Mara van den Bold and Stuart Gillespie, IFPRI "Women's Empowerment and Nutrition"
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The document reviews the connections between women's empowerment and nutrition, highlighting how empowerment can influence health and nutritional outcomes, especially for children. It examines various intervention programs, such as cash transfers, agricultural initiatives, and microfinance, and discusses their mixed evidence in impacting women's empowerment and nutrition. Recommendations for future research emphasize the need for rigorous evaluations, disaggregated data, and culturally relevant indicators.
![15
Demand side
effects
Sectoral
linkages
Supply side
effects
Food
prices
National Level
Household Level
Food output
Nonfood
output
Nutrient
consumption
Food
expenditure
Non-food
expenditure
Individual Level
Nutrient intake Child
nutrition
outcomes
Householdassetsandlivelihoods
Drivers of “taste”:
culture, location,
growth, globalization.
Intrahousehold inequality:
gender bias, education, family
size, seasonality, religion, SCTs.
Public health factors:
water, sanitation, health
services, education.
Food imports
Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure
investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs.
Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition,
social protection & education
Interacting
socioeconomic factors
[possible leakages]
Interhousehold inequality in
assets, credit, access to public
goods & services
Health status
Mother’s
nutrition
outcomes
Health care
expenditure
Female
employment
National
nutrition
outcomes
Food income:
consumption
Food income:
from markets
Non-food income
Farm/nonfarm
employment
Caring capacity &
practices
Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s,
“liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s.
Female energy
expenditure
Women employment– time – care
Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI
project](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/maravandenboldandstuartgillespie-womensempowermentandnutritions-131003060026-phpapp02/85/Mara-van-den-Bold-and-Stuart-Gillespie-IFPRI-Women-s-Empowerment-and-Nutrition-15-320.jpg)
![16
Demand side
effects
Sectoral
linkages
Supply side
effects
Food
prices
National Level
Household Level
Food output
Nonfood
output
Nutrient
consumption
Food
expenditure
Non-food
expenditure
Individual Level
Nutrient intake Child
nutrition
outcomes
Householdassetsandlivelihoods
Drivers of “taste”:
culture, location,
growth, globalization.
Intrahousehold inequality:
gender bias, education, family
size, seasonality, religion, SCTs.
Public health factors:
water, sanitation, health
services, education.
Food imports
Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure
investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs.
Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition,
social protection & education
Interacting
socioeconomic factors
[possible leakages]
Interhousehold inequality in
assets, credit, access to public
goods & services
Health status
Mother’s
nutrition
outcomes
Health care
expenditure
Female
employment
National
nutrition
outcomes
Food income:
consumption
Food income:
from markets
Non-food income
Farm/nonfarm
employment
Caring capacity &
practices
Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s,
“liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s.
Female energy
expenditure
Women’s employment – status –
IHH decision-making pathway
Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI project](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/maravandenboldandstuartgillespie-womensempowermentandnutritions-131003060026-phpapp02/85/Mara-van-den-Bold-and-Stuart-Gillespie-IFPRI-Women-s-Empowerment-and-Nutrition-16-320.jpg)
![17
Demand side
effects
Sectoral
linkages
Supply side
effects
Food
prices
National Level
Household Level
Food output
Nonfood
output
Nutrient
consumption
Food
expenditure
Non-food
expenditure
Individual Level
Nutrient intake Child
nutrition
outcomes
Householdassetsandlivelihoods
Drivers of “taste”:
culture, location,
growth, globalization.
Intrahousehold inequality:
gender bias, education, family
size, seasonality, religion, SCTs.
Public health factors:
water, sanitation, health
services, education.
Food imports
Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure
investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs.
Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition,
social protection & education
Interacting
socioeconomic factors
[possible leakages]
Interhousehold inequality in
assets, credit, access to public
goods & services
Health status
Mother’s
nutrition
outcomes
Health care
expenditure
Female
employment
National
nutrition
outcomes
Food income:
consumption
Food income:
from markets
Non-food income
Farm/nonfarm
employment
Caring capacity &
practices
Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s,
“liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s.
