Mental Health and Psychotherapy: A Comparison between Western and Islamic Scripturally Based Psychologies

Journal of Qurʾān and Sunnah Studies
Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences
Issue 21441 H/2019 MVolume 3
Editor-in-Chief
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sohirin Solihin
Associate Editor
Asst. Prof. Dr. Khairil Husaini Bin Jamil
Guest Editor (Arabic)
Prof. Dr. Mohammed Abullais Shamsuddin
Editorial Board
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ammar Fadzil, IIUM
(ammar@iium.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Haziyah Hussin, UKM
(haziyah@ukm.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Monika @ Munirah Binti Abd Razzak, UM
(munirahar@um.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Farid Ali al-Fijawi, IIUM
(abumariyah@iium.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Fawwaz Muhammad Yusoff, USIM
(fawwaz@usim.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Nadzrah Ahmad, IIUM
(anadzrah@iium.edu.my)
Asst. Prof. Dr. Zunaidah Mohd. Marzuki, IIUM
(zunaidah@iium.edu.my)

Advisory Board
Prof. Dr. Muhammad A. S. Abdel Haleem, SOAS, University of London.
Prof. Dato’ Dr. Mohd Yakub @ Zulkifli Bin Mohd Yusoff, University of Malaya.
Prof. Dr. Awad al-Khalaf, University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
© 2019 IIUM Press, International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
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AL-BURHĀN, 3:2 (2019) 15-33.
Copyright © IIUM Press
e-ISSN 2600-8386
Mental Health and Psychotherapy:
A Comparison between Western and Islamic Scripturally Based Psychologies
Mohd Abbas Abdul Razak, PhD *
, Abdul Latif Abdul Razak, PhD **
, Abdulhamid
Mohamed Ali Zaroum, PhD ***
Abstract: Advancement in the way of life and urbanization have brought many great changes in the
psychological well-being of people in many parts of the world. The need to be materially affluent has
pushed people in the urban settlements to unnecessary stress, anxiety, conflict, dilemma, and a whole
lot of other adverse psychological states of mind. Due to these psychological problems, at times, people
who mainly live in the cities, respond to these situations in a negative way ignoring completely the
religious and ethical principles in life. In light of this situation, this research would like to explore the
concepts of mental health and psychotherapy showcased by some selected schools in the Western
mainstream psychology and Islamic scripturally based psychology. Particularly, ideas advocated by
Freudian Psychoanalysis, Radical Behaviourism and Humanistic Psychology will be compared with
Islamic psychology. For a better understanding on issues related to mental health, this research will
marginally deal with the subject of human nature confined to the scope of this research. It is hoped
that a proper understanding of the concept of mental health and its management could help people
to lead a meaningful life, i.e. finding peace and harmony within themselves and in the external world.
As a qualitative research, the researchers will utilize the textual-analysis method in analysing relevant
data to this research.
Keywords and phrases: Mental health, psychotherapy, Western psychology, Islamic psychology,
comparative psychology.
*
Assistant Professor, Department of Fundamental and Inter-Disciplinary Studies, Kulliyyah of Islamic
Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: maarji@iium.edu.my
**
Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: al_nuha@iium.edu.my
***
Lumpur, Malaysia. Email: alzaroumi@iium.edu.my

16 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
Introduction1
The alarming statistics on the many reported cases of mental health in the media
has drawn the attention of the researchers towards this area of psychology. Driven by the
passion to understand what mental health and psychotherapy are, this study is directed
towards understanding some of the existing Western concepts. Very precisely, it will
explore ideas showcased to the world by Freudian Psychoanalysis, Radical Behaviourism
and Humanistic Psychology. In discussing the Western ideas of mental health and
psychotherapy, the researchers will mainly focus on ideas provided by Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) from psychoanalysis, J.B. Watson (1879-1958) and Skinner (1904-1990) from
behaviourism and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) from
humanistic psychology. Upon analysing the three Western concepts, this research will
further advance in comparing them with ideas presented by Islamic psychology. Since no
discussion on mental health can be comprehensive and interesting without discussing the
issues on human nature and psychotherapy, this research will also entertain some
discussion in those two areas of psychology. It is the contention of the researchers that
topics on human nature, mental health and psychotherapy are interrelated and
inseparable. As such, any discussion on mental health should also incorporate some ideas
on human nature and psychotherapy.
What is Mental Health?
Mental health is also referred as mental hygiene. Defining what mental health is, can
be a difficult task as psychologists and counsellors have provided a wide array of
definitions. Compared to mental health, experts find a lot easier to define what mental
illness is. Basically, the term mental health refers to a balanced psychological makeup of a
person. An individual who enjoys positive mental health should also be free from mental
disorder. Moreover, a good or positive state of mental health or mental hygiene describes of
an individual who is living in harmony within himself and with the social and natural
environments surrounding him. According to WHO’s Fact sheet No. 220 (2014):
“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity." Mental health is a state of well-being in which
an individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of
life, can work productively and is able to make a contribution to his or her
community. Mental health and well-being are fundamental to our collective and
individual ability as humans to think, emote, interact with each other, earn a living
and enjoy life. On this basis, the promotion, protection and restoration of mental
health can be regarded as a vital concern of individuals, communities and societies
throughout the world.” 2
An individual who enjoys a good level of mental health is not totally free from all
psychological challenges in his/her life. In other words, mental health does not explain the
absence of normal day-to-day psychological problems of life like stress, anxiety, frustration,
1
A preliminary concept of this paper was first presented at an international conference in Iran in 2017.
2
Mental health: strengthening our response, retrieved on the 7th of January, 2016 from
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs220/en/

