of King Tinerfe,
in the period before the conquest of the islands by the Crown of Castile. Occupied by the extension of the existing municipalities of El Tanque,
Los Silos, Buenavista del Norte and Santiago del Teide and menceys were Cocanaymo and Romen.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Daute
Cocanaymo was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Daute in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the fifteenth century.

Romén was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Daute in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the fifteenth century.
Upon arrival of Alonso Fernández de Lugo in 1494, Romen allied with Bencomo mencey against the Spanish invasion, and
its menceyato one side of war. However, some historians based in Viana, refer to ally with Bencomo refused for not wanting
to submit to the king of Taoro dirigiese the rest in the race. For its part, he indicates that Viera y Clavijo, Romen would not
ally with Bencomo believing their domains of the danger of distant conquerors. Finally, after successive defeats and
ordered major Guanche Kings (Bencomo, Tinguaro and Bentor), Romen gave his territory in the spring of 1496 in the act
known as Paz de Los Realejos. After the surrender, Romen was brought to court to be presented to the Catholic Monarchs.
Its end is unknown, although having belonged to a band of war the possibility it was reduced to slavery, it also being
possible outside the mencey given to the Republic of Venice for the kings. Other authors believe that, although belonging
to a faction of war, may well be released, under supervision and away from the island.
Kingdom (Menceyato) of Tegueste
Tegueste was one of nine menceyatos guanches (native kingdoms) in which the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands) was divided before the
arrival of the conquering Spaniards. It occupied the whole extent of the current municipality of Tegueste along with other sites that today are
part of the municipality of San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The menceyato's lords were Tegueste I, Tegueste II and Teguaco.
List of Kings (Menceys) of the Kingdom (Menceyato) of Tegueste
Tegueste I was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Tegueste in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the fifteenth
century. Tegueste was born probably sometime in the second half of the fourteenth century. According to some sources the
eighth son was mencey Tinerfe (the Great). Tinerfe originally divided Tenerife among eight of their children, leaving out of
the distribution of two of her younger children: Tegueste and Aguahuco (Zebensui father). However, probably because these
two were the only ones of their children who took lawsuit tribute to his son Betzenuriya (first, before long, would inherit a
territory on the island), the royal house of Taoro rewarded them by giving the parts Tegueste and Punta del Hidalgo
respectively. No struggles are known for their part in the Spanish conquest, however, it is known that he was one of the
menceyes who was in the conference Tagoror with Diego de Herrera in 1464, the conquistador who gave permission to settle
in Tenerife. After the Spanish conquest, Tegueste was baptized like everybody else menceyes governing the realms of Tenerife at the time of the
conquest.
Tegueste II was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Tegueste in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the late fifteenth century.
Teguaco was a Guanche mencey king of Menceyato de Tegueste in times of the conquest of Tenerife in the late 15th century.
La Gomera and El Hierro
La Gomera (pronounced: [la ɣoˈmeɾa]) is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. In area, it is the
second-smallest of the seven main islands of this group. It belongs to the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Its capital is San Sebastián de La
Gomera, where the headquarters of the Cabildo are located. El Hierro, nicknamed Isla del Meridiano (the "Meridian Island"), is the smallest and
farthest south and west of the Canary Islands (an Autonomous Community of Spain), in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa, with a
population of 10,162 (2003).
List of Counts (title Conde/Condesa de La Gomera) of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro
Hernan Peraza el Viejo (died 1452) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1440 until his death in 1452.
Hernan Peraza el Joven (1417-June 22, 1485) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1452 until his death on June
22, 1485.
Guillén Peraza de Ayala (1485 -1565) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1485 until his death in 1565.
Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio (Medina del Campo, 1462 - Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 1501) was the Regent of the
County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1485 until her death in 1501. was the daughter of Juan de Bobadilla and the niece
of her namesake Beatriz de Bobadilla. Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio was married to ruler of La Gomera island Hernán
Peraza the Younger and after his death she became the ruler of La Gomera. During the Spanish Conquest of the Canary
Islands the island of La Gomera was not taken in battle but was incorporated into the Peraza-Herrera fiefdom through an
agreement between Hernán Peraza The Elder and some of the insular aboriginal groups who accepted the rule of the
Castilian. However, there were a number of uprisings by the guanches due to outrages committed by the rulers on the native Gomeros. The last
one, in 1488 caused the death of the islands ruler, Hernán Peraza, whose widow, Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, had to seek the assistance of
Pedro de Vera, conqueror of Gran Canaria, in order to snuff out the rebellion. The subsequent repression caused the death of two hundred
rebels and many others were sold into slavery in the Spanish markets. Christopher Columbus made La Gomera his last port of call before

crossing the Atlantic in 1492 with his three ships. He stopped here to replenish his crew's food and water supplies, intending to stay only four
days. Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio, the Countess of La Gomera and widow of Hernán Peraza the Younger, offered him vital support in
preparations of the fleet and he ended up staying one month.When he finally sailed, she gave him cuttings of sugarcane, which became the first
to reach the New World. Beatriz de Bobadilla y Ossorio had two children Guillén and Inés.
Alonso Fernandez de Lugo (1456-May 20, 1525) was a Spanish military man, conquistador, city
founder, and administrator. He conquered the islands of La Palma (1492–1493) and Tenerife (1494–1496) for
the Castilian Crown; they were the last of the Canary Islands to be conquered by Europeans. He was also
Regent of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1501 until ?. He was also the founder of the towns of
San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Santa Cruz de La Palma. One biographer has written
that his personality was a “terrible mixture of cruelty and ambition or greed, on one part, and on the other a
great capacity and sense for imposing order and government on conquered lands,” a trait found in the
conquistadors of the New World. Fernández de Lugo was born in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, in Spain, during the
reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, though his family was of Galician origin; his relatives, as his surname
indicates, originated in the city of Lugo and other Galician locales. Nothing much is known of his youth. He
enlisted in the navy and ended up achieving the rank of Adelantado and Captain General of the African coasts. In 1478, he participated in the
conquest of Gran Canaria under the command of Juan Rejón. Later, he fought alongside Pedro de Vera, Rejón's successor as governor of Gran
Canaria, who conferred on him command of the castle of Agaete on the island of Gran Canaria. He returned to Spain to solicit financial aid
from the Crown to conquer Tenerife and La Palma. He was named governor of La Palma and granted 700,000 maravedis with the condition that
he conquer the island within a year. The conquest of La Palma began on September 29, 1492, when Fernández de Lugo landed on the beaches of
Tazacorte. He encountered fierce resistance from some Guanches chiefs there. However, the menceys, or Guanche kings, of La Palma
surrendered in April 1493, except for Tanausu, who ruled the area known as Acero (Caldera de Taburiente). However, Tanausu was ambushed
and captured in May 1493 after agreeing to a truce arranged by Fernández de Lugo and Juan de Palma, a Guanche who had converted to
Christianity and who was a relative of Tanausu. The conquest of La Palma was completed on May 3, 1493. He left the administration of La
Palma in the hands of his nephew Juan, and planned the conquest of Tenerife. During the conquest of Tenerife, he suffered a severe defeat at
the First Battle of Acentejo (May 31, 1494). At the First Battle of Acentejo, Fernández de Lugo, though wounded, had been able to escape with
his life only by exchanging the red cape of an Adelantado for that of a common soldier. An additional detail from that battle, however, was that
a rock thrown at Fernández de Lugo's head by a Guanche resulted in his losing most of his teeth. By October 1495, he had gathered together a
second, larger army, and received assistance from the Duke of Medina Sidonia and other nobles. Humiliated and cautious after the First Battle
of Acentejo, which had been disastrous for the Spaniards, Fernández de Lugo had advanced gradually across the island, building and rebuilding
forts. The expedition, which Lugo had funded with the sale of all of his properties, had landed at Añazo, where he built two towers on the spot
where he had constructed his first fort before his prior defeat. He had more experienced troops under his command -these included 1,000 foot
soldiers, veterans of the conquest of Granada, lent to him by the Duke of Medina Sidonia. Fernández de Lugo also had the support of Ferdinand
and Isabella, who had given him ten more months to complete his conquest of the Canaries. During this time of regrouping, he also captured
many slaves in the area. With this better-planned military strategy, he achieved victory over the Guanches of Tenerife at the Battle of Aguere
(November 14–15, 1494) and the Second Battle of Acentejo (December 25, 1494). He was named governor and chief justice of both Tenerife and
La Palma, Captain General of the coast of Africa. He was named Adelantado on January 12, 1503, a title confirmed again by Charles I of Spain,
in Barcelona, on August 17, 1519. It was an inherited title. The current Rightful Successor of the title "Adelantado of the Canary Islands Tenerife
and La Palma, Captain General of the coast of Africa" is Felix Alberto Lugo III. Fernández de Lugo was given extensive powers over these
islands, since he had been financially responsible for their conquest. On La Palma, he had control over the distribution of land and water.
Though he preferred to live on Tenerife, Fernández de Lugo reserved the rich area of Los Sauces on La Palma, north of the island's capital, for
himself. His nephew and lieutenant received La Caldera in 1502. His rule as adelantado was characterized by extreme despotism and harsh rule,
and he treated the defeated Guanches like spoils of war. Legally, Guanches were regarded as being at the same level of Moors –in other words,
enemies of Christianity- and he sold many of them into slavery. His treatment of his defeated subjects was so harsh that Ferdinand and Isabella
intervened, requesting that the governor of Gran Canaria, Sánchez de Valenzuela, free some of the Guanches who had been enslaved by his
counterpart in Tenerife. On both islands, he exercised civil and criminal jurisdiction and the right to appoint and dismiss judicial deputies, and
also had control over the disposition of slaves and inhabitants' entry and exit from the islands. Fernández de Lugo also introduced measures to
limit the sale of land to create a permanent base of settlers. He oversaw extension immigration to Tenerife and La Palma during a short period
from the late 1490s to the 1520s from mainland Europe, and immigrants included Castilians, Portuguese, Italians, Catalans, Basques, and
Flemings. At subsequent judicial enquiries, Fernández de Lugo was accused of favoring Genoese and Portuguese immigrants over Castilians. On
Tenerife, he founded the town of San Cristóbal de La Laguna. La Plaza del Adelantado and Calle Adelantado, in this town, are named after him.
A local legend states that upon the death of one of his sons in the town, Fernández de Lugo ordered that the street of La Carrera be made
twisted rather than straight so that he would not have to see the site of his son's death from his residence. On La Palma, he founded the town of
Santa Cruz de La Palma (at first called Villa del Apurión) on May 3, 1493. On July 21, 1509 he had transferred his titles and rights of the African
coast, acquired in 1499, to his son, Pedro Fernández de Lugo, who later participated in expeditions to the New World. He is buried in the
Cathedral of La Laguna. Alonso Fernández de Lugo appeared on a 1961 postal stamp for the Spanish Sahara.
Luis Peraza de Ayala was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1565 until 1591.
Diego de Ayala y Castilla was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from ? until 1610 (in opposition to Peraza).
Gaspar de Castilla Guzman was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1610 until 1618.
Diego II de Guzman Ayala y Castilla was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1618 until October 1653.
Gaspar II de Ayala y Rojas was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1653 until 1662.
Diego III de Ayala Herrera y Rojas was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1662 until 1668.
Juan Bautista de Herrera (1665 - 1718) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1668 until his death in 1718.

Mariana de Ponte was a Countess of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1668 until 1718.
Juan Bautista de Ponte y Pagés, Marqués de Adexe (d. 1680) was the Regent of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1668 until
his death in 1680.
Cristobál de Ponte Juarez, Marqués de Quinta Roja was the Regent of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1452 until his death
on June 22, 1485.
Juan Bautista II de Herrera was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1718 until 1737.
Antonio Jose de Herrera Ayala y Rojas was a Count of of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1737 until 1748.
Domingo de Herrera was a Count of of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1748 until December 14, 1766.
Florencia Pizarro Piccolomini y Herrera (1727-1794) was a Countess of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1767 until her
death in 1794.
Juan de la Cruz Belvis de Moncada y Pizarro (1755- 1835) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1794 until
his death in 1835.
Antonio Belvis de Moncada y Álvarez de Toledo (1775-1842) was a Count of the County of La Gomera and El Hierro from 1835
until his death in 1842.
José Álvarez de las Asturias-Bohórquez y Belvis de Moncada(1822 -February 18, 1852) was a Count of the County of La Gomera
and El Hierro from 1842 until his death on February 18, 1852.
The Republic of Acre (Portuguese: República do Acre), (Spanish: República del Acre) or the Independent State of Acre (Portuguese: Estado
Independente do Acre), (Spanish: Estado Independiente del Acre) were the names of a series of separatist governments in then Bolivia's Acre
region between 1899 and 1903. The region was eventually annexed by Brazil in 1903 and is now the state of Acre. The territory of Acre was
assigned to Bolivia in 1867 by the Treaty of Ayacucho with Brazil. Due to the rubber boom of the late 19th century, the region attracted many
Brazilian migrants. In 1899-1900, the Spanish journalist and former diplomat Luis Gálvez Rodríguez de Arias led an expedition that sought to
seize control of what is now Acre from Bolivia. The expedition was secretly financed by the Amazonas state government and aimed to
incorporate Acre into Brazil after its independence from Bolivia. Gálvez declared himself president of the First Republic of Acre on July 14, 1899
and set up his capital at Antimary, which he renamed Arieopolis. That first republic lasted until March 1900, when the Brazilian government
sent troops to arrest Gálvez and give Acre back to Bolivia. Gálvez was deported to Spain and the inhabitants of Acre found themselves up against
both Bolivia and Brazil. In November 1900 an attempt was made at creating a Second Acre Republic with Rodrigo de Carvalho as president.
Again the movement was suppressed, and Acre remained part of Bolivia until 1903. After the failure of the second attempt of Acre to secede
from Bolivia, a veteran soldier from Rio Grande do Sul who had fought in the Federalist Revolution of 1893, José Plácido de Castro, was
approached by the Acrean Revolution leaders and offered the opportunity to lead the independence movement against the Bolivians. Plácido,
who had been working in Acre since 1899 as a chief surveyor of a surveying expedition and was about to go back to Rio de Janeiro, accepted the
offer. He imposed strict military discipline and reorganized the revolutionary army, which reached 30,000 men. The Acrean army won battle
after battle and on January 27, 1903, José Plácido de Castro declared the Third Republic of Acre. President Rodrigues Alves of Brazil ordered
Brazilian troops into Northern Acre in order to replace Plácido as the president of Acre. Through Barão do Rio Branco's most able ministerial
diplomacy, the question was settled. After negotiations a treaty was signed. The Treaty of Petrópolis, which was signed on November 11, 1903,
gave Brazil Acre (191.000 km²) in exchange for lands in Mato Grosso, payment of two million pounds sterling and an undertaking to construct
the Madeira-Mamoré railroad that would allow Bolivia access to the outside world. For forty years, after around 1860, Acre had been overrun by
Brazilians, who made up the vast majority of the population. On February 25, 1904 it was officially made a federal territory of Brazil. The
Republic of Acre forms the background to Márcio Souza's 1976 novel Galvez Imperador do Acre.
Luis Galvez Rodriguez Arias (San Fernando, 1864 - Madrid, 1935) was a journalist, diplomat and Spanish adventurer who proclaimed the
Republic of Acre in 1899, ruled from July 14, 1899 until January 1, 1900 and from January 30 until March 15, 1900. Galvez studied law and
worked as a diplomat in Europe. He emigrated to South America in order to find the mythical El Dorado in the Amazon. In Manaus, he wrote
for the newspaper Commercio do Amazonas. When translating a document on Bolivia, he decided to go to Acre. Supported financially by the
government of Amazonas, he hoped to annex the region, rich in rubber, was commissioned to take Acre, mostly inhabited by Brazilians, but part
of the territory of Bolivia. He led a rebellion in Acre, with workers in rubber plantations ("tappers") and veterans of the War of Cuba, on July 14,
1899, the date chosen by celebrated 110 years anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. He founded the Independent Republic of Acre,
justifying that "can not be Brazilians, accepted seringueiros Acreanos not become Bolivian". Called Emperor of Acre, he assumed the interim
office of president, created the current flag, organized ministries, founded schools, hospitals, an army, fire department, served as a judge, issued