Female energy
expenditure
Women’s nutrition/health pathway
Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI project](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/maravandenboldandstuartgillespie-womensempowermentandnutritions-131003060026-phpapp02/85/Mara-van-den-Bold-and-Stuart-Gillespie-IFPRI-Women-s-Empowerment-and-Nutrition-17-320.jpg)
Mara van den Bold and Stuart Gillespie, IFPRI "Women's Empowerment and Nutrition"
- 1. Women’s empowerment and nutrition Mara van den Bold and Stuart Gillespie (IFPRI) Bonn, 24 September 2013
- 2. Introduction Increasing research on links between women’s empowerment and nutrition “Women’s empowerment” increasingly a focus of development programs: i) as a goal in and of itself ii) as a pathway to other important development outcomes Intra-household dynamics determine allocation of resources within a household • Women often primary caretakers empowerment can impact health/nutrition of others, especially children Human capital outcomes often rigorously evaluated; impact on empowerment not always, at times assumed. Review examines: i) evidence of links between women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes ii) evidence of impact of different programs on women’s empowerment, nutrition, or both (cash transfers, agriculture, microfinance)
- 3. Methodology Electronic data bases & websites screened, using key search terms Further literature searches through experts on agriculture, gender, nutrition, social protection Snow balling process – additional literature added 4,000+ references screened; approximately 180 included Published and grey literature included Studies/reviews on 3 programs included if they measured i) women’s empowerment, ii) nutrition outcomes, iii) both
- 4. Defining women’s empowerment Defining women’s empowerment – frequently used terms: choice, power, options, control, agency. The expansion in people’s ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability was previously denied to them (Kabeer 1999) Emphasizes agency and empowerment as a process Critiques on current interpretations: Sidesteps agenda of social justice and equality as a valuable goal in itself Re-traditionalizes gender roles Ahistorical, apolitical, de-contextualized
- 5. Measuring women’s empowerment Indirect measures include: education, labor market status, legal frameworks, marriage/kinship, land ownership, social norms, political representation Direct measures include: Women’s involvement in household decision-making Women’s access to or control over resources Women’s freedom of movement / mobility Power relations between husband and wife Women’s/men’s attitudes towards abuse / IPV / gender roles Sources of power e.g. media exposure, education, paid employment Others: management/knowledge, marriage/kin/social support, settings of power such as social hierarchies, appreciation in household, sense of self-worth
- 6. Women’s empowerment and nutrition Studies (using indirect and direct measures) demonstrate relationship between women’s empowerment dimensions and nutrition Similarly, studies also demonstrate relationship between women’s disempowerment and adverse nutritional impacts (e.g. domestic violence) Further supported by evidence that men and women have different preferences for allocation resources within a household (rejection of unitary model)
- 7. Conceptual framework: women’s empowerment and nutrition
- 8. A. Structural interventions: “leveling the playing field” Renouncing gender discrimination in constitutions and legislation Voting rights, rights to basic citizenship documents Representation/participation in politics (e.g. through quotas) Equal access to public services (education, health care, agricultural information/extension) Equal access to financial (e.g. credit) and physical assets (e.g. land) Legal reforms: marriage/family law, inheritance law, property rights law, labor laws; social protection programs
- 9. B. Interventions that aim to directly empower women Programs that either target women as primary beneficiaries, or have “women’s empowerment” as a key objective: CashTransfer programs (conditional and unconditional) Agricultural interventions (animal production/dairy; home gardening) Microfinance programs (mostly microcredit) What is the evidence on impact of these programs on: i) women’s empowerment? ii) nutrition? iii) both?
- 11. Cash Transfer programs Conditional CashTransfers (CCTs): Implemented in many countries; rigorous evaluations mostly in LA Transfers cash to poor households provided they adhere to conditions – mainly related to health, nutrition, education --- often targeted to women CCTs women’s empowerment: • Qualitative evidence mostly positive • Quantitative evidence more heterogeneous CCTs nutrition: • Mixed evidence; little evidence on pathways • Non-health related conditions appear to have negative impacts on nutritional status
- 12. Cash Transfer programs, cont’d. Unconditional CashTransfers (UCTs): Transfers without program conditions, women often targeted UCTs women’s empowerment: • Limited evidence • Quantitative research points to mixed results UCTs nutrition: • Positive but very limited (quantitative) evidence • Little known about impact pathways In cases where nutrition impact was positive: little known about pathways, e.g. whether impact due to beneficiary’s gender, or due to conditionality or not (other factors may be more important)
- 13. Photo: One Acre Fund Agriculture
- 14. Agricultural interventions Pathways between agriculture and nutrition outcomes: 1. Agriculture as a source of food 2. Agriculture as a source of income: how income from agriculture/non agriculture is spent on food and non food (other basic needs) 3. Agricultural policy and food prices 4. Women’s employment, time and ability to manage young child care 5. Women’s status, decision making power and control over resource allocation 6. Women’s own health and nutritional status