stamps and idealized a modern country for the time, with social, environmental and urban concerns. A coup in his government only six months
of existence it stepped down and was replaced by Antonio de Sousa seringalista cearense Braga, a month later he returned power to Galvez. The
Treaty of Ayacucho, signed in 1867 between Brazil and Bolivia, as recognized Bolivian Acre possession. Therefore, the Brazilian federal
government dispatched a military expedition composed of four warships and another carrying infantry troops to arrest Luis Galvez, dismiss the
Republic of Acre and return to the Bolivian region domains. On March 11, 1900, Luis Gálvez surrendered to force the Brazilian Navy, in
Caquetá, along the Acre River, and returned to Europe. Although Galvez returned to Brazil years later, the government of Amazonas and took
prisoner detained at Fort São Joaquim in Rio Branco, state of Roraima, where flee. He died in Spain in 1935.
Antônio de Sousa Braga was the President of the First Republic of Acre from January 1 until January 30, 1900.
Joaquim Vítor da Silva was the President of the First Republic of Acre in 1900.
Rodrigo de Carvalho was the President of the Second Republic of Acre from November 1900 until probanly 1903.In November 1900 an attempt
was made at creating a Second Acre Republic with Rodrigo de Carvalho as president. Again the movement was suppressed, and Acre remained
part of Bolivia until 1903.
José Plácido de Castro (São Gabriel, September 9, 1873 - Seringal Benfica, August 11, 1908) was a Brazilian politican and President of the Third
Republic of Acre from January 27 until November 11, 1903. After the failure of the second attempt of Acre to secede from Bolivia, a veteran
soldier from Rio Grande do Sul who had fought in the Federalist Revolution of 1893, José Plácido de Castro, was approached by the Acrean
Revolution leaders and offered the opportunity to lead the independence movement against the Bolivians. Plácido, who had been working in
Acre since 1899 as a chief surveyor of a surveying expedition and was about to go back to Rio de Janeiro, accepted the offer. He imposed strict
military discipline and reorganized the revolutionary army, which reached 30,000 men. The Acrean army won battle after battle and on January
27, 1903, José Plácido de Castro declared the Third Republic of Acre. President Rodrigues Alves of Brazil ordered Brazilian troops into Northern
Acre in order to replace Plácido as the president of Acre. Through Barão do Rio Branco's most able ministerial diplomacy, the question was
settled. After negotiations a treaty was signed. The Treaty of Petrópolis, which was signed on November 11, 1903, gave Brazil Acre (191.000 km²)
in exchange for lands in Mato Grosso, payment of two million pounds sterling and an undertaking to construct the Madeira-Mamoré railroad
that would allow Bolivia access to the outside world. For forty years, after around 1860, Acre had been overrun by Brazilians, who made up the
vast majority of the population. On February 25, 1904 it was officially made a federal territory of Brazil.
The California Republic was a short-lived, unrecognized state that, for a few weeks in 1846, militarily controlled the area to the north of the San
Francisco Bay in the present-day state of California. In June 1846, a number of American immigrants in Alta California rebelled against the
Mexican department’s government. The immigrants had not been allowed to buy or rent land and had been threatened with expulsion from
California because they had entered without official permission. Mexican officials were concerned about a coming war with the United States
coupled with the growing influx of Americans into California. The rebellion was soon overtaken by the beginning of the Mexican–American
War. The term "California Republic" appeared only on the flag the insurgents raised in Sonoma. It indicated their aspiration of forming a
republican government for California. The insurgents elected military officers but no civil structure was ever established. The flag featured an
image of a California grizzly bear and became known as the Bear Flag and the revolt as the Bear Flag Revolt. Three weeks later, on July 5, 1846,
the Republic's military of 100 to 200 men was subsumed into the California Battalion commanded by U.S. Army Brevet Captain John C.
Frémont. The Bear Flag Revolt and whatever remained of the "California Republic" ceased to exist on July 9 when U.S. Navy Lieutenant Joseph
Revere raised the United States flag in front of the Sonoma Barracks and sent a second flag to be raised at Sutter's Fort.
William Brown Ide (March 28, 1796 – December 19 or 20, 1852) was a California pioneer who headed the short-lived California Republic from
June 14 until July 9, 1846. William Ide was born in Rutland, Massachusetts to Lemuel Ide, a member of the Vermont State Legislature. A
carpenter by trade, Ide married Susan Grout Haskell (1799–1850) in 1820. He and his wife Susan lived at first in Massachusetts, but soon began
moving westward to Kentucky, then to Ohio and finally to Illinois. They farmed in Springfield, where Ide supplemented his income by teaching
school. Since at least as early as 1886 and as late as 1993, some historians have argued that Ide was never a member of The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-day Saints. This argument was settled in 2014 in the affirmative, however, when researchers Roger Robin Ekins, Michael N.
Landon and Richard K. Behrens positively identified an unsigned letter in the archives of the LDS Church as being penned by Ide. Ekins has laid
out all of the arguments on both sides of this controversy, positively concluding that Ide was baptized a Mormon in July 1837, was likely set
apart as the President of the Springville Branch of the Church in July 1844 and was called on a mission to assist Joseph Smith's campaign for the
Presidency of the United States on April 6, 1844. Accordingly, Ide and his family were the first known Mormons to enter California and Ide as
President of the short-lived Republic of California was, arguably, the first LDS head of state. In 1845, Ide sold his farm and joined a wagon train
in Independence, Missouri headed for Oregon. On the advice of the mountain man Caleb Greenwood, Ide and a group of settlers split off and
headed to Alta California, then a province of Mexico. They arrived at Sutter's Fort on October 25, 1845. Ide traveled north to work for Peter
Lassen on Rancho Bosquejo.
In 1846, on a report that the Mexican government was threatening to expel all settlers who were not Mexican citizens, about thirty settlers
conducted what was to become known as the Bear Flag Revolt. On June 14, Ide and the others seized the pueblo of Sonoma and captured the
Mexican Commandante of Northern California, Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, who in fact supported American annexation. On June 15, Ide
released the Proclamation he had written the night before. By noon of June 17, the rebels raised the new California Bear Flag, proclaiming the
Mexican province to be the California Republic. Ide had been chosen to serve as commander. The Bear Flag Republic lasted until July 9, 1846,
just 25 days, until the U.S. Flag was raised at Sonoma. Ide and other "Bear Flaggers" joined John C. Frémont and the U.S. armed forces in taking
possession of California from Mexico. After the Mexican–American War, Ide returned to his home near Red Bluff, California, where he resumed
his partnership with Josiah Belden at his Rancho Barranca Colorado. He bought out Belden in 1849, and was successful in mining. Ide went on
to a distinguished career as a public servant in Colusi County (the precursor to portions of today's Colusa, Glenn and Shasta Counties). There he
served as Probate and County Judge, Presiding Judge of the Court of Sessions, County Recorder, County Auditor, County Clerk, County
Treasurer, Deputy County Surveyor and Deputy Sheriff. Ide died of smallpox in December 1852, probably during the night of the 19th–20th, at
the age of 56. He is buried in a small cemetery on the east side of Highway 45 5 miles south of Hamilton City at the former site of Monroeville
where a monument is visible from the road. On June 7, 2014 new gravestones, created by William B. Ide Adobe State Historic Park docent David
Freeman, were dedicated by S. Dennis Holland, President of the California Pioneer Heritage Foundation & Director of Public Affairs of LDS

Historic Sites in California. William B. Ide Adobe State Historic Park, comprising a restored adobe house and other buildings near Red Bluff,
commemorates his life.
The State of Deseret (Listeni/ˌdɛzəˈrɛt/) was a provisional state of the United States, proposed in 1849 by settlers from The Church of Jesus Christ
of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in Salt Lake City. The provisional state existed for slightly over two years and was never recognized by the
United States government. The name derives from the word for "honeybee" in the Book of Mormon.
Brigham Young (June 1, 1801 – August 29, 1877) was an American leader in the Latter Day Saint movement and a settler of the Western United
States. He was the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) from 1847 until his death in 1877. He founded Salt
Lake City and he served as the first governor of the Utah Territory. Young also led the foundings of the precursors to the University of Utah
and Brigham Young University. He was also President of the State of Deseret from 1849 until 1850. Young had many nicknames, among the
most popular being "American Moses" (alternatively, the "Modern Moses" or the "Mormon Moses"), because, like the biblical figure, Young led
his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was dubbed by his followers the
"Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality, and was also commonly called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. Young was a polygamist and
was involved in controversies regarding black people and the Priesthood, the Utah War, and the Mountain Meadows massacre. From left to
right: Lorenzo Dow, Brigham, Phineas H., Joseph, and John. Young was born to John and Abigail "Nabby" Young (née Howe), a farming family
in Whitingham, Vermont, and worked as a travelling carpenter and blacksmith, among other trades. Young was first married in 1824 to Miriam
Angeline Works. Though he had converted to the Methodist faith in 1823, Young was drawn to Mormonism after reading the Book of Mormon
shortly after its publication in 1830. He officially joined the new church in 1832 and traveled to Upper Canada as a missionary. After his wife
died in 1832, Young joined many Mormons in establishing a community in Kirtland, Ohio. Young was ordained a member of the original
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in 1835, and he assumed a leadership role within that organization in taking Mormonism to the United
Kingdom and organizing the exodus of Latter Day Saints from Missouri in 1838. In 1844, while in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, Joseph
Smith, president of the church, was killed by an armed mob. Several claimants to the role of church president emerged during the succession
crisis that ensued. Before a large meeting convened to discuss the succession in Nauvoo, Illinois, Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of
the church's First Presidency, argued there could be no successor to the deceased prophet and that he should be made the "Protector" of the
church. Young opposed this reasoning and motion. Smith had earlier recorded a revelation which stated the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles
was "equal in authority and power" to the First Presidency, so Young claimed that the leadership of the church fell to the Twelve Apostles. The
majority in attendance were persuaded that the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles was to lead the church with Young as the Quorum's president.
Many of Young's followers would later reminisce that while Young spoke to the congregation, he looked or sounded exactly like Smith, to
which they attributed the power of God. Young was ordained President of the Church in December 1847, three and a half years after Smith's
death. Rigdon became the president of a separate church organization based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and other potential successors
emerged to lead what became other denominations of the movement. Repeated conflict led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to
the Salt Lake Valley, then part of Mexico. Young organized the journey that would take the faithful to Winter Quarters, Nebraska, in 1846, then
to the Salt Lake Valley. Young arrived in the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847, a date now recognized as Pioneer Day in Utah. On August 22,
just 29 days after arriving, Young organized the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. After three years of leading the church as the President of the
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, in 1847 Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was declared president of the church on December 27,
1847. As colonizer and founder of Salt Lake City, Young was appointed the territory's first governor and superintendent of American Indian
affairs by President Millard Fillmore. During his time as governor, Young directed the establishment of settlements throughout present-day
Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, California and parts of southern Colorado and northern Mexico. Under his direction, the Mormons built roads
and bridges, forts, irrigation projects; established public welfare; organized a militia; and made peace with the Native Americans. Young
organized the first legislature and established Fillmore as the territory's first capital. Young organized a Board of Regents to establish a
university in the Salt Lake Valley. It was established on February 28, 1850, as the University of Deseret; its name was eventually changed to the
University of Utah. In 1851, Young and several federal officials, including territorial Secretary Broughton Harris, became unable to work
cooperatively. Harris and the others departed Utah without replacements being named, and these individuals later became known as the
Runaway Officials of 1851. In 1856, Young organized an efficient mail service. In 1858, following the events of the Utah War, he stepped down
to his successor Alfred Cumming. Young was the longest serving President of the LDS Church in history, having served for 29 years. Having
previously established the University of Deseret during his tenure as governor, on October 16, 1875, Young personally purchased land in Provo,
Utah, to extend the reach of the University of Deseret. Young said, "I hope to see an Academy established in Provo ... at which the children of the
Latter-day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools
of the country." The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy,[20] the precursor to Brigham
Young University. Within the church, Young reorganized the Relief Society for women (1867), and he created organizations for young women
(1869) and young men (1875). Young was involved in temple building throughout his membership in the LDS Church and made temple
building a priority of his church presidency. Under Smith's leadership, Young participated in the building of the Kirtland and Nauvoo temples.
Just four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Young designated the location for the Salt Lake Temple; he presided over its
groundbreaking on April 6, 1853. During his tenure, Young oversaw construction of the Salt Lake Tabernacle and he announced plans to build
the St. George (1871), Manti (1875), and Logan (1877) temples. He also provisioned the building of the Endowment House, a "temporary temple"
which began to be used in 1855 to provide temple ordinances to church members while the Salt Lake Temple was under construction. Though
polygamy was practiced by Young's predecessor Joseph Smith, the practice is often associated with Young. Some Latter Day Saint
denominations, such as the Community of Christ, consider Young the "Father of Mormon Polygamy". In 1853, Young made the church's first
official statement on the subject since the church had arrived in Utah. He spoke about the issue nine years after the purported original
revelation of Smith, and five years after the Mormon Exodus to Utah. One of the more controversial teachings of Young was the Adam–God
doctrine. According to Young, he was taught by Smith that Adam is "our Father and our God, and the only God with whom we have to do".
According to the doctrine, Adam was once a mortal man who became resurrected and exalted. From another planet, Adam brought Eve, one of
his wives, with him to the earth, where they became mortal by eating the fruit of the Garden of Eden. After bearing mortal children and
establishing the human race, Adam and Eve returned to their heavenly thrones where Adam acts as the god of this world. Later, as Young is
generally understood to have taught, Adam returned to the earth to become the biological father of Jesus. The LDS Church has since
repudiated the Adam–God doctrine. Young is generally considered to have instituted a church ban against conferring the priesthood on men of
black African descent, who had been treated equally in this respect under Joseph Smith's presidency. After settling in Utah in 1848, Young
announced the ban, which also forbade blacks from participating in Mormon temple rites such as the endowment or sealings. On many
occasions, Young taught that blacks were denied the priesthood because they were "the seed of Cain", but also stated that they would eventually

receive the priesthood after "all the other children of Adam have the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of
God, and of being redeemed from the four quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough
to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity." In 1863, Young stated "Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? If the
white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This
will always be so." These racial restrictions remained in place until 1978, when the policy was rescinded by LDS Church president Spencer W.
Kimball, and the LDS Church subsequently "disavow[ed] theories advanced in the past" to explain this ban, thereby "plac[ing] the origins of black
priesthood denial blame squarely on Brigham Young." Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Mormon colonies were
incorporated into the United States through the Mexican Cession. Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret. The
Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory and Young was installed as governor. As governor and church president, Young directed
both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in
neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic. When federal officials
received reports of widespread and systematic obstruction of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan
decided to install a non-Mormon governor. Buchanan accepted the reports of the judges without any further investigation, and the new non-
sectarian governor was accompanied by troops sent to garrison forts in the new territory. The troops passed by the bloody Kansas–Missouri war
without intervening in it, as it was not open warfare and only isolated sporadic incidents. When Young received word that federal troops were
headed to Utah with his replacement, he called out his militia to ambush the federal force. During the defense of Utah, now called the Utah
War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter by taking their cattle and burning supply wagons. The Mormon forces were largely
successful thanks to Lot Smith. Young made plans to burn Salt Lake City and move his followers to Mexico, but at the last minute he relented
and agreed to step down as governor[citation needed]. He later received a pardon from Buchanan. Relations between Young and future
governors and U.S. Presidents were mixed. The degree of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows massacre, which took place in
Washington County in 1857, is disputed. Leonard J. Arrington reports that Young received a rider at his office on the day of the massacre, and
that when he learned of the contemplated attack by the members of the LDS Church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter directing
that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested. Young's letter reportedly arrived on September 13, 1857, two days
after the massacre. As governor, Young had promised the federal government he would protect immigrants passing through Utah Territory,
but over 120 men, women and children were killed in this incident. There is no debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from
the surrounding communities by scholars. Only children under the age of seven, who were cared for by local Mormon families, survived, and
the murdered members of the wagon train were left unburied. The remains of about forty people were later found and buried, and Union Army
officer James Henry Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, "Vengeance Is Mine, Saith
The Lord: I Will Repay" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site. A large slab of granite was put up on which he had the following words
engraved: "Here 120 men, women and children were massacred in cold blood early in September, 1857. They were from Arkansas." For two
years the monument stood as a memorial to those travelling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow. Some claim that, in 1861, Young
brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows and had the cairn and cross destroyed, while exclaiming, "Vengeance is mine and I have taken a
little". Before his death in Salt Lake City on August 29, 1877, Young was suffering from cholera morbus and inflammation of the bowels. It is
believed that he died of peritonitis from a ruptured appendix. His last words were "Joseph! Joseph! Joseph!", invoking the name of the late Joseph
Smith, founder of the Mormon faith. On September 2, 1877, Young's funeral was held in the Tabernacle with an estimated 12,000 to 15,000
people in attendance. He is buried on the grounds of the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monumentin the heart of Salt Lake City. A bronze marker
was placed at the grave site June 10, 1938, by members of the Young Men and Young Women organizations, which he founded. Joseph Smith
was succeeded by one of the outstanding organizers of the 19th century, Brigham Young. If the circumstances of his life had worked out
differently [he] might have become a captain of industry an Andrew Carnegie or John D. Rockefeller or a railroad builder. Instead, this able,
energetic, earthy man became the absolute ruler and the revered, genuinely loved father figure of all Mormons everywhere. He credited
Young's leadership with helping to settle much of the American West: During the 30 years between the Mormons' arrival in Utah in 1847 and
[his death in] 1877, Young directed the founding of 350 towns in the Southwest. Thereby the Mormons became the most important single
agency in colonizing that vast arid West between the Rockies and the Sierra Nevada. Memorials to Young include a bronze statue in front of the
Abraham O. Smoot Administration Building, Brigham Young University; a marble statue in the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United
States Capitol, donated by the State of Utah in 1950; and a statue atop the This is the Place Monument in Salt Lake City. Young was a
polygamist, marrying a total of 55 wives, 54 of them after he converted to Mormonism. The policy was difficult for many in the church. Young
stated that upon being taught about plural marriage, "It was the first time in my life that I desired the grave." By the time of his death, Young
had 56 children by 16 of his wives; 46 of his children reached adulthood. Sources have varied on the number of Young's wives, due to differences
in what scholars have considered to be a "wife". There were 55 women that Young was sealed to during his lifetime. While the majority of the
sealings were "for eternity", some were "for time only". Researchers believe that not all of the 55 marriages were conjugal. Young did not live
with a number of his wives or publicly hold them out as wives, which has led to confusion on the number and identities. This is in part due to
the complexity of how wives were identified in the Mormon society at the time. “Young's ability to keep [dozens of] wives from quarreling and so
many children from overwhelming him would in itself prove that [he] must have been a remarkable, not to say a master, diplomat.” Of Young's
55 wives, 21 had never been married before; 16 were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands; and the marital status of six others are
unknown. In 1856, Young built the Lion House to accommodate his sizable family. This building remains a Salt Lake City landmark, together
with the Beehive House, another Young family home. A contemporary of Young wrote: "It was amusing to walk by Brigham Young's big house,
a long rambling building with innumerable doors. Each wife has an establishment of her own, consisting of parlor, bedroom, and a front door,
the key of which she keeps in her pocket." At the time of Young's death, 19 of his wives had predeceased him, he was divorced from ten, and 23
survived him. The status of four was unknown. One of his wives, Zina Huntington Young, served as the third president of the Relief Society. In
his will, Young shared his estate with the 16 surviving wives who had lived with him; the six surviving non-conjugal wives were not mentioned
in the will. In 1902, 25 years after his death, the New York Times established that Young's direct descendants numbered more than 1,000. Some
of Young's descendants have become leaders in the LDS Church, while other have become notable for events outside of LDS Church service.
Arthur Conan Doyle based his first Sherlock Holmes novel, A Study in Scarlet, on Mormon history, mentioning Young by name. When asked to
comment on the story, which had "provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful", Conan Doyle noted, "all I said about the Danite Band and
the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history."
Doyle's daughter stated that "You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the
Mormons." Florence Claxton's graphic novel The Adventures of a Woman in Search of her Rights (1872), satirizes a would-be emancipated
woman whose failure to establish an independent career results in her marriage to Young before she wakes to discover she's been dreaming.
Mark Twain devoted a chapter and much of an appendix to Young in Roughing It. The actor Byron Morrow played Young in a cameo
appearance in the 1966 episode "An Organ for Brother Brigham" in the syndicated western television series, Death Valley Days. In the story line,
the organ built and guided west to Salt Lake City by Joseph Harris Ridges (1827-1914) of Australia becomes mired in the sand. Morgan
Woodward was cast as wagon master Luke Winner who feels compelled to leave the instrument behind until Ridges finds solid rock under the

sand. Since Young's death, a number of works have published collections of his discourses and sayings: Teachings of President Brigham Young:
Salvation for the Dead, the Spirit World, and Kindred Subjects. Seagull Press. 1922, Brigham Young (1925). Discourses of Brigham Young.
selected by John A. Widtsoe. Deseret Book, Young, Brigham (1952). The Best from Brigham Young: Statements from His Sermons on Religion,
Education, and Community Building selected by Alice K. Chase, Deseret Book Company, Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1801–1844.
Eldon J. Watson. 1969, Manuscript History of Brigham Young, 1846–1847. Eldon J. Watson. 1971, Dean C. Jessee, ed. (1974). Letters of Brigham
Young to His Sons. Deseret Book Company, Everett L. Cooley, ed. (1980). Diary of Brigham Young, 1857. Tanner Trust Fund, University of Utah
Library, The Essential Brigham Young. Signature Books. 1992. ISBN1-56085-010-8, Teachingsof Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young. The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1997. LDS Church publication number 35554 and Young, Brigham (2009). Richard Van Wagoner, ed.
The Complete Discourses of Brigham Young 5. Smith-Pettit Foundation. ISBN 978-1-56085-206-3.
The Republic of Entre Ríos was a short-lived republic in South America in the early nineteenth century. Comprising approximately 166,980km2
(64,470 sq mi) of what are today the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes, the country was founded in 1820 by the caudillo General
Francisco Ramírez (who styled himself jefe supremo, supreme chief) and lasted only one year.
Francisco Ramírez, also known as "Pancho" Ramirez (1786 – 1821), was an Argentine Governor of Entre Ríos from February 23 until September
29, 1820 and Supreme Chief (Jefe Supremo) of the Republic of Entre Rios from September 29, 1820 until July 10, 1821. Francisco Ramírez was
born at Concepción del Uruguay in 1786. The son of a Paraguayan merchant and a half-brother of Ricardo López Jordán, he achieved fame
when young in the military of his birth town. He joined the patriots in 1810, working with Díaz Vélez and Rondeau. At the outbreak of the May
Revolution he served in the patriot army. In October 1811, the town's soldiers recaptured it for the patriots, directed by Ramírez among others.
He acquired a certain notoriety for fighting alongside the federal leader José Gervasio Artigas with Ricardo López Jordán. They fought in the
Banda Oriental against the Royalists. Faithful to Artigas, when the Buenos Aires Director declared his opposition to Artigas, Ramírez defended
him, fighting under Eusebio Hereñú, Artigas' deputy in the region. After the defeat of the Baron von Holmberg, the commander of the
centralist side, Ramírez joined Hereñú to defend the Banda Oriental against the Portuguese invasions. The Banda Oriental was finally
conquered by the Empire of Brazil. Ramírez and Hereñú also took Santa Fe Province in alliance with Estanislao López. Once governor of Entre
Ríos, Ramírez allied with Estanislao López, from Santa Fe, against Buenos Aires. The Supreme Director Juan Martín de Pueyrredón attempted a
conciliatory policy and made a pact with Hereñú to reincorporate Entre Ríos into the Buenos Aires faction. Ramírez took arms against Hereñú
and defeated him in 1817. He was in charge of the Uruguay River region as a deputy for Artigas. The Paraná River and La Bajada region were
officially in the hands of other men, but in practice they were run by Ramírez. With the eastern forces occupied by defending against the
Portuguese, Ramírez had to face the directorial army that invaded his province in 1818. He defeated the colonel Luciano Montes de Oca. He
attacked with his troops who had just landed in the vicinity of the Arroyo de la China, and on March 9, he blocked the invasion by General
Marcos González de Balcarce near Paraná. Not long after, he had to defent against Iuso-Brazilian attacks in his own province. The same year he
advanced across Corrientes Province, deposing the governor who had been put in place by the Director. But the acute confrontation with the
Buenos Aires forces made him highlight his half-brother Ricardo López Jordán who was helping Estanislao López, who had been attacked by
Juan Ramón Balcarce, and a little later he found himself facing Hereñú again. Among the leaders of that time, Ramírez stands out as one of the
most capable; he was never defeated, even after being betrayed and outnumbered. Various chroniclers testified that his troops were very
disciplined, far better than those of Artigas or López, and they were regularly uniformed. They fought in perfect order and followed the orders
of their superiors with much more precision than the troops of other leaders, including those of the Director.
The Republic of Independent Guyana (French: La République de la Guyane indépendante) commonly referred to by the name of the capital
Counani (rendered "Cunani" in Portuguese by the Brazilians), was a short-lived independent state in South America. Counani was created on July
23, 1886 in the area that was disputed by France (as part of French Guiana) and Brazil in the late nineteenth century. The state was founded by
French settlers and existed from 1886 to 1891. The territory of the former state of Counani is now located in the Brazilian state of Amapá. Some
years after, in 1904 a French named Adolphe Brezet self-proclaimed himself "Président de l'État libre de Counani". This "special" State had a
constitution, a flag and issued some stamps. It was never recognized by Brazil and France, but the South African Boer Republics opened
diplomatic relations with Brezet (who had fought for them previously) during the Boer wars.
Jules Gros (1809-1891) was a French journalist who laid claim as Head of State of the Republic of Independent Guyana from 1886 until his
death in 1991. He was Secretary of the Société de géographie in 1883
Adolphe Brezet was the self-proclaimed President of the Free State of Counani from 1904 until 1912.
The Republic of Indian Stream was an unrecognized constitutional republic in North America, along the section of the US–Canada border that
divides the Canadian province of Quebec from the US state of New Hampshire. It existed from July 9, 1832 to 1835. Described as "Indian Stream
Territory, so-called" by the United States census-taker in 1830, the area was named for Indian Stream, a small watercourse. It had an organized
elected government and constitution, and served about three hundred citizens.
Luther Parker was a President of the Republic of Indian Stream from 1832 until 1835.
Reuben Sawyer was a Sheriff of the Republic of Indian Stream from 1832 until 1835.
The Juliana Republic was declared in the imperial Brazilian province of Santa Catarina on July 24, 1839, and lasted only until November 15,
1839. The Republic was declared in an extension of the Ragamuffin War in the neighboring province of Rio Grande do Sul, where the
Riograndense Republic had been declared. The rebels from the Riograndense Republic, who were joined by Italian military leader Giuseppe
Garibaldi, attacked Santa Catarina and conquered the harbor and city of Laguna. The rebels could not conquer the imperial provincial capital of
Ilha de Nossa Senhora do Desterro (present-day Florianópolis), because their naval forces were found and destroyed by the imperial Brazilian

navy at Massiambu River (on the continent, south of Santa Catarina Island) while those rebel forces were preparing to attack Nossa Senhora do
Desterro. Chiefly because of this, the República Juliana lasted for only four months. In November, imperial forces took the Julian capital of
Laguna.
David Joseph Martinez, known as David Canabarro, (August 22, 1796 in Taquari - 1867) was a Brazilian general and President of the Juliana
Republic from July 24 until November 15, 1839. He died in 1867 in Santana do Livramento. Canabarro had Azorean ancestry. He was born to
Jose Martinez Coelho of Porto Alegre and Dona Mariana de Jesus Ignacia of Santa Catarina Island. The surname "Canabarro" came from his
grandfather, Manuel Ferreira Theodosius, who received the nickname Marquis Alegrete and added this title to his name. Canabarro began his
military career in the First campaign cisplatin in 1811–1812. David, at the age of fifteen, asked his father's permission to take his brother's place.
Canabarro fought for the forces of noble Don Diogo de Sousa, conde de Rio Pardo. After the campaign he was promoted to Ensign and returned
home, though later he would fight in the War Artigas from 1816 to 1820. Years later he was a lieutenant in the forces of Bento Gonçalves in the
War of Cisplatin in 1825–1828, which culminated in a peace treaty in August 1828 and the independence of Uruguay. There he played an
important role in the Battle of Rincon de las Gallinas, saving the Brazilian army on September 24, 1825. This earned him the title of Army
lieutenant. He took part in the 21st Light Cavalry Brigade commanded by Bento Gonçalves and the undecided Battle of the Pass of Rosario.
When the war ended, he continued his military career, this time associated with his uncle Antonio Ferreira Canabarro in the resort border of
Santana of Deliverance. By 1836, he adopted the name David Canabarro at the insistence of his uncle. As suggested by historian Ivo santanese
Caggiano: "he must have had some connection with the axes and ferreiras of Sabrosa. Consequently, the descendants of the noble Canavarros of
Portugal must be the Canabarro of Brazil." Canabarro was initially neutral in the Ragamuffin War. He later enlisted as a lieutenant, but quickly
rose through the ranks, and took command in June 1843, when Bento Gonçalves (to avoid a split among Republicans) quit the command and
went on to serve under the orders of Canabarro. His only defeat in war was in the Battle of Porongos, which relaxed the peace negotiations he
undertook with the Baron de Caxias. He was surprised by the troops of Mouringue and was defeated, notwithstanding his possession of the Black
Lancers. While negotiating peace with the empire, Canabarro offered his services to Juan Manuel de Rosas, ruler of Argentina, who wanted to
expand the borders of his country. In exchange for the cooperation of Ragamuffin, he would get help from Argentina to continue the battle
against the empire. Canabarro responded by letter, where he stated his loyalty to the country. As head of the rebels he accepted the amnesty
offered by the government in December 18, 1844 by the Duque de Caxias, called "the Peacemaker". In the negotiations on February 25, 1845, it
was agreed that Republicans would choose the next president of the province. It was also agreed that the imperial government would be held to
account for the republican government's debt; that rebel military officers who wished to join the imperial army would remain in their former
posts, and that the prisoners would be pardoned. Canabarro fought in the War against Rosas and in the War against Aguirre, receiving the title
of honorary general with which he fought the invaders in the Paraguayan War. David Canabarro has been portrayed as a character in film and
television, played by Milton Mattos in the movie Netto Loses His Soul (2001), and by Oscar Simch in the miniseries The House of Seven Women
(2003).
os Altos (Spanish for "the highlands" or "the heights") was the sixth state of the Federal Republic of Central America, and a short-lived
independent republic. Its capital was Quetzaltenango. Los Altos occupied eight departments in the west of present-day Guatemala as well as the
Soconusco region in the Mexican state of Chiapas. The state originated from the political differences and tensions between Guatemala City on
one side, and Quetzaltenango and other parts of western Central America on the other. Debate about separation from Guatemala dated from
shortly after Central American independence from Spain in 1821. Such a separate state was provided for by the Federal constitutional assembly
of November 1824, but there was sizable opposition to the separation in Guatemala City. The independence of Los Altos from Guatemala was
officially proclaimed on 2 February 1838. The Federal government recognized Los Altos as the sixth state of the union and seated the
representatives of Los Altos in the Federal Congress on 5 June of that year. The flag of Los Altos was a modification of that of the Central
American Union, with a central seal showing a volcano in the background with a quetzal (a local bird symbolizing liberty) in front. This was the
first Central American flag to use the quetzal as a symbol; since 1871, it has been on the present flag of Guatemala. Los Altos consisted of the
administrative regions of Totonicapán (the modern Guatemalan departments of Totonicapán, Huehuetenango), Quetzaltenango (the modern
departments of Quetzaltenango and San Marcos) and Suchitepéquez-Sololá (the modern departments of Retalhuleu, Suchitepéquez, Sololá, and
Quiché). As the liberal Federation crumbled into civil war due to the influence of the Guatemalan conservatives and the regular clergy, who
had been expelled from Central America after Francisco Morazán bloody invasion of Guatemala in 1829, Los Altos declared itself an
independent republic.
Marcelo Molina Matta was a Prime Minister of Los Altos from April 2, 1838 until February 17, 1840. Central American Federation approved the
Sixth State of Los Altos on June 5, 1838 with a provisionary Junta formed by Marcelo Molina Matta, José M. Gálvez and José Antonio Aguilar,
with Agustín Guzmán as Army commander in Chief. In December 1838, Molina Matta was formally elected as Governor of Los Altos and set to
work immediately on developing the roads and infrastructure of a port on the Pacific Ocean and to improve his relationship with the Federal
Government in El Salvador. The natives of the region, on the other hand, went to Guatemala City to complain about the liberal criollos that
were running the State, specially Totonicapán Mayor, Macario Rodas, and Agustín Guzmán, who had set extraordinary taxes, had kept the native
personal tax that Gálvez had established and Guatemala had eliminated after he was deposed, and had confiscated unilaterally most of the
Indian common territories. When Guzman and the rest of Los Altos leaders learned about the complains, they incarcerated the natives who had
gone to Guatemala City. On April 14, 1838, the conservatives lost power in Guatemala and Carrera was sent as captain of a small force in Mita
without any kind of weapon. Their defeat started when Francisco Morazán and José Francisco Barrundia, invaded Guatemala and arrved to San
Sur, where they executed Pascual Alvarez, Carrera father-in-law, and then placed his head on top of a stick to scare and terrorize Carrera
followers. Upon learning this, Carrera and his amazon wife Petrona, who had left Guatemala city to confront Morazán and were in
Mataquescuintla, swore that they would make Morazán pay for this even in death. Morazán sent several courires, but Carrera did not receive any
of them, particularly Barrundia who was told that Carrera did not want to see him so we would not kill Barrundia. Morazán then started a terror
campaign in the area, destroying all towns on his path and stealing everything he could, thus forcing Carrera forces to hide in the mountains.
The liberals in Los Altos began a harsh criticism of the Conservative government of Rivera Paz; even had their own newspaper El Popular,
which contributed to the harsh criticism. Moreover, there was the fact that Los Altos was the region with more production and economic activity
of the former State of Guatemala; without Los Altos, conservatives lost many merits that held the hegemony of the State of Guatemala in
Central America. Then, the government of Guatemala tried to reach to a peaceful solution, but "altenses", protected by the recognition of the
Central American Federation Congress, did not accept this; Guatemala's government then resorted to force, sending the commanding general
of the Army Rafael Carrera to subdue Los Altos. Carrera defeated General Agustin Guzman when the former Mexican officer tried to ambush
him and then went on to Quetzaltenango, where he imposed a harsh and hostile conservative regime for liberals. Calling all council members,

he told them flatly that he was behaving kindly to them for being that the first time they had challenged him, but sternly warned them that
there would be no mercy if there were to be a second time. Finally, General Guzmán, and the head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were
sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a triumphant parade on February 17, 1840; in the case of
Guzman, he was shackled, still with bleeding wounds, and riding a mule.
Agustín Guzmán (died 1849) was the Acting President of Los Altos from August 26 until October 5, 1848. He was a Mexican military officer,
who was appointed as Army Commander in Chief of Los Altos when this new State was formed as part of the Central American Federation on
March 2, 1838. He was defeated by Rafael Carrera on March 19, 1840, the same date on which the Los Altos State ceased to exist. Trying to
create Los Altos once again while Carrera was briefly in exile in 1848, he tried to occupy Guatemala City along with rebel leader Agustín Reyes,
and after setting fire to Carrera's house, he was killed by enemy fire in the Plaza de Armas. Agustín Guzmán arrived to Guatemala as part of
Vicente Filísola's army in 1822, when Central America was annexed to the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide; after Filísola and his forces
left, he decided to remain in Guatemala and settled in Quetzaltenango. In 1837 started the revolts against the Federal President Francisco
Morazán; the Central American Federation then was comprised by Guatemala, Comayagua , El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. The leader
of the peasant revolt against the Guatemalan governor Mariano Gálvez was Rafael Carrera. In early 1838, José Francisco Barrundia, a
Guatemalan liberal leader was appalled at the atrocities that Galvez regime was doing to stop the peasant revolt and decided to negotiate with
Carrera to overthrow Gálvez by bring the revolution leader to the capital city of Guatemala. At that time, Carrera already was showing signs of
the leadership and military genius that would be his characteristics later on. On April 2 1838, in the city of Quetzaltenango, a secessionist group
founded the independent State of Los Altos which sought independence from Guatemala. The most important members of the Liberal Party of
Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative regime moved to Los Altos, who no longer had to emigrate to El Salvador, having a pro-
liberal state practically in his country agglutinated. Interim Governor Valenzuela, in office after Gálvez had excused himself, could not do
anything to stop this and the Central American Federation approved the Sixth State on June 5, 1838 with a provisionary Junta formed by
Marcelo Molina Matta, José M. Gálvez and José Antonio Aguilar, with Agustín Guzmán as Army commander in Chief. In December 1838,
Molina Matta was formally elected as Governor of Los Altos and set to work immediately on developing the roads and infrastructure of a port
on the Pacific Ocean and to improve his relationship with the Federal Government in El Salvador. The natives of the region, on the other hand,
went to Guatemala City to complain about the liberal criollos that were running the State, specially Totonicapán Mayor, Macario Rodas, and
Agustín Guzmán, who had set extraordinary taxes, had kept the native personal tax that Gálvez had established and Guatemala had eliminated
after he was deposed, and had confiscated unilaterally most of the Indian common territories. When Guzman and the rest of Los Altos leaders
learned about the complains, they incarcerated the natives who had gone to Guatemala City. On April 14, 1838, the conservatives lost power in
Guatemala and Carrera was sent as captain of a small force in Mita without any kind of weapon. Their defeat started when Francisco Morazán
and José Francisco Barrundia, invaded Guatemala and arrved to San Sur, where they executed Pascual Alvarez, Carrera father-in-law, and then
placed his head on top of a stick to scare and terrorize Carrera followers. Upon learning this, Carrera and his amazon wife Petrona, who had left
Guatemala city to confront Morazán and were in Mataquescuintla, swore that they would make Morazán pay for this even in death. Morazán
sent several courires, but Carrera did not receive any of them, particularly Barrundia who was told that Carrera did not want to see him so we
would not kill Barrundia. Morazán then started a terror campaign in the area, destroying all towns on his path and stealing everything he could,
thus forcing Carrera forces to hide in the mountains. The liberals in Los Altos began a harsh criticism of the Conservative government of Rivera
Paz; even had their own newspaper El Popular, which contributed to the harsh criticism. Moreover, there was the fact that Los Altos was the
region with more production and economic activity of the former State of Guatemala; without Los Altos, conservatives lost many merits that
held the hegemony of the State of Guatemala in Central America. Then, the government of Guatemala tried to reach to a peaceful solution, but
"altenses", protected by the recognition of the Central American Federation Congress, did not accept this; Guatemala's government then
resorted to force, sending the commanding general of the Army Rafael Carrera to subdue Los Altos. Carrera defeated General Agustin Guzman
when the former Mexican officer tried to ambush him and then went on to Quetzaltenango, where he imposed a harsh and hostile conservative
regime for liberals. Calling all council members, he told them flatly that he was behaving kindly to them for being that the first time they had
challenged him, but sternly warned them that there would be no mercy if there were to be a second time. Finally, General Guzmán, and the
head of state of Los Altos, Marcelo Molina, were sent to the capital of Guatemala, where they were displayed as trophies of war during a
triumphant parade on February 17, 1840; in the case of Guzman, he was shackled, still with bleeding wounds, and riding a mule. During his first
term as president, Rafael Carrera had brought the country back from excessive conservatism to a traditional climate; however, in 1848, the
liberals were able to force Rafael Carrera to leave office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months. Carrera resigned at his own
free will and left for México. The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law where they emphatically
ordered to execute Carrera if he dared to return to Guatemalan soil. On his absence, the liberal crillos from Quetzaltenango -led by general
Agustín Guzmán who occupied the city after Corregidor general Mariano Paredes was called to Guatemala City to take over the Presidential
office declared that Los Altos was an independent state once again on August 26, 1848; the new state had the support of Vasconcelos' regime in
El Salvador and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz who were declared enemies of general Carrera. The interim government
was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members. On September 5, 1848, the criollos
altenses chose a formal government led by Fernando Antonio Martínez. In the meantime, Carrera decided to return to Guatemala and did so
entering by Huehuetenango, where he met with the native leaders and told them that they had to remain united to prevail; the leaders agreed
and slowly the segretated native communities started developing a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership. In the meantime, on the
eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente
Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849. Upon learning that officer José Víctor Zavala had been
appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed a dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to
meet his former friend. When they met, Zavala not only did not capture him, but agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong
message to both liberal and conservatives in Guatemala City, that realized that they were forced to negotiate with Carrera, otherwise they were
going to have to battle on two fronts -Quetzaltenango and Jalapa. Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in
Suchitepéquez as a tactical maneuver.[19] Carrera received a visit from a Cabinet member of Paredes and told him that the he had control of the
native population and that he assured Paredes that he will keep them appeased. When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the
president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable. Agustín Guzmán went to Antigua Guatemala to meet with
another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that the latter would help Guzmán defeat his
hated enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean. Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when, in his absence,
Carrera and his native allies had occupied Quetzaltenango; Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he
should work with the k'iche', mam, q'anjobal and mam leaders to keep the region under control. On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to a
friend: Now he is the King of the Indians, indeed! Guzmán then left for Jalapa, where he stroke a deal with the rebels, while Luis Batres Juarros
convinced president Paredes to deal with Carrera; Guzmán could only get a temporary truce from the revolt leaders León Raymundo, Roberto
Reyes and Agustín Pérez; however, the truce was short lived, as the rebels sacked Jalapa on June 3 and 4. Guzman then left for El Salvador,