- 15. 15 Demand side effects Sectoral linkages Supply side effects Food prices National Level Household Level Food output Nonfood output Nutrient consumption Food expenditure Non-food expenditure Individual Level Nutrient intake Child nutrition outcomes Householdassetsandlivelihoods Drivers of “taste”: culture, location, growth, globalization. Intrahousehold inequality: gender bias, education, family size, seasonality, religion, SCTs. Public health factors: water, sanitation, health services, education. Food imports Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs. Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition, social protection & education Interacting socioeconomic factors [possible leakages] Interhousehold inequality in assets, credit, access to public goods & services Health status Mother’s nutrition outcomes Health care expenditure Female employment National nutrition outcomes Food income: consumption Food income: from markets Non-food income Farm/nonfarm employment Caring capacity & practices Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s, “liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s. Female energy expenditure Women employment– time – care Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI project
- 16. 16 Demand side effects Sectoral linkages Supply side effects Food prices National Level Household Level Food output Nonfood output Nutrient consumption Food expenditure Non-food expenditure Individual Level Nutrient intake Child nutrition outcomes Householdassetsandlivelihoods Drivers of “taste”: culture, location, growth, globalization. Intrahousehold inequality: gender bias, education, family size, seasonality, religion, SCTs. Public health factors: water, sanitation, health services, education. Food imports Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs. Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition, social protection & education Interacting socioeconomic factors [possible leakages] Interhousehold inequality in assets, credit, access to public goods & services Health status Mother’s nutrition outcomes Health care expenditure Female employment National nutrition outcomes Food income: consumption Food income: from markets Non-food income Farm/nonfarm employment Caring capacity & practices Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s, “liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s. Female energy expenditure Women’s employment – status – IHH decision-making pathway Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI project
- 17. 17 Demand side effects Sectoral linkages Supply side effects Food prices National Level Household Level Food output Nonfood output Nutrient consumption Food expenditure Non-food expenditure Individual Level Nutrient intake Child nutrition outcomes Householdassetsandlivelihoods Drivers of “taste”: culture, location, growth, globalization. Intrahousehold inequality: gender bias, education, family size, seasonality, religion, SCTs. Public health factors: water, sanitation, health services, education. Food imports Policy drivers of inequality: land policies, financial policies, infrastructure investments, education policies, empowerment policies for women & SCTs. Policy drivers of nutrition: health, nutrition, social protection & education Interacting socioeconomic factors [possible leakages] Interhousehold inequality in assets, credit, access to public goods & services Health status Mother’s nutrition outcomes Health care expenditure Female employment National nutrition outcomes Food income: consumption Food income: from markets Non-food income Farm/nonfarm employment Caring capacity & practices Policydriversofgrowth:GreenRevolutionin1970s&1980s, “liberalization”&nonfarmeconomicgrowthin1990s&2000s. Female energy expenditure Women’s nutrition/health pathway Source: Gillespie et al.,TANDI project
- 18. Agricultural interventions, cont’d. Agricultural interventions women’s empowerment: • Limited evidence; mixed results Agricultural interventions nutrition: • Limited evidence of impact on maternal/child nutrition, with exception of vitamin A intake/status • Programs with behavioral change components more promising • Few good evaluations • Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index potential future tool
- 20. Microfinance programs Facilitating access to financial services otherwise unavailable to poor (credit, savings, insurance); women often primary beneficiaries Microfinance women’s empowerment: • Mixed and controversial results from non/quasi-experimental studies • Recent RCTs find no impact on women’s empowerment • Recent systematic reviews find no impact on women’s empowerment Recent reviews question studies that found positive impacts (suggesting weak research designs/analyses) • Also: differences in definitions/dimensions of empowerment, differing study methodologies and interpretation of results (Kabeer 2001) Microfinance nutrition: • Limited and mixed evidence on nutritional status • No impact on micronutrient status
- 22. Conclusions Women’s empowerment: process involving expansion of agency • Context-specific, political, historical; different meanings to different women • Direct and indirect measures Positive associations between women’s empowerment and nutrition outcomes; more research needed on models to measure this Evidence for three types of programs: • Women’s empowerment impacts: mostly mixed evidence • Nutrition impacts: limited, mixed evidence on impact on nutritional status; almost no evidence on impacts on micronutrient status • Very little known about pathways of impact, impact of gender of beneficiary, and of conditionality
- 23. Recommendations 1. Rigorous mixed-methods evaluations capable of measuring impacts on women’s empowerment dimensions – particularly related to nutrition 2. Data: • disaggregated data on sex and other social variables • life cycle and gender differences in nutrition and health burdens 3. Indicators: • Use gender-disaggregated impact indicators • Ensure indicators are rooted in political/historical/cultural context • Develop indicators at outcome and impact level
- 24. Recommendations, cont’d. 4. Carry out thorough gender analyses 5. Broaden evidence base: • Impact of CTs on women’s empowerment and nutrition in SSA and Asia • Expand research on microfinance beyond Bangladesh to other Asian contexts as well as other non-Asian developing countries • Further research on conditionality and gender impacts of programs • Further research on impact of agricultural programs on nutrition, examining impact pathways 6. Strengthen capacity among researchers to conduct gender analyses, collect / analyze gender-disaggregated data
- 25. Thank you