where after a while he issued a note to the rest of liberal leaders in Central America in which he attacked the immorality and viciousness of the
savage Rafael Carrera, who -according to Guzman- had not governed Guatemala properly in the last nine years. In his note, Guzman told that
he had gone to El Salvador to retire from public life, but that he could not remain impassible watching how Guatemala was returning to
Carrera's rule and saying that with the help of El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and the reborn Los Altos he was going to confront Carrera and
return to a Federal Government; he practically assured that he was Morazán's successor trying to get rid of Carrera, but his note did not gather
any support and Carrera returned to power in Guatemala. Guzmán entered Guatemalan territory one last time with his new ally, Agustín Reyes.
They were chased by Carrera and his forces on the eastern part of the country, but played their strategy well and were able to go directly to
Guatemala City, leaving the Guatemalan Army still looking for them in the East. Guatemala City had a small garrison of 100 men, in charge of
colonel Ignacio Garcia Granados, who learned about the rebel attack when two spies arrived telling him that the enemy was already in
Chinautla, only 3 leagues away from the city. Guzmón and Reyes entered the city after defeating Garcia Granados in El Cerro del Carmen and
went directly to Carrera's house where Guzmán threw torches knowing that Carrera's family was inside; after that, they went to the Government
Palace in Plaza de Armas, but there they were attacked by heavy artillery and Guzmán was badly injured. He died that night, at the outskirt of
Guatemala city while his forces were fleeing.
Fernando Antonio Dávila was a President of Los Altos in the late 1848.
José Velazco was a President of Los Altos in the late 1848.
Rafael de la Torre was a President of Los Altos in the late 1848.
The Republic of Madawaska (French: République du Madawaska) was an unrecognized state in the northwest corner of Madawaska County, New
Brunswick (also known as the "New Brunswick Panhandle") and adjacent areas of Aroostook County in the US State of Maine and of Quebec.
The word "Madawaska" comes from the Mi'kmaq words madawas (porcupine) and kak (place). Thus, the Madawaska is "the country of the
porcupine". The Madawaska River which flows into the Saint John River at Edmundston, New Brunswick and Madawaska, Maine flows through
the region. The origins of the unorganized republic lie in the Treaty of Paris (1783), which established the border between the United States of
America and the British North American colonies. The Madawaska region remained in dispute until 1842. In 1817, a US settler, John Baker,
arrived in the region. Baker petitioned the state of Maine for inclusion in the state in 1825. On July 4, 1827, Baker and his wife, Sophronia (aka
Sophie) Rice, raised a "US" flag sewn by Sophie, on the west of the junction of the Meruimticook (now Baker Brook, after him) and Saint John
Rivers. This area is now Baker Brook, New Brunswick. Curiously, the flag reportedly designed by Sophie was identical to the current "Flag of the
Republic". On August 10, of that year, Baker and others announced their intention to declare the Republic of Madawaska. On that day, the
British magistrate confiscated Baker's "American" flag. Baker was arrested by the British on September 25 for conspiracy and sedition.
Ultimately, Baker was fined £25 and jailed for two months, or until the fine was paid. This set off a diplomatic incident, which led to arbitration
by the King of the Netherlands. His decision in 1831 was rejected by Maine. After the undeclared Aroostook War (1838–39), the USA and the
United Kingdom signed the Webster–Ashburton Treaty on August9, 1842, finally settling the boundary question. The region was thus annexed
to Canada East (now named Quebec) and was transferred to New Brunswick in the 1850s. According to a pamphlet entitled "The Republic of
Madawaska" and published at Edmundston, "The myth of the 'Republic of Madawaska' (because it is not a true Republic in a political sense)
draws its origins from an answer given to a French official on a tour of inspection during the troubled times by an old Madawaska colonist.
Thinking the official a little too inquisitive, he said 'I am a citizen of the Republic of Madawaska' with all the force of an old Roman saying 'I am
a citizen of Rome,' and the pride of a Londoner declaring 'I am a British subject.' "
John Baker (January 17, 1796 – March 10, 1868) was a Head of State of the Republic of Madawaska from 1827 until 1842. He was the namesake
of the towns of Baker Lake (Lac Baker) and Baker-Brook, New Brunswick, Canada, just west of Edmundston. He was a successful sawmill and
gristmill businessman who became a well-known pro-American activist in New Brunswick and Maine during the 19th century and was
nicknamed "the Washington of the Republic of Madawaska", which he had declared in response to the unwillingness of the Van Buren
Administration in Washington to support Maine's claim to sizable areas of territory covering adjacent parts of the British colonies of Lower-
Canada and New Brunswick, part of British North America. During the previous decade the War of 1812 had ended in a draw and had seriously
depleted the US Treasury, demonstrating the will of Britain to engage in full warfare to guard British North America against US encroachment,
including invasion of US territories and punitive raids. This had resulted in Washington adopting a policy of appeasement towards states with
claims to British territories, which clashed with Maine's expansionist intentions that continued to simmer during the 1830s. John Baker, often
referred to in local lore as "Colonel" John Baker (a rank given him by a Maine militia) operated a gristmill and a sawmill on the north bank of
the Saint John River, and was the leading American in the disputed territory. He was dissatisfied with the official borders, and in 1827 declared
his village to be capital of the "American Republic of Madawaska". John Baker was a native of Kennebec, Massachusetts. Kennebec was located
within the area that became the state of Maine in 1820 and during his early adulthood Baker was a staunch promoter of the state's expansion
toward the St.Lawrence. His confidence was such that he had established most of his mills (and himself) in an area that Washington had
recognized as being under legitimate British control. The region was nonetheless claimed by Maine. Baker also had several facilities in the
actual state of Maine but these were less substantial. Baker's "Republic" only included his New Brunswick properties and may have been a ploy to
avoid paying taxes on either side, but the concept was popular with many of the local French speaking population who had no particular
sympathies for the British or the Americans but felt a strong attachment to the area, as would Baker himself throughout his life. Baker was
instrumental in the Aroostook War, a boundary dispute that established the international border between New Brunswick and the state of Maine
over a relatively small area. Initiated by Maine, handling of the incident was quickly taken over by the US Government and swiftly settled with
the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, which left Baker's main residence and most of his mills firmly and definitively planted on British soil. Baker's
name is indissolubly interwoven with the boundary controversy that had led to the treaty. He had homes on both sides of the disputed territory,
defied the officers of New Brunswick in many ways and was twice arrested and imprisoned in the Fredericton jail, where a statue and plaque
today recognize his imprisonments and his contributions to the boundary settlement, as involuntary as they may have been. The last time that
he was incarcerated was when he was indicted, tried and sentenced for sedition and conspiracy against King George IV on May 8, 1828 many
years prior to the settlement of the dispute. By 1840 John Baker was in his mid-forties and his expanding business had become his main concern.
His devotion to the cause of Maine was superseded by his own economic interests and he remained in New Brunswick after the boundary
settlement, grudgingly tolerating British sovereignty but never ceasing to consider himself nothing but an American. This put him at odds with
the local British economic elite and he associated mostly with like-minded French speaking and Irish settlers, providing financial support for
local business ventures that would otherwise not have been possible and helping in the establishment of a mostly French speaking commercial

class that rose much earlier than in other areas. He had also further endeared himself to French Canadians by supporting the establishment of a
Roman Catholic mission in Baker Brook, which had never had as much as a chapel of any faith prior. Baker himself was nominally Protestant
but not a religious man, he supported the mission as a welcome addition of community resources to "his" village. Most of his descendants
married into Catholic French Canadian families, adopting both faith and language. Several hundred of his descendants still live in the
"Republic" although very few bear his name. The millworks founded by Baker nearly two centuries ago is still in existence, supplying lumber to
contractors in both New Brunswick and Quebec. John Baker has the distinction of being considered a hero to two causes. "Brayons" as French
Canadians of the area are colloquially called, honor him as the founder of the "Republic of Madawaska", the strongest symbol of their unique
identity. The state of Maine considers him a champion of American values. Ironically neither epithet is historically accurate. The Republic was
not founded to cement regional identity and Baker's support of Maine was not strong enough to keep him there. Baker's cultural legacy in
northwestern New Brunswick was largely obscured in the century following his death. The steady rise of the Catholic Church's control over
French Canadian educational and cultural institutions after 1840 had reached the area and found no reason to perpetuate the memory of a
Protestant as a positive asset in local French Canadian history. Outside of Baker Brook, few heard bout him and the origins of the Republic were
relegated to vague local legends. His memory would only be rekindled after the Catholic Church's demise among French Canadians in the
1960s and 70's. John Baker died at his country home on Chaleur Bay in 1868, shortly after New Brunswick had become part of the new sovereign
country of Canada. He was buried in Baker Brook but would not be allowed to rest for all eternity. During a controversial initiative in 1980 that
outraged Baker Brook residents, his remains were transported across the river to Fort Fairfield, Maine where a memorial to him as a "Maine
Hero" had been established.
The Republic of Manitobah was a short-lived, unrecognized state founded in June 1867 by Thomas Spence at the town of Portage la Prairie in
what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba. During this time the future province was still part of Rupert's Land, a territory owned by the
Hudson's Bay Company. It was soon to become a part of the Northwest Territories when Canada purchased Rupert's Land from "the Bay" in
1869. As Portage la Prairie had no government, laws or taxation at the time, Spence and a group of local settlers wrote to Queen Victoria asking
for recognition as a political entity. There was no reply. Spence organized the community as the "Republic of Caledonia" in January 1868. The
name was later changed to the Republic of Manitobah, after a local lake. The republic never had clearly defined borders, and could not persuade
local Hudson’s Bay Company traders to pay their taxes. By late spring 1868, the Republic had been informed by the Colonial Office in London
that its government had no power. The Republic's problems were compounded by misappropriation of tax funds, and a botched treason trial.
The Republic of Manitobah collapsed before it had a chance to blossom. Thomas Spence served in the council for Louis Riel’s Provisional
Government, whose actions led to the formation of the Province of Manitoba within Canada on May 12, 1870.
The story of the Republic of Manitobah was made into a humorous animated short by the National Film Board of Canada in 1978, as a part of
the Canada Vignettes series.
Thomas Spence was a President of the Republic of Manitobah from June 1867 until May 12, 1870. The Republic of Manitobah was a short-lived,
unrecognized state founded in June 1867 by Thomas Spence at the town of Portage la Prairie in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba.
During this time the future province was still part of Rupert's Land, a territory owned by the Hudson's Bay Company. It was soon to become a
part of the Northwest Territories when Canada purchased Rupert's Land from "the Bay" in 1869. As Portage la Prairie had no government, laws
or taxation at the time, Spence and a group of local settlers wrote to Queen Victoria asking for recognition as a political entity. There was no
reply. Spence organized the community as the "Republic of Caledonia" in January 1868. The name was later changed to the Republic of
Manitobah, after a local lake. The republic never had clearly defined borders, and could not persuade local Hudson’s Bay Company traders to
pay their taxes. By late spring 1868, the Republic had been informed by the Colonial Office in London that its government had no power. The
Republic's problems were compounded by misappropriation of tax funds, and a botched treason trial. The Republic of Manitobah collapsed
before it had a chance to blossom. Thomas Spence served in the council for Louis Riel’s Provisional Government, whose actions led to the
formation of the Province of Manitoba within Canada on May 12, 1870.
The State of Muskogee was a proclaimed sovereign nation located in Florida, founded in 1799 and led by William Augustus Bowles, a Loyalist
veteran of the American Revolutionary War who lived among the Muscogee, and envisioned uniting the American Indians of the Southeast into
a single nation that could resist the expansion of the United States. Bowles enjoyed the support of the Miccosukee (Seminole) and several bands
of Muscogee, and envisioned his state as eventually growing to encompass the Cherokee, Upper and Lower Creeks, Choctaw and Chickasaw.
William Augustus Bowles (1763–1805), also known as Estajoca, was a Maryland-born English adventurer and organizer of Native American
attempts to create their own state outside of Euro-American control. Some sources give his date of birth as 1764. Bowles was born in Frederick
County, Maryland, and joined the British Army at the age of 13. Bowles was still just a boy when the events of 1776 triggered the American
Revolution. He served as an ensign with the Maryland Loyalist Battalion, travelling with the battalion when it was ordered to form part of the
garrison of Pensacola. Upon arrival, and as he was an officer, Bowles resigned his commission, and left the fortifications. He was captured by
Indians from the Creek Nation. While he was living with the Creek Tribe, Spanish naval forces with soldiers embarked upon their ships, and
began to attack British forts along the Gulf Coast. Bowles convinced the Creeks to support the British garrison of Pensacola against the
Spaniards, but the garrison fell when its ship was hit by artillery fire from the Spanish ships. The survivors of the garrison were captured, but
Bowles escaped into the wilderness with his Creek allies. This occurred May 9, 1781, when Bowles was either 16 or 17 years old. After this battle,
he was reinstated in the British Army, and went to the Bahamas. After a few months in the Bahamas, the British governor Lord Dunmore, sent
Bowles back among the Creeks with a charge to establish a trading house among them. Bowles established a trading post along the
Chattahoochee River. He would marry two wives, one Cherokee and the other a daughter of the Hitchiti Muscogee chieftain, William Perryman,
and used this union as the basis for his claim to exert political influence among the Creeks, later styling himself "Director General of the
Muskogee Nation". Pursuing his idea of an American Indian state after the end of the Revolutionary War, he was received by George III as
'Chief of the Embassy for Creek and Cherokee Nations' and it was with British backing that he returned to Florida. In 1795, along with the
Seminoles, he formed a short-lived state in northern Florida (part of Spanish East Florida) known as the State of Muskogee, with himself as its
"Director General." In 1800, he declared war on Spain. Bowles operated two schooners and boasted of a force of 400 frontiersmen, former slaves,
and warriors. A furious Spain offered $6,000 and 1,500 kegs of rum for his capture. When he was finally captured, he was transported to Madrid
where he was unmoved by King Carlos IV's attempts to make him change sides. He then escaped, commandeering a ship and returning to the
Gulf of Mexico. One of the main victims of his piracy was the trading firm of Panton, Leslie & Company. In 1803, not long after having declared

himself 'Chief of all Indians present' at a tribal council, he was betrayed and turned over to the Spanish. Bowles died two years later at Castillo
Morro in Havana, Cuba, having refused to eat.
The Riograndense Republic, often called Piratini Republic (Portuguese: República Rio-Grandense or República do Piratini), was a de facto state
that existed between September 11, 1836 and March 1, 1845 roughly coinciding with the present state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil. Although
never recognised as a self-governing state, it voted itself a Constitution in 1843. It was recognized only by Uruguay. Independence was
proclaimed by Antônio de Souza Neto, who assigned Bento Gonçalves da Silva as its first president during the rebellion which became the
Ragamuffin War. In 1839, the Piratini Republic formed a confederation with the short-lived Juliana Republic (República Juliana in Portuguese)
which proclaimed its independence in the same year. November 1839, however, saw the war result in the defeat and disappearance of the
Juliana Republic. The Riograndense Republic had five capitals during its nearly nine years of existence: the cities of Piratini (for which it is often
called Piratini Republic), Alegrete, Caçapava do Sul (official capitals), Bagé (for only two weeks), and São Borja. The war between the Gaúchos
and the Brazilian Empire was ended by the Ponche Verde Treaty.
Bento Gonçalves (September 23, 1788 in Triunfo - July 18, 1847 in Pedras Brancas), was an army officer, politician, monarchist and rebel leader
of the Empire of Brazil. He was also President of Riograndense Republic (Piratini Republic) from September 11, 1836 until 1841. He is
considered by many to be one of the most important figures in the history of Rio Grande do Sul. Although a staunch monarchist, Gonçalves led
the rebel forces in the Ragamuffin War. Radicals within the rebel ranks forced the rebellion to become republican, something that Gonçalves
opposed. Still, even though he fought against the Empire, Gonçalves and his troops celebrated the birthday of the young Emperor Dom Pedro II.
After the conflict ended with the victory of the Empire, Gonçalves paid his respect to Pedro II by kissing his hand during the latter's trip to Rio
Grande do Sul in December 1845. His main companions in arms during the rebellion were Antônio de Souza Neto and Giuseppe Garibaldi.
José Gomes de Vasconcelos Jardim (January 1, 1773 - December 1, 1854) was a President of Riograndense Republic (Piratini Republic) from
1841 until 1845.
Republic of South Haiti
Haiti declared its independence in 1804 under Jean Jacques Dessalines. That same year, Dessalines declared himself Emperor. After his
assassination in 1806, Haiti was divided between the Republic of Haiti in the south and the Kingdom of Haiti, under Henry Christophe, in the
north. The situation was further complicated by the secession of South Haiti in the southwest corner of the country under André Rigaud in
1810. His own republic contained the former Maroon enclave of La Grande'Anse under Goman, who was allied with King Henry. A few months
after Rigaud seized power, he died, and South Haiti rejoined the Republic. In 1820, Henry Christophe committed suicide. Haiti was reunited
soon afterwards.
Benoit Joseph André Rigaud (January 17, 1761 - September 18, 1811) was President of the Republic of South Haiti from December 1810 until his
death on September 18, 1811. was the leading mulatto military leader during the Haitian Revolution. Among his protégés were Alexandre
Pétion and Jean-Pierre Boyer, both future presidents of Haïti. Rigaud was born on January 17, 1761 in Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue, to André
Rigaud, a wealthy French planter, and Rose Bossy Depa, a slave woman. His father acknowledged the mixed-race (mulatto) boy as his at a young
age, and sent him to Bordeaux, where he was trained as a goldsmith. André Rigaud was known to have worn a brown-haired wig with straight
hair to resemble a white man as closely as possible. After returning to Saint-Domingue from France, Rigaud became active in politics; he was a
successor to Vincent Ogé and Julien Raimond as a champion of the interests of free people of color in Saint-Domingue (as colonial Haïti was
known). Rigaud aligned himself with revolutionary France and with an interpretation of the Rights of Man that ensured the civil equality of all
free people. By the mid-1790s with slave uprisings in the North, Rigaud was leading an army, a force in the West and South departments. He was
given authority to govern by Étienne Polverel, one of the three French Civil Commissioners who had abolished slavery in Saint-Domingue in
1793. Rigaud's power came from his influence with the mulatto planters, found mostly in the South. They were fearful of the masses of former
slaves; Rigaud's army also contained blacks and whites. In the South and West, from 1793 to 1798, Rigaud helped defeat a British invasion and
re-establish the plantation economy.[citation needed] Although Rigaud respected Toussaint Louverture, the leading general of the former black
slaves of the North, and his superior rank in the French Revolutionary Army, he did not want to concede power in the South to him. Rigaud
continued to believe in Saint-Domingue's race-based caste system which put mulattoes just below whites while leaving blacks at the bottom, a
belief that put him at odds with Toussaint. This led to the bitter "War of Knives" (La Guerre des Couteaux) in June 1799, when Toussaint's army
invaded Rigaud's territory. Comte d'Hédouville, sent by France to govern the island, encouraged Rigaud's rivalry with Toussaint. In 1800,
Rigaud left Saint-Domingue for France after his defeat by Toussaint Louverture. Rigaud returned to Saint-Domingue in 1802 with the
expedition of General Charles Leclerc, Napoleon's brother-in-law. He was sent to unseat Toussaint and re-establish French colonial rule and
slavery in Saint-Domingue. After the First French Republic abolished slavery in the colony in 1794, following the first slave uprising, the
colonial system based on exports of commodities from sugar cane and coffee plantations had been undermined. Sugar production fell
markedly, and many surviving white and mulatto planters left the island as refugees. Many emigrated to the United States, where they settled
in southern cities such as Charleston, or to the Spanish colonies of Cuba or New Orleans. LeClerc was initially successful, capturing and
deporting Toussaint, but Toussaint's officers led the opposition by Haitian indigenous troops; they fought on for two more years. Defeated by
disease as well as Haitian resistance, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops in November 1803; they were less than one-third of the forces
that had been sent there. Jean-Jacques Dessalines, a black from the North, led Saint-Domingue to victory and independence, declaring Haiti the
new name of the nation. He ultimately declared himself emperor. Rigaud returned to France after the failure of the expedition in 1802-1803. For
a time he was held a prisoner in Fort de Joux, the same fortress as his rival Toussaint, where the latter died in 1803. Rigaud returned to Haiti a
third time in December 1810. He established himself as President of the Department of the South, in opposition to both Alexandre Pétion, a
mulatto and former ally in the South, and Henri Christophe, a black who took power in the North. Shortly after Rigaud's death the following
year, Pétion recovered power over the South. Rigaud's tomb is on a small hill between Camp-Perrin and Les Cayes, which is now split in half to
make a new road to ease transport.

The Republic of Tucumán (República de Tucumán) was a short-lived state centered on the town of San Miguel de Tucumán in today's
Argentina that was formed after the collapse of central authority in 1820, and that broke up the next year. The "Republic" remained a political
unit within the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.
Bernabé Aráoz (1776 – March 24, 1824) was a governor of Tucumán Province in what is now Argentina from November 14, 1814 until October
6, 1817, from March 3 until April 6, 1822, from July 15 until August 1822 and from October 24, 1822 until August 5, 1823 and President of the
short-lived Republic of Tucumán from November 12, 1819 until 1821. Aráoz came from a wealthy and influential family in the northern
province of Tucumán in the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and was a leader of the local militia. In 1810 he supported the May
Revolution in which the leaders in Buenos Aires declared independence from the Napoleonic regime in Spain. He played a decisive role in the
crucial Battle of Tucumán fought in 1812 against the royalists, and was made governor of his province. The political situation became confused
by a violent dispute between the Unitarian and Federalist parties. The Unitarians wanted a centralized form of government while the
Federalists, with whom Aráoz sided, wanted greater local autonomy. The conflict degenerated into chaotic factional fighting at the same time as
the struggle for independence. During a period when the central government had broken down, Aráoz declared that his province was a republic
with himself as President. The next year he was deposed, but later came back as governor for another term. He was deposed again, forced into
exile, arrested, brought back and executed without trial by a firing squad. Bernabé Aráoz was born in Monteros,[a] Tucumán Province, in 1776.
His family was one of the most influential and wealthy in San Miguel de Tucumán. He was one of six children of Juan Antonio Aráoz de La
Madrid and Josefa de Córdoba Gutiérrez.[4] Bernabé Aráoz was closely related to the statesman and priest Pedro Miguel Aráoz, who represented
Tucumán at the 1816 Congress of Tucumán in which the delegates declared the independence of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
(today called Argentina). Pedro Miguel Aráoz later helped Bernabé Araoz in forming the Republic of Tucumán. General Gregorio Aráoz de
Lamadrid was his first cousin. In 1803 Aráoz was leader of the new "Disciplined Cavalry Militia Regiment of Tucumán Volunteers". In 1805 he
married Teresa Velarde. They would have seven children. He supported the May Revolution in Buenos Aires in 1810 without hesitation. In this
movement the local leaders rejected the authority of the Spanish government after Napoleon had installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as
king. At first, the leaders professed loyalty to the deposed king Ferdinand VII of Spain of Spain. Later the movement would evolve into a fight
for outright independence. In 1810 Aráoz was elected Mayor of the Cabildo on the second vote. Aráoz raised regular militiamen on behalf of the
junta, making an important contribution to the roughly 3,000 soldiers stationed in the northern center of Tucumán. In August 1812 General
Manuel Belgrano had been ordered to retreat from the Spanish to a strong position at Córdoba, abandoning places such as Tucumán that lay
further to the north. He sent Juan Ramón Balcarce to Tucumán with a request for money and 1,000 men. The people of Tucumán sent a
delegation to Balcarce including Bernabé Aráoz, Rudecindo Alvarado and Pedro Miguel Aráoz that offered the money and 2,000 men if
Belgrano would defend the town. Belgrano accepted, and this led to the Battle of Tucumán (September 24-25, 1812) in which Belgrano defeated
the Spanish forces. Bernabé Aráoz fought in this battle on the right wing as a subordinate to Balcarce. The support that Aráoz gave with his
militia was decisive. On April 4, 1814, Bernabé Aráoz was made governor of the Province of Salta del Tucumán. On October 8, 1814 Gervasio
Antonio de Posadas, the Supreme Director, divided the province into Salta Province and Tucumán Province. Tucumán Province included the
former municipality of the same name and the adjoining municipalities of Catamarca and Santiago del Estero. Aráoz was designated governor
of Tucumán Province. On September 4, 1815, separatists in Santiago del Estero led by Francisco Borges launched a first bid for independence,
but Aráoz suppressed the movement. After its disastrous defeat at the Battle of Sipe-Sipe (November 29, 1815) the central government could
provide little support to the northern provinces of Salta and Tucumán, which largely had to look after their own defense. In 1816 Ferdinand VII
was declared "absolute King" of Spain. Aráoz hosted the Congress of Tucumán, in which delegates from all the provinces met, and on 9 July
1816 declared full independence of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata from Spain. Many of the delegates were sympathetic to the
monarchy, but in the end support for a republic prevailed. The struggle between those wanting strong central control and those favoring a
looser federation would continue for many years. Araoz arranged accommodations and meeting places for the deputies. He even provided the
table on which the declaration was signed, and this later was held as a prize possession by his family. On December 10, 1816 Francisco Borges
launched a second separatist movement in Santiago del Estero. General Belgrano suppressed the uprising and Borges was shot on January 1,
1817. Aráoz fell out with Belgrano, and in September 1817 he was replaced by Feliciano de la Mota Botello, from Catamarca. For the next two
years Aráoz stayed out of politics. In November 1819 Feliciano de la Mota was deposed by Abraham González while General Belgrano was
staying in Tucumán. Belgrano was also arrested, and was held until Bernabé Aráoz took control of the government of Tucumán three days later.
After the Battle of Cepeda on February 1, 1820 the central government was dissolved. Aráoz declared the Republic of Tucumán, made up of
Tucumán, Catamarca and Santiago del Estero. In March 1820 he received an urgent request for assistance from General José de San Martín,
commander of the armies fighting the Spanish. He replied that he was sending 500 men, well-supplied with arms and ammunition. A Congress
of leading men was assembled, and on September 6, 1820 the Congress sanctioned the Republic's constitution. A First Court of Justice was
established. Aráoz was named Supreme President. The constitution set up a unicameral legislature and an executive branch headed by the
President. It was influenced by the national constitution of 1819 and was unitarian and centralized in nature. The provinces of Catamarca and
Santiago del Estero both quickly moved towards separation. Aráoz sent Juan Bautista Paz to Santiago del Estero to arrange for election of
deputies, with a military force led by Juan Francisco Echauri. One of Echauri's first actions was to change the members of the municipality to
one in favor of Tucumán. Next he tried to control the election of deputies for the Congress that would meet on March 20, 1820 in Tucumán.
The people of Santiago del Estero rebelled, supported by armed forces led by Juan Felipe Ibarra, who defeated Echauri in an engagement on
March 31, 1820 and forced him to retreat to Tucumán. Ibarra was appointed the first governor of the province of Santiago del Estero, and on
April 27, 1820 issued a manifesto that declared the province's autonomy. There was growing animosity between Bernabé Aráoz and the
governor of Salta Province, Martín Miguel de Güemes. Güemes took the side of Santiago del Estero, invaded the Republic of Tucumán and
captured Catamarca, ousting Bernabé Aráoz's relative, Lieutenant Governor Juan José de la Madrid, in March 1821. However, Güemes suffered a
series of defeats and then was forced to return to Salta Province since the royalists had taken the opportunity to invade Jujuy. Aráoz invaded
Salta, defeated Güemes on 3 April 1821 and temporarily deposed him, although Güemes quickly regained power. Soon after returning to the
town of Salta, Güemes was assassinated, dying on June 17, 1821. After his death, an aristocratic group with strong ties to Buenos Aires took
power. Eventually peace was settled between Tucumán and Santiago del Estero with a treaty of June 5, 1821. On November 28, 1821 Aráoz was
ousted from office by General Abraham González, who had helped him assume power in November 3, 1819. The government of the province of
Tucumán descended into chaos for the next year with endless coups and counter-coups. Colonel Diego Aráoz, a distant relative of Bernabé
Aráoz, General Javier López and Bernabé Aráoz engaged in a three-way struggle for power. Bernabé Aráoz briefly held office twice during this
period. In October 1822 he became governor yet again, this time holding office for almost a year, and managed to stabilize the situation. He was

forced from office by Diego Aráoz in August 1823 and took refuge in Salta. In February 1824 the head of the provincial forces, Javier López, was
appointed governor. The government of Salta withdrew asylum from Aráoz and escorted him to the Tucumán border. Aráoz was arrested by
Tucumán forces on March 4, 1824 at the border in Trancas, held there and executed on March 24, 1824. The colonel who ordered the execution
said he had been trying to subvert the men. It is said that his final act before facing the firing squad was to smoke a cigarette. Knocking away
the last ashes, he said philosophically "Human existence is like these ashes." He then calmly faced his death. His remains lie in the Trancas
church to the right of the altar. His portrait by the Italian artist Honorio Mossi hangs in the Museo Casa Histórica de la Independencia in San
Miguel de Tucumán. After the Battle of Tucumán, General José de San Martín wrote of him that he doubted that there were ten men in the
Americas who united so many virtues. Belgrano said he could not find high enough praise for men of Aráoz's command. General José María Paz
knew Aráoz well. He said he did not know of anyone seeing him angry; he was always cool and unflappable. His manner and way of speaking
was more suitable to a monk than a soldier. He made many promises, but was always careful to keep his word. He wanted only to rule, and if he
deserves the name caudillo, it was as a mild caudillo with no inclination to cruelty.
The term Vermont Republic has been used by later historians for the government of Vermont that existed from 1777 to 1791. In January 1777,
partly in response to the Westminster massacre, delegates from 28 towns met and declared independence from jurisdictions and land claims of
both British colonies and American states in New Hampshire and New York. They also abolished adult slavery within their boundaries. The
people of Vermont took part in the American Revolution although the Continental Congress did not recognize the jurisdiction. Because of
vehement objections from New York, which had conflicting property claims, the Continental Congress declined to recognize Vermont, then
called the New Hampshire Grants. Vermont's overtures to join the British Province of Quebec failed. In 1791, Vermont was admitted to the
United States as the 14th state. Vermont did not send or receive diplomats, but it coined a currency called Vermont coppers from a mint
operated by Reuben Harmon in East Rupert (1785–1788), and operated a postal system. While the Vermont coppers bore the legend Vermontis.
Res. Publica (Latin for republic or state), the constitution and other official documents used the term "State of Vermont". It referred to its chief
executive as a "governor". The 1777 constitution refers to Vermont both as "the State of Vermont", as in the third paragraph of the preamble, and
in the preamble's last paragraph, the constitution refers to itself as "the Constitution of the Commonwealth". The Vermont Republic was called
the "reluctant republic" because many early citizens favored political union with the United States rather than independence. Both popular
opinion and the legal construction of the government made clear that the independent State of Vermont would eventually join the original 13
states. While the Continental Congress did not allow a seat for Vermont, William Samuel Johnson, representing Connecticut, was engaged by
Vermont to promote its interests. In 1785, Johnson was granted title to the former King's College Tract by the Vermont General Assembly as a
form of compensation for representing Vermont. The members of the Convention of 1787 assumed that Vermont was not yet separate from
New York; however, Madison's notes on the Federal Convention of 1787 make clear that there was an agreement by New York to allow for the
admission of Vermont to the union;[8] it was just a question of process, which was delayed by larger federal questions.
Thomas Chittenden (January 6, 1730 – August 25, 1797) was the first governor of the state of Vermont, serving from 1778 to 1789 when
Vermont was a largely unrecognized independent state and again after a year out of office from 1790 until his death on August 25, 1797. During
his first term after returning to office Vermont was admitted to the Union as the 14th state. Chittenden was born in East Guilford, Connecticut
on January 6, 1730 and married Elizabeth Meigs on October 4, 1749, in Salisbury, Connecticut. The couple had four sons and six daughters while
they were living in Connecticut. All the children survived to adulthood. He was justice of the peace in Salisbury and a member of the Colonial
Assembly from 1765 to 1769. He served in Connecticut's 14th Regiment from 1767 to 1773, rising to the rank of Colonel. He was descended
from Thomas Chittenden (1635 - 1683), who was born in Cranbrook, Kent, England and settled in the Connecticut Colony. Chittenden moved to
the New Hampshire Grants, now Vermont, in 1774, where he was the first settler in the town of Williston. In 1777, a convention was held in
Windsor, which drafted Vermont's first constitution, establishing Vermont as an independent republic. During the American Revolution,
Chittenden was a member of a committee empowered to negotiate with the Continental Congress to allow Vermont to join the Union. The
Congress deferred the matter in order to not antagonize the states of New York and New Hampshire, which had competing claims against
Vermont. During the period of the Vermont Republic, Chittenden served as governor from 1778 to 1789 and 1790 to 1791, and was one of the
participants in a series of delicate negotiations with British authorities in Quebec over the possibility of establishing Vermont as a British
Province. After Vermont entered the federal Union in 1791 as the fourteenth state, Chittenden continued to serve as governor until 1797. He
died in office. Chittenden died in Williston on August 25, 1797 and is interred at Thomas Chittenden Cemetery, Williston, Chittenden County,
Vermont. Citing Vermont's tumultuous founding, his epitaph reads "Out of storm and manifold perils rose an enduring state, the home of
freedom and unity." An engraved portrait of Chittenden can be found just outside the entrance to the Executive Chamber, the ceremonial office
of the governor, at the Vermont State House at Montpelier. A bronze sculpture of Chittenden can also be found on the grounds of the Vermont
State House near the building's west entrance. In the 1990s a statue of him was erected in front of the Williston Central School. His son Martin
was Governor and several sons were active in Vermont politics and the state militia. His great-grandson, Lucius E. Chittenden, served as Register
of the Treasury in the Lincoln administration. The town of Chittenden in Rutland County is named for him.
Moses Robinson (March 22, 1741 - May 26, 1813) was a prominent Vermont political figure who served a one-year term as governor during the
Vermont Republic from 1789 until 1790, helped steward Vermont's admission to the Union as the fourteenth state in the United States, and
served as the first United States senator from Vermont. Robinson was born in Hardwick, Massachusetts where he spent his childhood. As a
young man he attended Dartmouth College in New Hampshire and pursued classical studies. In 1761 he moved with his family to Bennington,
in what would later become Vermont. He soon became an important citizen of Bennington, serving as town clerk from 1762 to 1781.
Meanwhile, he studied law and became active in the American independence movement, serving as a colonel in the Vermont militia during the
early parts of the American Revolutionary War. He married Mary Fay, daughter of Stephen Fay, a leader of Green Mountain Boys. They had six
sons, Moses, Aaron, Samuel, Nathan, Elijah, and Fay. His second wife, after Mary's death, was Susanah Howe. In 1778, when the government of
Vermont was erected after Vermont had become an independent republic in 1777, Robinson became a member of the governor's council and
the chief justice of the Vermont Supreme Court. In 1782 he was sent to the Continental Congress as a state agent to attempt to solve the dispute
with New York, whose government at that time claimed that all of Vermont was by rights a part of New York. He served on the governor's
council until 1785 and as chief justice until 1789, when he became governor of Vermont, replacing Thomas Chittenden. Robinson served as
governor until 1790 shortly before Vermont was admitted as a state to the United States. Robinson was then elected by the Vermont General
Assembly to one of Vermont's two United States Senate seats. He served in the Senate for one term, from October 17, 1791 to October 15, 1796,
when he resigned. He became associated with the anti-administration faction and, later in his term, with the beginnings of the Democratic-
Republican Party of Thomas Jefferson. After his retirement from the Senate, Robinson moved back to Bennington and practiced law. He served

in the Vermont House of Representatives in 1802. Robinson died in Bennington, and is interred at the Old Bennington Cemetery, Bennington,
Bennington County, Vermont. He is well known for receiving a letter from Thomas Jefferson in 1801 in which Jefferson said that if Christianity
were simplified, it would be a religion friendly to liberty. Robinson was the older brother of Jonathan Robinson, who was also prominent in
Vermont's political history.
The Republic of West Florida was a short-lived republic in the western region of Spanish West Florida for several months during 1810. It was
annexed and occupied by the United States later in 1810, and is today an eastern part of the U.S. state of Louisiana. The boundaries of the
Republic of West Florida comprised an area south of the 31st parallel, west of the Pearl River (now part of the eastern boundary of Louisiana),
and east of the Mississippi River. The southern boundary was Lake Pontchartrain and the Gulf of Mexico. Military forces of the short-lived
Republic tried but failed to capture the Spanish outpost at Mobile, which lay between the Pearl and the Perdido River (farther east). Despite its
name, none of the Republic of West Florida lay within the borders of the present-day state of Florida - it is all in Louisiana.
Fulwar Skipwith (February 21, 1765 – January 7, 1839) was an American diplomat and politician, who served as a U.S. Consul in Martinique, and
later as the U.S. Consul-General in France. He was president of the Republic of West Florida in 1810. Skipwith was born in Dinwiddie County,
Virginia, and was a distant cousin of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson. Skipwith studied at the College of William & Mary, but left at age 16 to
enlist in the army during the American Revolution. He served at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781. After American Independence was achieved, he
entered the tobacco trade. Following the French Revolution of 1789, Skipwith was appointed as US Consul to the French colony of Martinique in
1790. He experienced the turmoil of the revolution, and the aftermath of the abortive slave insurrection in Martinique before departing in 1793.
In 1795, Monroe appointed him Consul-General in Paris under Ambassador James Monroe. On June 2, 1802, Skipwith married Louise Barbe
Vandenclooster, a Flemish baroness. Her sister was Thereze Josephine van den Clooster. In 1809, Skipwith moved to Spanish West Florida. As a
member of the first West Florida judiciary, he took part in the 1810 West Florida rebellion against Spain, and served as the president of the
short-lived Republic of West Florida. On October 27, 1810, West Florida was annexed to the United States by proclamation of U.S. President
James Madison, who claimed it as part of the Louisiana Purchase. At first, Skipwith and the West Florida government were opposed to the
proclamation, preferring to negotiate terms to join the Union as a separate state. However, William C. C. Claiborne, who was sent to take
possession, refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the West Florida government. Skipwith and the legislature reluctantly agreed to accept
Madison's proclamation. Skipwith was elected to serve in the Louisiana State Senate were he served as that body's second President. In December
1814, during the War of 1812, Magloire Guichard and Skipwith sponsored a legislative resolution to grant amnesty to "the privateers lately
resorting to Barataria, who might be deterred from offering their services for fear of persecution." This led to the pirate Jean Lafitte and his men
joining in the defense of New Orleans during the Battle of New Orleans, when the city was attacked by British forces. In 1827, Skipwith, Armand
Duplantier, Antoine Blanc, Thomas B. Robertson, and Sebastien Hiriart received permission from the Louisiana State Legislature to organize a
corporation called the Agricultural Society of Baton Rouge. The purpose of the society was as follows, "The sole and special objects of the said
society shall be the improvement of agriculture, the amelioration of the breed of horses, of horned cattle, and others, and in all of the several
branches relative to agriculture in a country." Skipwith died at his Monte Sano plantation on the bluffs above Baton Rouge on January 7, 1839, at
age 73.
On February 27, 1967, Britain granted the territory of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla the status of "associated state", with its own constitution
and a considerable degree of self-government. Many Anguillans strenuously objected to the continuing political subservience to Saint Kitts, and
on May 30, 1967 (known as Anguilla Day), the Saint Kitts police were evicted from the island. The provisional government requested United
States administration, which was declined. On July 11, 1967 a referendum on Anguilla's secession from the fledgling state was held. The results
were 1,813 votes for secession and 5 against. A declaration of independence (written mainly by Harvard Law professor Roger Fisher) was read
publicly by Walter Hodge. A separate legislative council was immediately established. Peter Adams served as the first Chairman of the Anguilla
Island Council, but when he agreed to take Anguilla back to St. Kitts, he was deposed and replaced by Ronald Webster. In December 1967, two
members of Britain's Parliament worked out an interim agreement by which for one year a British official would exercise basic administrative
authority along with the Anguilla Council. Tony Lee took the position on January 8, 1968, but by the end of the term no agreement had been
reached on the long-term future of the island's governance. On February 6, 1969, Anguilla held a second referendum resulting in a vote of 1,739
to 4 against returning to association with Saint Kitts. The next day Anguilla declared itself an independent republic, with Webster again serving
as Chairman. A new British envoy, William Whitlock, arrived on March 11, 1969 with a proposal for a new interim British administration. He
was quickly expelled. On March 19, a contingent of 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment plus forty Metropolitan Police officers, peacefully
landed on the island, ostensibly to "restore order". That autumn, the troops left and Army engineers were brought in to improve the public
works. Tony Lee returned as Commissioner and in 1971 worked out another "interim agreement" with the islanders. Effectively, Anguilla was
allowed to secede from Saint Kitts and Nevis, although it was not until December 19, 1980 that Anguilla formally disassociated itself from Saint
Kitts and became a separate British dependency. While Saint Kitts and Nevis went on to gain full independence from Britain in 1983, Anguilla
remains a British overseas territory.
Peter Adams was Chairman of the Republic of Anguilla n 1967. Peter Adams served as the first Chairman of the Anguilla Island Council, but
when he agreed to take Anguilla back to St. Kitts, he was deposed and replaced by Ronald Webster.
Azawad (Tuareg: ⴰⴰⴰⴰⴰⴰ Azawad; Arabic: ‫أزواد‬ Azawād) is a territory in northern Mali as well as a former short-lived unrecognised state. Its
independence was declared unilaterally by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) in 2012 after a Tuareg rebellion drove
the Malian Army from the territory. Initially their effort was supported by various Islamist groups. Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, comprises
the Malian regions of Timbuktu, Kidal, Gao, as well as a part of Mopti region, encompassing about 60 percent of Mali's total land area. Azawad
borders Burkina Faso to the south, Mauritania to the west and northwest, Algeria to the north and northeast, and Niger to the east and southeast,
with undisputed Mali to its southwest. It straddles a portion of the Sahara and the Sahelian zone. Gao is its largest city and served as the
temporary capital, while Timbuktu is the second-largest city, and intended to be the capital by the independence forces. On April 6, 2012, in a

statement posted to its website, the MNLA declared "irrevocably" the independence of Azawad from Mali. In Gao on the same day, Bilal Ag
Acherif, the secretary-general of the movement, signed the Azawadi Declaration of Independence, which also declared the MNLA as the interim
administrators of Azawad until a "national authority" is formed. The proclamation was never recognised by a foreign entity, and the MNLA's
claim to have de facto control of the Azawad region was disputed by both the Malian government and Islamist insurgent groups in the Sahara.
At this time, a rift was developing with the Islamists. The Economic Community of West African States, which refused to recognise Azawad and
called the declaration of its independence "null and void", warned it could send troops into the disputed region in support of the Malian claim.
On May 26, the MNLA and its former co-belligerent Ansar Dine announced a pact in which they would merge to form an Islamist state under
sharia law. Some later reports indicated the MNLA had decided to withdraw from the pact, distancing itself from Ansar Dine. Ansar Dine later
declared that they rejected the idea of Azawad independence. Following the collapse of the short-lived accord, the MNLA and Ansar Dine
continued to clash, culminating in the Battle of Gao on June 27, in which the Islamist groups Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa
and Ansar Dine took control of the city, driving out the MNLA. The following day, Ansar Dine announced that it was in control of all the cities
of northern Mali, bringing an end to the short-lived state. On February 14, 2013, the MNLA renounced its claim of independence for Azawad
and asked the Malian government to start negotiations on its future status. The MNLA ended the ceasefire in September of the same year after
government forces reportedly opened fire on unarmed protesters.
Bilal Ag Acherif last name alternatively spelled Cherif(born 1977) is the Secretary-General of the National Movement for the Liberation of
Azawad (MNLA) since October 2011 and president of a briefly independent Azawad from April 6 until July 12, 2012. On June 26, 2012, he was
wounded in clashes between MNLA fighters and the Islamist Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa during the northern Mali conflict.
According to an MNLA spokesperson, he was taken to Burkina Faso for medical care.
Biafra, officially the Republic of Biafra, was a secessionist state in south eastern Nigeria that existed from May 30, 1967 until January 15, 1970,
taking its name from the Bight of Biafra (the Atlantic bay to its south). The inhabitants were mostly the Igbo people who led the secession due
to economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria. The creation of the new state that was pushing for
recognition was among the causes of the Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Nigerian-Biafran War. The state was formally recognised by
Gabon, Haiti, Côte d'Ivoire, Tanzania, and Zambia. Other nations which did not give official recognition but which did provide support and
assistance to Biafra included Israel, France, Spain, Portugal, Rhodesia, South Africa and Vatican City. Biafra also received aid from non-state
actors, including Joint Church Aid, Holy Ghost Fathers of Ireland, Caritas International, MarkPress and U.S. Catholic Relief Services. After two-
and-a-half years of war, during which a million civilians died in fighting and from starvation resulting from blockades, Biafran forces agreed to
a ceasefire with the Nigerian Federal Military Government (FMG), and Biafra was reintegrated into Nigeria.
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu (November 4, 1933 – November 26, 2011) was a Nigerian military officer and politician who served as the
military governor of the Eastern Region of Nigeria in 1966 and the leader of the breakaway Republic of Biafra from May 30, 1967 until January
15, 1970. He was active as a politician from 1983 to 2011, when he died aged 78. Ojukwu came into national prominence upon his appointment
as military governor in 1966 and his actions thereafter. A military coup against the civilian Nigerian federal government in January 1966 and a
counter coup in July 1966 by different military factions, perceived to be ethnic coups, resulted in pogroms in Northern Nigeria in which Igbos
were predominantly killed. Ojukwu, who was not an active participant in either coup, was appointed the military governor of Nigeria's Eastern
region in January 1966 by General Aguyi Ironsi. In 1967, great challenges confronted the Igbos of Nigeria, with the coup d’etat of January 15,
1966 led by Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu who was widely considere to be an outstanding progressive and was buried with full military honors
when killed by those he fought against. His coup d’etat was triggered by political lawlessness, and uncontrolled looting in the streets of Western
Nigeria. Unfortunately, the sarduana of Sokoto, Sir Ahmadu Bello; the prime minister of Nigeria, Sir Tafawa Balewa; the premier of the
Western Region, Chief Ladoke Akintola and the finance minister, Chief Festus Okotie Eboh (among others including military officers) were
killed in the process. The pogrom of Igbos followed in Northern Nigeria beginning in July 1966. Eventually, then Lt. Col. Odumegwu Ojukwu
declared Biafra's Independence on May 30, 1967. Ojukwu took part in talks to seek an end to the hostilities by seeking peace with the then
Nigerian military leadership, headed by General Yakubu Gowon (Nigeria's head of state following the July 1966 counter coup). The military
leadership met in Aburi, Ghana (the Aburi Accord), but the agreement reached there was not implemented to all parties satisfaction upon their
return to Nigeria. The failure to reach a suitable agreement, the decision of the Nigerian military leadership to establish new states in the
Eastern Region and the continued pogrom in Northern Nigeria led Ojukwu to announce a breakaway of the Eastern Region under the new
name Republic of Biafra in 1967. This sequence of events sparked the Nigerian Civil War. Ojukwu led the Biafran forces and on the defeat of
Biafra in January 1970, and after he had delegated instructions to Philip Effiong, he went into exile for 13 years, returning to Nigeria following a
pardon. Chukwuemeka "Emeka" Odumegwu-Ojukwu was born on November 4, 1933 at Zungeru in northern Nigeria to Sir Louis Odumegwu
Ojukwu, a businessman from Nnewi, Anambra State in south-eastern Nigeria. Sir Louis was in the transport business; he took advantage of the
business boom during World War II to become one of the richest men in Nigeria. He began his educational career in Lagos, southwestern
Nigeria. Emeka Ojukwu started his secondary school education at CMS Grammar School, Lagos aged 10 in 1943. He later transferred to King's
College, Lagos in 1944 where he was involved in a controversy leading to his brief imprisonment for assaulting a white British colonial teacher
who humiliating a black woman. This event generated widespread coverage in local newspapers.[citation needed] At 13, his father sent him
overseas to study in the United Kingdom, first at Epsom College and later at Lincoln College, Oxford University, where he earned a master's
degree in History. He returned to colonial Nigeria in 1956. Ojukwu joined the civil service in Eastern Nigeria as an Administrative Officer at
Udi, in present-day Enugu State. In 1957, within months of working with the colonial civil service, he left and joined the military as one of the
first and few university graduates to join the army as a recruit: O. Olutoye (1956); C. Odumegwu-Ojukwu (1957), Emmanuel Ifeajuna and C. O.
Rotimi (1960), and A. Ademoyega (1962). Ojukwu's background and education guaranteed his promotion to higher ranks. At that time, the
Nigerian Military Forces had 250 officers and only 15 were Nigerians. There were 6,400 other ranks, of which 336 were British. After serving in
the United Nations’ peacekeeping force in the Congo, under Major General Johnson Thomas Aguiyi-Ironsi, Ojukwu was promoted to
Lieutenant-Colonel in 1964 and posted to Kano, where he was in charge of the 5th Battalion of the Nigerian Army. Lieutenant-Colonel Ojukwu
was in Kano, northern Nigeria, when Major Patrick Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu on January 15, 1966 executed and announced the bloody
military coup in Kaduna, also in northern Nigeria. It is to Ojukwu's credit that the coup lost much steam in the north, where it had succeeded.
Lt. Col. Odumegwu-Ojukwu supported the forces loyal to the Supreme Commander of the Nigerian Armed Forces, Major-General Aguiyi-
Ironisi. Major Nzeogwu was in control of Kaduna, but the coup had failed in other parts of the country. Aguiyi-Ironsi took over the leadership of
the country and thus became the first military head of state. On Monday, January 17, 1966, he appointed military governors for the four regions.
Lt. Col. Odumegwu-Ojukwu was appointed Military Governor of Eastern Region. Others were: Lt.-Cols Hassan Usman Katsina (North), Francis
Adekunle Fajuyi (West), and David Akpode Ejoor (Mid West). These men formed the Supreme Military Council with Brigadier B.A.O. Ogundipe,

Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters, Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon, Chief of Staff Army HQ, Commodore J. E. A. Wey, Head of Nigerian Navy, Lt.
Col. George T. Kurubo, Head of Air Force, Col. Sittu Alao. By May 29, 1966, there was a pogrom in northern Nigeria during which Nigerians of
southeastern Nigeria origin were targeted and killed. This presented problems for Odumegwu Ojukwu. He did everything in his power to
prevent reprisals and even encouraged people to return, as assurances for their safety had been given by his supposed colleagues up north and
out west. On July 29, 1966, a group of officers, including Majors Murtala Muhammed, Theophilus Yakubu Danjuma, and Martin Adamu, led the
majority Northern soldiers in a mutiny that later developed into a "counter-coup". The coup failed in the South-Eastern part of Nigeria where
Ojukwu was the military Governor, due to the effort of the brigade commander and hesitation of northern officers stationed in the region
(partly due to the mutiny leaders in the East being Northern whilst being surrounded by a large Eastern population). The Supreme Commander
General Aguiyi-Ironsi and his host Colonel Fajuyi were abducted and killed in Ibadan. On acknowledging Ironsi's death, Ojukwu insisted that
the military hierarchy be preserved. In that case, the most senior army officer after Ironsi was Brigadier Babafemi Ogundipe, should take over
leadership, not Colonel Gowon (the coup plotters choice), however the leaders of the counter-coup insisted that Colonel Gowon be made head of
state. Both Gowon and Ojukwu were of the same rank in the Nigeria Army then (Lt. Colonel). Ogundipe could not muster enough force in
Lagos to establish his authority as soldiers (Guard Battalion) available to him were under Joseph Nanven Garba who was part of the coup, it was
this realisation that led Ogundipe to opt out. Thus, Ojukwu's insistence could not be enforced by Ogundipe unless the coup ploters agreed
(which they did not). The fall out from this led to a stand off between Ojukwu and Gowon leading to the sequence of events that resulted in the
Nigerian civil war. In January 1967, the Nigerian military leadership went to Aburi, Ghana, for a peace conference hosted by General Joseph
Ankrah. The implementation of the agreements reached at Aburi fell apart upon the leaderships return to Nigeria and on May 30, 1967, as a
result of this, Colonel Odumegwu-Ojukwu declared Eastern Nigeria a sovereign state to be known as BIAFRA: "Having mandated me to
proclaim on your behalf, and in your name, that Eastern Nigeria be a sovereign independent Republic, now, therefore I, Lieutenant Colonel
Chukwuemeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu, Military Governor of Eastern Nigeria, by virtue of the authority, and pursuant to the principles recited
above, do hereby solemnly proclaim that the territory and region known as and called Eastern Nigeria together with her continental shelf and
territorial waters, shall, henceforth, be an independent sovereign state of the name and title of The Republic of Biafra." (No Place To Hide –
Crises And Conflicts Inside Biafra, Benard Odogwu, 1985, pp. 3, 4). On July 6, 1967, Gowon declared war and attacked Biafra. For 30 months, the
war raged on. Now General Odumegwu-Ojukwu knew that the odds against the new republic were overwhelming. Most European states
recognised the illegitimacy of the Nigerian military rule and banned all future supplies of arms, but the UK government substantially increased
its supplies, even sending British Army and Royal Air Force advisors. During the war in addition to the Aburi (Ghana) Accord that tried to avoid
the war, there was also the Niamey (Niger Republic) Peace Conference under President Hamani Diori (1968) and the OAU sponsored Addis
Ababa (Ethiopia) Conference (1968) under the Chairmanship of Emperor Haile Selassie. This was the final effort by General Ojukwu and
General Gowon to settle the conflict at the Conference Table. The rest is history and even though General Gowon, promised "No Victor, No
Vanquished," the Igbos were not only defeated but felt vanquished. After three years of non-stop fighting and starvation, a hole did appear in the
Biafran front lines and this was exploited by the Nigerian military. As it became obvious that all was lost, Ojukwu was convinced to leave the
country to avoid his certain assassination. On January 9, 1970, General Odumegwu-Ojukwu handed over power to his second in command, Chief
of General Staff Major-General Philip Effiong, and left for Côte d'Ivoire, where President Félix Houphouët-Boigny – who had recognised Biafra
on May 14, 1968 granted him political asylum. There was one controversial issue during the Biafra war, the killing of some members of the July
1966 alleged coup plot and Major Victor Banjo. They were executed for alleged treason with the approval of Ojukwu, the Biafran Supreme
commander. Major Ifejuna was one of those executed. More or so, there was a mystery on how Nzeogwu died in Biafra enclaved while doing a
raid against Nigeria army on behalf of Biafra. After 13 years in exile, the Federal Government of Nigeria under President Shehu Aliyu Usman
Shagari granted an official pardon to Odumegwu-Ojukwu and opened the road for a triumphant return in 1982. The people of Nnewi gave him
the now very famous chieftaincy title of Ikemba (Strength of the Nation, while the entire Igbo nation took to calling him Dikedioramma
("beloved hero of the masses") during his living arrangement in his family home in Nnewi, Anambra. His foray into politics was disappointing to
many, who wanted him to stay above the fray. The ruling party, NPN, rigged him out of the senate seat, which was purportedly lost to a
relatively little known state commissioner in then Governor Jim Nwobodo's cabinet called Dr. Edwin Onwudiwe. The second Republic was
truncated on December 31, 1983 by Major-General Muhammadu Buhari, supported by General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida and Brigadier Sani
Abacha. The junta proceeded to arrest and to keep Ojukwu in Kirikiri Maximum Security Prison, Lagos, alongside most prominent politicians of
that era. Having never been charged with any crimes, he was unconditionally released from detention on October 1, 1984, alongside 249 other
politicians of that era former Ministers Adamu Ciroma and Maitama Sule were also on that batch of released politicians. In ordering his release,
the Head of State, General Buhari said inter alia: "While we will not hesitate to send those found with cases to answer before the special military
tribunal, no person will be kept in detention a-day longer than necessary if investigations have not so far incriminated him." (WEST AFRICA,
October 8, 1984) After the ordeal in Buhari's prisons, Dim Odumegwu-Ojukwu continued to play major roles in the advancement of the Igbo
nation in a democracy because. "As a committed democrat, every single day under an un-elected government hurts me. The citizens of this
country are mature enough to make their own choices, just as they have the right to make their own mistakes". Ojukwu had played a significant
role in Nigeria's return to democracy since 1999 (the fourth Republic). He had contested as presidential candidate of his party, All Progressives
Grand Alliance (APGA) for the last three of the four elections. Until his illness, he remained the party leader. The party was in control of two
states in and largely influential amongst the Igbo ethnic area of Nigeria. On November 26, 2011, Ikemba Odumegwu Ojukwu died in the
United Kingdom after a brief illness, aged 78. The Nigerian Army accorded him the highest military accolade and conducted a funeral parade
for him in Abuja, Nigeria on 27 February 2012, the day his body was flown back to Nigeria from London before his burial on Friday, March 2.
He was buried in a newly built mausoleum in his compound at Nnewi. Before his final interment, he had about the most unique and elaborate
weeklong funeral ceremonies in Nigeria besides Chief Obafemi Awolowo, whereby his body was carried around the five Eastern states, Imo,
Abia, Enugu, Ebonyi, Anambra, including the nation's capital, Abuja. Memorial services and public events were also held in his honour in
several places across Nigeria, including Lagos and Niger State, his birthplace, and as far away as Dallas, Texas, United States. His funeral was
attended by President Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria and ex President Jerry Rawlings of Ghana among other personalities.
Jubaland State of Somalia, also known as Jubaland (Somali: Jubbaland, Arabic: ‫,)دنالابوج‬ the Juba Valley (Somali: Dooxada Jubba) or Azania
(Somali: Azaaniya, Arabic: ‫,)ازاوزا‬ is an autonomous region in southern Somalia. Its eastern border lies 40–60 km east of the Jubba River,
stretching from Gedo to the Indian Ocean, while its western side flanks the North Eastern Province in Kenya, which was carved out of Jubaland
during the colonial period. Jubaland has a total area of 87,000 km2 (33,000 sq mi). As of 2005, it had a total population of 953,045 inhabitants.

The territory consists of the Gedo, Lower Juba and Middle Juba provinces. Its largest city is Kismayo, which is situated on the coast near the
mouth of the Jubba River. Bardera, Afmadow, Bu'aale, Luuq and Beled Haawo are the region's other principal cities. In antiquity, the Jubaland
region's various port cities and harbours, such as Essina and Sarapion, were an integral part of global trade. During the Middle Ages, the
influential Somali Ajuran Empire held sway over the territory, followed in turn by the Geledi Sultanate. From 1836 until 1861, parts of Jubaland
were nominally claimed by the Sultanate of Muscat (now in Oman). They were later incorporated into British East Africa. In 1925, Jubaland was
ceded to Italy, forming a part of Italian Somaliland. On July 1, 1960, the region, along with the rest of Italian Somaliland and British
Somaliland, became part of the independent republic of Somalia. Jubaland was later the site of numerous battles during the civil war. In late
2006, Islamist militants gained control of most of the region. To reclaim possession of the territory, a new autonomous administration dubbed
Azania was announced in 2010 and formalized the following year. In 2013, the Juba Interim Administration was officially established and
recognized.
Mohamed Abdi Mohamed (Gandhi) (Somali: Maxamed Cabdi Maxamed, Arabic: ‫محمج‬ ‫بجي‬ ‫ع‬ ‫,محمج‬ born July 21, 1954) is a Somali geologist,
anthropologist, historian and politician. He is the former Minister of Defense of Somalia from February 2009 until November 12, 2012, and the
former President of Azania (Jubaland) from April 3, 2011 until May 15, 2013. In July 2014, Gandhi was appointed as Somalia's Ambassador to
Canada. Professor Mohamed Abdi Xaji-Mohamed, nicknamed "Gandhi", is from Somalia. From childhood, Mohamed was a great student and
managed to memorize the Koran at an early age. He excelled in his elementary schooling as well. He was accepted to the most prestigious high
school at the time, Jamal Abdelnazer High School in the Somali capital of Mogadishu, where he graduated as an honor student in the class of
1970. He was one of the top students in his high school and the entire country for that year and was awarded a full a scholarship to go to France
for higher education. He arrived in France in October 1972 to attend Besançon University. There he majored in geology and graduated with a
B.A. in September 1976. Then he continued on to acquire his Master of Science in Geology in 1979. He obtained his PhD in applied geology in
June 1983. The title of his thesis was "Study of Geology and Hydrogeology of the Central Somalia Basin (Somali Democratic Republic)”. After
graduation, Gandhi started lecturing at the same university. He continued to pursue another major (history and civilization of antiquity) and
received his second Ph.D in 1990. Through that decade the professor continued lecturing at the University of Besançon, France. Prof Gandhi also
received his Certificate in Anthropology of Space, around March 1992, at the University of New Lisbon, under the Erasmus exchange. In
addition to that he received a Higher Degree by Research (HDR) from Besançon University in Besançon, France. Prof Gandhi was awarded an
International Baccalaureate Diploma from the French Academy. He also served as a senior program advisor of UNDP Somalia in Disarmament,
Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR). An active participant in the Somali peace process, Gandhi was a Lead Consultant in Mapping the
Somali Civil Society. He also chaired the Technical Committee at the Arta Somali Peace process that took place in Arta, Djibouti, as well as
being a member of the Somali Civil Society at the Somali Peace and Reconciliation Conference that was held in Kenya. Mohamed Cabdi
Mohamed (Gandhi) is an accomplished author; he has published 12 books in addition to more than 50 scientific articles in various academic
journals. He has also edited three studies. Professor Mohamed Abdi Mohamed was recently elected the President of Azania States in 2011.
Professor Gandhi previously served as a Defense Secretary and Minister of Air and Transportation in the Somali Transitional Federal
Government. He is a Member of Parliament of the TFG. During his studies in France, Prof Gandhi returned every year in Somalia to teach and
support as a Professor in the Departments of History and Geology at the University of Mogadishu. Since 1987. Professor was consultant to the
National Museum of Somalia (since 1988) which he had set the task of identifying and classifying ancient manuscripts (especially those held by
the Sheikhs and clqn leaders) to build a directory of literary ( oral or written) and objects of art. Prof Gandhi is the Co-founding member of the
Association Somali Peace Line, Paris, 1996. Prof Gandhi worked as a Consultant to “Doctors Without Borders” from Switzerland, Spain and other
international organizations between Jan 2006-Feb 2007 where they build schools and training center for nurses and he built clinic in Kulbiyoow,
Lower Jubba and surrounding area where his beloved mother was born. In addition, the professor Gandhi built a mosque and education center
for midwife nurse clinic in memory of his beloved mother. Professor Gandhi worked as Consultant Expert to UNESCO between 1995 and 1998,
where he wrote many books and articles, including: Somali Translation of Poems for a Poetry of Anthology of African sub-Saharan Africa,
published in 1995 under the direction of Bernard Magnier. Which was conducting an inventory of intellectuals and nongovernmental
organizations Somali opening for peace in Somalia published 10/25/1995. "How to involve women in the Somali peace process," Program for
Culture of Peace, UNESCO published 1998. "Women and the Somali Peace" Program for Culture of Peace, UNESCO published 1998. "Dictionary
of the People, companies from Africa, America, Asia and Oceania ,under the direction of Jean-Christophe Tamisier , and Larousse-Bordas, 1998.
Professor Gandhi is an Associate Member of the Institute of Science and Techniques of the Ancient World (ISTA), CNRS, ESA 6048 (since 1992),
he is still a supervisor of research. Prof Gandhi worked as Research Officer 1st Class, March 1999-February 2001 IRD: at the Institute of
Development Research (formerly ORSTOM). Gandhi was the Technical Committee Chairman for the Conference for Peace held at Arta in
Djibouti (Republic of Djibouti), from March to September 2000. He was Consultant for UNOPS, Somali Civil Protection Program 2001 and
Consultant advisor to the UNDP, Senior Program Adviser, SCPP, UNDP, 2002, Principal Consultant Mapping of Somali Civil Society
Organizations, NOVIB, Somalia, 2002, Representative of civil society in the peace process in El-Doret and Nairobi (Kenya), October 2002 to
November 2004. Administrative activities: Creation of "Somali Studies" in France and Europe edition of collected works. Co-founding member of
the French Association of Somali Studies (established 1986) and the European Association of Somali Studies (established 1990). To bring
together researchers "Somaliazation" Europe, these associations have organized several seminars and cultural events. Professor Gandhi was
responsible for preparing the following events: First conference of Somali Studies, Paris, IMA, July 11–13, 1988 in collaboration with Mrs.
Danièle Kintz and Mr. Osman Omar Rabah. Second Conference of Somali Studies, Besançon, 8–11 October 1990 and accompanying exhibitions
(Dole and Besançon); Forum: "The civil war in Somalia: When and How? Why?", Paris, IMA, April, 7–8 1992; Forum: "Peace and Reconciliation in
Somalia", Paris, IMA, April, 15–17 April 1993; Congress of Somali Studies on the theme "For a Culture of Peace in Somalia", Paris, October 25-27,
1995. During his time as a Defense minister, Professor Gandhi organized and held meeting in Washington DC that he aimed to bring together
former high-ranking officers from the military, police, custodial and intelligence services for in-depth discussions on both the historical
background of the Somali security forces, and on the re-establishment and the strengthening of the capacity of the security sector institutions in
Somalia. He proposed 36 thousand strong army led by former Somali senior military to revive the Somali nationhood. On February 21, 2009,
Gandhi was appointed Somalia's Minister of Defense by the nation's then head of government, Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke.
He held the position until November 10, 2010. On April 3, 2011, the establishment of a new autonomous region in southern Somalia was
announced. Referred to as Azania (formerly Jubaland), the nascent polity is led by Gandhi, who is serving as its first President. According to
President Gandhi, Azania was selected as the name for the new administration because of its historical importance, as "Azania was a name given
to Somalia more than 2,500 years ago and it was given by Egyptian sailors who used to get a lot of food reserves from the Somali Coast[...] Its
origin is [an] Arabic word meaning the land of plenty." Gandhi's first stated policy initiative was to remove the Al Shabaab group of militants
from the territory. Gandhi held position of President of Jubaland until May 15, 2013, when Ahmed Mohamed Islam was elected to the office. In
July 2014, Gandhi was appointed Somalia's new Ambassador to Canada. The first such envoy in over two decades, he will head the Somali
federal government's reopened embassy in Ottawa.

Ahmed Mohamed Islam (Somali: Sheekh Axmed Maxamed Islaam) aka Sheikh Ahmed Madobe or Madobe is the president of the Jubbaland
State of Somalia since May 15, 2013. As a member of Islamic Courts Union (ICU) he was governor of Kismayo in 2006. When the ICU was
overthrown by Ethiopian National Defense Force he fled towards the Kenyan border when he was wounded, and later received medical
treatment at an Ethiopian hospital. He was later arrested by the Ethiopians. When the Somali parliament expanded to 550 MPs he was elected
MP in January 2009 and released from Ethiopian prison. On April 4, 2009 he announced his resignation from the parliament. On October 2009,
armed conflict between Hizbul Islam and al-Shabaab began after a dispute between the Ras Kamboni Brigades and al-Shabaab over control of
Kisimayo. ARS-A and JABISO, which were aligned with al-Shabaab in Hiiraan and Mogadishu refused to support the Ras Kamboni Brigades,
meanwhile Anole[clarification needed] remained neutral. The fighting also led to a split within the Ras Kamboni Brigades, with a faction led by
Ahmed Madoobe fighting against al-Shabaab and a faction led by Hassan al-Turki siding with al-Shabaab. The Battle of Kismayo was decisively
won by al-Shabaab, which then expelled Madbobe's Ras Kamboni Brigades from the city. In the battles that followed, in November 2009,
Madobe's forces were overpowered by al-Shabaab and its local allies. It was then forced to withdraw from the Lower Jubba region and most of
southern Somalia. In February 2010, al-Turki's branch declared a merger with al-Shabaab. On December 20, 2010, Hizbul Islam also merged
with al-Shabaab and the Raskamboni movement then allied with Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a and the Transitional Federal Government. On May 15,
2013, Madoobe was elected as president of Jubaland, a key southern region of Somalia. Delegates said that while 10 votes were still cast for other
candidates and 15 abstained, 485 voted in favour of Madobe.but on August 15, 2015 is re elected at Jubbland parliament for 68 vote. On August
28, 2013, Madobe signed a national reconciliation agreement in Addis Ababa with the Somali federal government. Endorsed by the federal State
Minister for the Presidency Farah Abdulkadir on behalf of President Hassan Sheikh Mohamud, the pact was brokered by the Foreign Ministry of
Ethiopia and came after protracted bilateral talks. Under the terms of the agreement, Jubaland will be administered for a two year period by a
Juba Interim Administration and led by the region's incumbent president, Madobe. The regional president will serve as the chairperson of a new
Executive Council, to which he will appoint three deputies. Management of Kismayo's seaport and airport will also be transferred to the Federal
Government after a period of six months, and revenues and resources generated from these infrastructures will be earmarked for Jubaland's
service delivery and security sectors as well as local institutional development. Additionally, the agreement includes the integration of
Jubaland's military forces under the central command of the Somali National Army (SNA), and stipulates that the Juba Interim Administration
will command the regional police. UN Special Envoy to Somalia Nicholas Kay hailed the pact as "a breakthrough that unlocks the door for a
better future for Somalia," with AUC, UN, EU and IGAD representatives also present at the signing.
Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed or Abdullah al-Taashi or Abdullah al-Taaisha, also known as "The Khalifa" (Arabic: c. ‫هللا‬ ‫بج‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ال‬ ‫زج‬ ‫س‬ ‫محمج‬ ‫;ةفزلخ‬ 1846 -
November 25, 1899) was a Sudanese Ansar ruler (like king or royal) who was one of the principal followers of Muhammad Ahmad. Ahmad
claimed to be the Mahdi, building up a large following. After his death Abdallahi ibn Muhammad took over the movement, adopting the title of
Khalifat al-Mahdi (usually rendered as "Khalifa"). His attempt to create an Islamist military caliphate led to widespread discontent, and his
eventual defeat and death at the hands of the British.
Abdullah was born into the Ta'aisha Baqqara tribe in around 1846 and was trained and educated as a preacher and holy man. He became a
follower of Muhammed Ahmed "the Mahdi" around 1880 and was named Khalifa by the Mahdi in 1881, becoming one of his chief lieutenants.
The other Kalifas were Ali wad Hilu and Muhammad Sharif. He was given command of a large part of the Mahdist army, and during the next
four years led them in a series of victories over the Anglo-Egyptians. He fought at the Battle of El Obeid, where William Hicks's Anglo-Egyptian
army was destroyed (November 5, 1883), and was one of the principal commanders at the siege of Khartoum, (February 1884 - January 26,
1885). After the unexpected death of the Mahdi in June 1885, Abdullah succeeded as leader of the Mahdists, declaring himself "Khalifat al-
Mahdi", or successor of the Mahdi. He faced internal disputes over his leadership with the Ashraf and he had to suppress several revolts in 1885-
1886, 1888-1889, and 1891 before emerging as sole leader. At first the Mahdiyah was run on military lines as a jihad state, with the courts
enforcing Sharia law and the precepts of the Mahdi, which had equal force. Later the Khalifa established a more traditional administration. He
felt the best course of action to keep internal problems to a minimum was to expand into Ethiopia and Egypt. The Khalifa invaded Ethiopia with
60,000 Ansar troops and sacked Gondar in 1887. He later refused to make peace. He successfully repulsed the Ethiopians at the Battle of
Metemma on March 9, 1889, where the Ethiopian emperor Yohannes IV was killed. He created workshops to maintain steam boats on the Nile
and to manufacture ammunition. But the Khailfa underestimated the strength of the Anglo-Egyptian forces and suffered a crushing defeat in
Egypt. The Egyptians failed to counter up the Nile; however in the 1890s the state became strained economically, and suffered from crop
failures instead. The Ashraf, in November 1891, decided to press again, but were put down one final time; they were prevented from causing any
further issues. During the next four years, Khailfa strengthened the military and financial situation of the Sudan; however this was not enough
as, the Sudan became threatened by the Italian, French and British imperial forces that surrounded it. In 1896, an Anglo-Egyptian army under
General Herbert Kitchener began the reconquest of the Sudan. Following the loss of Dongola in September 1896, then Berber and Abu Hamed
to Kitchener's army in 1897, the Khalifa Abdullah sent an army that was defeated at the Battle of Atbara River on April 8, 1898, afterwards
falling back to his new capital of Omdurman. At the Battle of Omdurman on September 2, 1898 his army of 52,000 men was destroyed. The
Khalifa then fled south and went into hiding with a few followers but was finally caught and killed by Sir Reginald Wingate's Egyptian column
at Umm Diwaikarat in Kordofan on November 24, 1899. Devout, intelligent, and an able general and administrator, the Khalifa was unable to
overcome tribal dissension to unify Sudan, and was forced to employ Egyptians to provide the trained administrators and technicians he needed
to maintain his self-proclaimed Islamist military caliphate.
Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli
The Banu Khazrun was a family of the Maghrawa that ruled Tripoli from 1001 to 1146.
List of Rulers (Emirs) of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli
Fulful ibn Said was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1001 until 1002.
Yahya ibn Hamdun al-Andalusi was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1002 until 1003.
Fulful ibn Saïd was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1001 until 1002.

Warru ibn Said was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1009 until 1012.
Muhammad ibn al-Hassan was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1012 until 1014.
Abu Abdallah ibn al-Hassanwas the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1014 until 1022.
Khalifa ibn Warru was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1002 until 1028.
Said ibn Khazrun (died 1037) was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1028 until his death in 1037.
Abu l-Hasan Ali was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli in 1037.
Khazrun ibn Khalifa was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1037 until 1038.
Al-Muntansir ibn Khazrun was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1038 until 1077.
Abu Yahya ibn Matruh al-Tamimi was the Emir of the Banu Khazrun Maghrawa Dynasty of Tripoli from 1146 until 1160.
Maghrawa Emirate of Fez
The Maghrawa Emirate of Fez was a Muslim state that existed with capital of Fes from 980 unti 1069.
List of Rulers of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez
Bulugguín ibn Ziri was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez under Fatimid Dynasty from 979 until 980.
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Khayr II was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 979 until 986.
Yaddu ibn Yala was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 986 until 988.
Mukatil Ibn Atiyya was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 986 until 988 or from 988 until 989.
Ziri ibn Atiyya was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from around 989 until 997.
Ziri ibn Al-Muizz (died 1026) was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 999 until his death in 1026.
Hamama Muizz Ibn Ibn Atiyya was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1026 until 1033.
Kamal Abu l-Tamim ibn Ziri was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1033 until 1038.
Hamama ibn al Muizz was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1038 until 1040 or 1041.
Attaf Dunas ibn Abu Hamama (died 1060) was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez in 1040 or 1041 until his death in 1060.
Dunas ibn Al-Fatuh was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez in 1060.
Adjisa ibn Dunas was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1060 until 1062.
Dunas ibn Al-Fatuh was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez in 1062.
Buluggin ibn Muhammad was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1062 until 1063.
Muannasar (Muansar) Manusa ibn Hamad ibn ibn al-Muizz Ibn Atiyya was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez in 1063 and from 1065 until
1067.
Tamim ibn Muannasar (died 1069) was a ruler of Maghrawa Emirate of Fez from 1067 until his death in 1069.
Sultanate of M'Simbati was the Sultanate in the present Tanzania. Latham Leslie-Moore, a retired civil servant, declared the secession of the
"Sultanate of M'Simbati" from the then colony of Tanganyika. The "secession" was suppressed in 1962 by Tanzanian government troops.
Latham Leslie-Moorewas the Sultan of Sultanate of M'Simbati from 1959 until 1962. He was the retired civil servant, who declared the secession
of the "Sultanate of M'Simbati" from the then colony of Tanganyika. The "secession" was suppressed in 1962 by Tanzanian government troops.
The Republic of Salé was a short-lived city state at the mouth of the Bou Regreg river, founded by Moriscos from the town of Hornachos, in
Western Spain. Moriscos were the descendants of Muslims who were nominally converted to Christianity, and were subject to mass deportation
during the Spanish Inquisition. The Republic's main commercial activities were the Barbary slave trade and piracy during its brief existence in
the 17th century. The city is now part of the Kingdom of Morocco.

Jan Janszoon van Haarlem, commonly knownas Murat Reis the Younger (c. 1570 - c. 1641) was a ceremonial Governor of the Corsair Republic
of Salé from 1623 until 1627 and Grand Admiral of the Corsair Republic of Salé from 1619 until 1627, Governor of Oualidia from 1640 until his
death around 1641, and a Dutch Barbary pirate, one of the most famous of the "Salé Rovers" from the 17th century. Jan Janszoon van Haerlem
was born in Haarlem, North Holland, Republic of the Netherlands in 1575. The Eighty Years War had started seven years previously and lasted
all his life. Little is known of his early life, except that he married Soutgen Cave in 1595 and had two children with her, Edward and Lysbeth. He
married Margarita, a Moorish woman, in Cartagena around 1600. They had four children; Anthony, Abraham, Phillip, and Cornelis. In 1600, Jan
Janszoon began as a Dutch privateer sailing from his home port, Haarlem, working for the state with letters of marque to harass Spanish
shipping during the Eighty Years' War. Working from the Netherlands was insufficiently profitable, so Janszoon overstepped the boundaries of
his letters and found his way to the semi-independent port states of the Barbary Coast of north Africa, whence he could attack ships of every
foreign state: when he attacked a Spanish ship, he flew the Dutch flag; when he attacked any other, he became an Ottoman Captain and flew the
red half-moon of the Turks or the flag of any of various other Mediterranean principalities. During this period he had abandoned his Dutch
family. Janszoon was captured in 1618 at Lanzarote (one of the Canary Islands) by Barbary corsairs and taken to Algiers as a captive. There he
turned "Turk", or Muslim (as the Ottoman Empire had some limited influence over the region, sometimes Europeans erroneously called all
Muslims "Turks"). It is speculated by some that the conversion was forced. Janszoon himself, however, tried very hard to convert his fellow
Europeans who were Christian to become Muslim and was a very passionate Muslim missionary. The Ottoman Turks maintained a precarious
measure of influence on behalf of their Sultan by openly encouraging the Moors to advance themselves through piracy against the European
powers, which long resented the Ottoman Empire. After Janszoon's conversion to Islam and the ways of his captors, he sailed with the famous
corsair Sulayman Rais, also known as Slemen Reis (originally a Dutchman named De Veenboer whom Janszoon had known before his capture
and who,[5] as Janszoon himself, had chosen to convert to Islam) and with Simon de Danser.[citation needed] But, because Algiers had
concluded peace with several European nations, it was no longer a suitable harbor from which to sell captured ships or their cargo. So, after
Sulayman Rais was killed by a cannonball in 1619, Janszoon moved to the ancient port of Salé and began operating from it as a Barbary corsair
himself. In 1619, Salé Rovers declared the port to be an independent republic free from the Sultan. They set up a government that consisted of
14 pirate leaders, and elected Janszoon as their President. He would also serve as the Grand Admiral of their navy. The Salé fleet totaled about
eighteen ships, all small because of the very shallow harbor entrance. Even the Sultan of Morocco, after an unsuccessful siege of the city,
acknowledged its semi-autonomy. Contrary to popular belief that Sultan Zidan Abu Maali had reclaimed sovereignty over Salé and appointed
Janszoon the Governor in 1624, the Sultan merely approved Janszoon's election as President by formally appointing him as his ceremonial
governor. Under Janszoon's leadership, business in Salé thrived. The main sources of income of this republic remained piracy and its by-trades,
shipping and dealing in stolen property. Historians have noted Janszoon's intelligence and courage which reflected in his leadership ability. He
was forced to find an assistant to keep up, resulting in the hiring of a fellow countryman from The Netherlands, Mathys van Bostel Oosterlinck,
who would serve as his Vice-Admiral. Janszoon had become very wealthy from his income as piratical admiral, payments for anchorage and
other harbor dues, and the brokerage of stolen goods. The political climate in Salé worsened toward the end of 1627, so Janszoon quietly moved
his family and his entire piratical operation back to semi-independent Algiers. Janszoon would become bored by his new official duties from
time to time and again sail away on a pirate adventure. In 1622, Janszoon and his crews sailed into the English Channel with no particular plan
but to try their luck there. When they ran low on supplies they docked at the port of Veere, Zeeland, under the Moroccan flag, claiming
diplomatic privileges from his official role as Admiral of Morocco (a very loose term in the environment of North African politics). The Dutch
authorities could not deny the two ships access to Veere because, at the time, several peace treaties and trade agreements existed between the
Sultan of Morocco and the Dutch Republic. During his anchorage there, the Dutch authorities brought to the port Janszoon's Dutch first wife
and his Dutch children to persuade him to give up piracy; the authorities did the same to many of the pirate crews, but they utterly failed to
persuade the men. Janszoon and his crews left port not only intact but with many new Dutch volunteers despite a Dutch prohibition of piracy.
He was instrumental in securing the release of Dutch captives while in Morocco from other pirates. Knowledgeable of several languages, while
in Algiers he contributed to the establishment of the Franco-Moroccan Treaty of 1631 between French King Louis XIII and Sultan Abu Marwan
Abd al-Malik II. In 1627 Janszoon captured the island of Lundy in the Bristol Channel and held it for five years, using it as a base for raiding
expeditions. In 1627, Janszoon used a Danish "slave" (most likely a crew member captured on a Danish ship taken as a pirate prize) to pilot him
and his men to Iceland. There they raided the fishing village of Grindavík. Their takings were meagre, only some salted fish and a few hides,
but they also captured twelve Icelanders and three Danes who happened to be in the village. When they were leaving Grindavík they managed
to trick and capture a Danish merchant ship that was passing by means of flying a false flag. The ships then sailed to Bessastaðir, seat of the
Danish governor of Iceland, to raid there but were unable to make a landing - it is said they were thwarted by cannon fire from the local
fortifications (Bessastaðaskans) and a quickly mustered group of lancers from the Southern Peninsula and decided to turn away and sail home
to Salé, where their captives were sold as slaves. Two corsair ships from Algiers, possibly connected to Janszoons raid, came to Iceland on July 4
and plundered there. Then they sailed to Vestmannaeyjar off the southern coast and raided there for three days. Those events are collectively
known in Iceland as Tyrkjaránið (the Turkish abductions), as the Barbary states were nominally a part of the Ottoman Empire. Accounts by
enslaved Icelanders who spent time on the corsair ships claimed that the conditions for women and children were normal, in that they were
permitted to move throughout the ship, except to the quarter deck. The pirates were seen giving extra food to the children from their own
private stashes, and that a woman who gave birth on board a ship was treated with dignity, being afforded privacy and clothing by the pirates.
The men were put in the hold of the ships, and had their chains removed once the ships were far enough from land. Despite popular claims,
Icelander accounts failed to mention any rapes inflicted on slaves. Guðríður Símonardóttir and a few others are known to have returned to
Iceland. Having sailed for two months and with little to show for the voyage, Janszoon turned to a captive taken on the voyage, a Roman
Catholic named John Hackett, for information on where a profitable raid could be made. The residents of Baltimore, a small town in West Cork,
Ireland, were resented by the Roman Catholic native Irish because they were settled on lands confiscated from the O'Driscoll clan. Hackett
would direct Janszoon to this town and away from his own. Janszoon sacked Baltimore on June 20, 1631, seizing little more than 108 persons
whom he doomed to be sold as slaves in north Africa. Janszoon took no interest in the Gaels and released them, only enslaving English. Shortly
after the sack, Hackett was arrested and hanged for his crime. "Here was not a single Christian who was not weeping and who was not full of
sadness at the sight of so many honest maidens and so many good women abandoned to the brutality of these barbarians" Only two of the Irish
villagers ever saw their homeland again. Murat Reis chose to make large profits by raiding Mediterranean islands such as the Balearic Islands,
Corsica, Sardinia, the southern coast of Sicily. He often sold most of his merchandise in Tunis where he became a good friend of the Dey. He is
known to have sailed the Ionian Sea. He fought the Venetians near the coasts of Crete and Cyprus with a vibrant Corsair crew consisting of
Dutch, Moriscos, Arab, Turkish and Elite Janissaries. In 1635, near the Tunisian coast, Murat Reis was outnumbered and surprised by a sudden
attack. He and many of his men were captured by the Knights of Malta where he would spend the next five years in the islands' notorious dark
dungeons. He was mistreated and tortured, the effects of his imprisonment costly to his health and wellbeing. In 1640 he barely escaped after a
massive Corsair attack, which was carefully planned by the Dey of Tunis in order to rescue their fellow sailors and Corsairs. He was greatly
honored and praised upon his return in Morocco and the nearby Barbary States. He returned to Morocco in 1640 and was appointed Governor of

the great fortress of Oualidia, near Safi, Morocco. He resided at the Castle of Maladia. In December, 1640, a ship arrived with a new Dutch
consul, who brought Lysbeth Janszoon van Haarlem, Janszoon's daughter by his first Dutch wife, to visit her father. When Lysbeth arrived,
Janszoon "was seated in great pomp on a carpet, with silk cushions, the servants all around him" she had also noticed that Murat Reis the great
Corsair lord had become an old and feeble man. Lysbeth stayed with her father until August, 1641, when she returned to Holland. Little is
known of Janszoon thereafter; he likely retired at last from both public life and piracy. The date of his death remains unknown. In 1596, by an
unknown Dutch woman, Janszoon's first child was born, Lysbeth Janszoon van Haarlem. After becoming a privateer, Janszoon met an unknown
woman in Cartagena, Spain, who he would marry. The identity of this woman is historically vague, but the consensus is that she was of some
kind of mixed-ethnic background, considered "Moorish" in Spain. Historians have claimed her to be nothing more than a concubine, others
claim she was a Muslim Mudéjar who worked for a Christian noble family, and other claims have been made that she was a "Moorish princess."
Through this marriage, Janszoon had four children: Abraham Janszoon van Salee (born 1602), Philip Janszoon van Salee (born 1604), Anthony
Janszoon van Salee (born 1607), and Cornelis Janszoon van Salee (born 1608). It is speculated that Janszoon married for a third time to the
daughter of Sultan Moulay Ziden in 1624. In 2009, a play based on Janszoon's life as a pirate, "Jan Janszoon, de blonde Arabier", written by Karim
El Guennouni toured The Netherlands. "Bad Grandpa: The Ballad of Murad the Captain" is a poem about van Haarlem published in 2007.
Janszoon was also known as Murat Reis the Younger. His Dutch names are also given as Jan Jansen and Jan Jansz; his adopted name as Morat
Rais, Murat Rais, Morat; Little John Ward, John Barber, Captain John, Caid Morato were some of his pirate names. "The Hairdresser" was a
nickname of Janszoon.
The Sultanate of Hobyo (Somali: Saldanadda Hobyo, Arabic: ‫نخ‬ ‫فط‬ ‫س‬ ‫,)ونالزن‬ also known as the Sultanate of Obbia, was a 19th-century Somali
kingdom in present-day northeastern and central Somalia and eastern Ethiopia. It was carved out of the former Majeerteen Sultanate
(Migiurtinia) by Yusuf Ali Kenadid, cousin of the Majeerteen Sultanate's ruler, Boqor Osman Mahamuud.
Yusuf Ali Kenadid (Somali: Yuusuf Cali Keenadiid, Arabic: ‫سف‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ي‬ ‫في‬ ‫ع‬ ‫,دزنجيج‬ died in early 1900s) was the founder and ruler of the Sultanate of
Hobyo from 1880s until his death in early 1900s. Along with Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire of the Warsangali Sultanate and King Osman
Mahamuud of the Majeerteen Sultanate, Yusuf Ali was one of the three prominent rulers of present-day Somalia at the turn of the 20th century.
He was succeeded atop the throne by his son Ali Yusuf Kenadid. Yusuf Ali Kenadid was born into a Majeerteen Darod family. He is the father of
Osman Yusuf Kenadid, who would go on to create the Osmanya writing script for the Somali language. Yusuf Ali's grandson, Yasin Osman
Kenadid, would later help found the Society for Somali Language and Literature. Yusuf Ali was not a lineal descendant of the previous
dynasties that governed over northeastern Somalia. He independently amassed his own fortune, and would later evolve into a skilled military
leader commanding more senior troops. "Kenadid" was not his surname, but rather a title given to him by his rivals. As per custom among the
period's prominent urban traders, to ensure commercial success in the interior, Kenadid married a local woman. While traveling to the coast in
his capacity as a merchant prince, he would thereafter entrust his business affairs to his second wife, Khadija. Her duties during her husband's
absence included maintaining the extant commercial transactions with the local population, collecting debts, securing loans, and safeguarding
merchandise stock that had been acquired during previous journeys. Yusf Ali's son, Ali Yusuf, succeeded him as Sultan of Hobyo. Initially,
Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman
Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s,
Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance,
he managed to overpower the local Hawiye clans and establish the kingdom of Hobyo. In late 1888, Sultan Kenadid entered into a treaty with
Italy, making his kingdom a protectorate known as Italian Somaliland. His uncle and rival Boqor Osman would sign a similar agreement vis-a-
vis his own Majeerteen Sultanate the following year. Both Sultan Kenadid and Boqor Osman had entered into the protectorate treaties to
advance their own expansionist goals, with Kenadid looking to use Italy's support in his ongoing power struggle with Boqor Osman over the
Majeerteen Sultanate, as well as in a separate conflict with the Sultan of Zanzibar over an area to the north of Warsheikh. In signing the
agreements, the rulers also hoped to exploit the rival objectives of the European imperial powers so as to more effectively assure the continued
independence of their territories. The terms of each treaty specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the sultanates' respective
administrations. In return for Italian arms and an annual subsidy, the Sultans conceded to a minimum of oversight and economic concessions.
The Italians also agreed to dispatch a few ambassadors to promote both the sultanates' and their own interests. However, the relationship
between Hobyo and Italy soured when Sultan Kenadid refused the Italians' proposal to allow a British contingent of troops to disembark in his
Sultanate so that they might then pursue their battle against the Somali religious and nationalist leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan's Dervish
forces. Viewed as too much of a threat by the Italians, Sultan Kenadid was eventually exiled to Aden in Yemen and then to Eritrea, as was his
son Ali Yusuf, the heir apparent to his throne. However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule
due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.
Ali Yusuf Kenadid (Somali: Cali Yuusuf Keenadiid, Arabic: ‫في‬ ‫ع‬ ‫سف‬ ‫ن‬ ‫ي‬ ‫,دزنايجيك‬ died 1926) was the second Sultan of the Sultanate of Hobyo from
early 1900s until his death in 1926. Ali Yusuf was born into a Majeerteen Darod family. His father, Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid, was the founder of
the Sultanate of Hobyo centered in present-day northeastern and central Somalia. The polity was established in the 1870s on territory carved out
of the ruling Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia). Ali Yusuf's brother, Osman Yusuf Kenadid, would go on to invent the Osmanya writing script
for the Somali language. In an attempt to advance his own expansionist objectives, Kenadid père in late 1888 entered into a treaty with the
Italians, making his realm an Italian protectorate. The terms of the agreement specified that Italy was to steer clear of any interference in the
sultanate's administration. However, the relationship between Hobyo and Italy soured when the elder Kenadid refused the Italians' proposal to
allow a British contingent of troops to disembark in his Sultanate so that they might then pursue their battle against the Somali religious and
nationalist leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan's Dervish forces. Viewed as too much of a threat by the Italians, Sultan Kenadid was eventually
exiled to Aden in Yemen and then to Eritrea, as was his son Ali Yusuf, the heir apparent to his throne. However, unlike the southern territories,
the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians.

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