17 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
etc. People diagnosed of having serious mental health problems are those who are unable to
cope with normal daily matters with regard to their psychological well-being.
Individuals faced with mental disorder for their inability to control their feelings
and emotions are people classified as those who need the help of a counselor, psychologist,
physician and therapist in overcoming their problems. The list on what is a mental health
problem is ever expanding due to the complexity of human lives during this era of
industrialization and globalization. Among the more common cases of mental health are
anxiety, grief, stress, mood disorder, learning disabilities, addiction of all kind, relationship
problems, ADHD etc.3
It has been highlighted by many experts that short term solution by the use of
antipsychotic drugs can help patients to overcome their problems but one should not be
dependent on those drugs for a long period of time. Long term usage of such drugs can
cause dependency and addiction. In the West and East, experts have come along in unison
recognizing spirituality and meditation as a long term solution to mental issues. They only
prescribe drugs to serious cases of mental health, and that too should not go on for a long
period of time as such drugs have their own side effects on the users.
Human Nature According to Freudian Psychoanalyis
Freud’s views on human nature were diametrically opposed to the ideas stated in
the Old and New Testaments. His views were contradictory to the description found in the
Torah (Book of Genesis) and Bible which state that man has been created in the image of
God. Freud gave a negative image of man who is not very much different from the rest of
the animal kingdom. To him, man is an intellectual beast destined to annihilation. His idea
of putting man as equal to an animal is a reflection of what has been said by Darwin earlier
on through his ‘On Origin of Species’. Freud’s concept of human nature is pessimistic and
deterministic at the same time. His pessimistic view on human nature is based on his
assumption that man is evil and selfish by nature. His idea is a deterministic one as he
believed that every human being is chained to the psychosexual developments of his life.
Moreover, Freud portrayed man to be an animal enslaved to his sexual impulses. In the
Freudian school of psychology, man deemed to be a sexual pervert right from the very
beginning of his life as an infant. Ingrained in man’s DNA, this nature as a sexual pervert
will reside in him from birth until he expires in life. Freud is of the conviction that all cases
of neurosis and psychosis in human lives are linked to matters related to man’s sexuality.
By over-emphasizing on the power libido, all his theories on personality, motivation,
creativity, etc. are centered on the issue of sexuality. Due to the reason that man is
controlled by his libidinal impulses therefore he is un-socialized and irrational in his
3
Mental health: strengthening our response, retrieved on the 7th of January, 2016 from

18 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
behaviour. Finally, Freud believed that man has no freedom to cut loose from the shackles
of his psychosexual development.4
Mental Health According to Freudian Psychoanalysis
Mental health perceived by Freudian psychoanalysis explains the psychological
well-being of an individual that relates to the harmonious relationship between the id, ego,
and superego and between the person and the real world in which he or she lives.
Maintaining a stable and harmonious condition of the human psyche is an effort done by
the ego to reconcile the id, superego, and the external world by perceiving and choosing
opportunities to satisfy the libidinal demands of the id without transgressing the standards
required by the superego.5
The failure of the ego to act as a peacekeeper among the id, superego and the
external world means chaos and disharmony in the psyche of an individual. Under a state of
disharmony an individual will face psychological disturbances like stress, anxiety,
frustration, and many other mental illnesses. In the psychoanalysis concept of mental
health, the ego plays a vital role as the neutralizing force without going to any extreme in
facing the demands made by the id, superego, and the external world of reality.
Psychotherapy in Freudian Psychoanalysis
The Freudian psychoanalytic therapy has two objectives. The first one is to modify
the individual’s character and behaviour by making the unconscious conscious. While the
second objective is to strengthen the ego as this will make the behaviour of an individual to
comply with the reality and not so much enslaved to the blind demands of the libidinal
forces. In the process of psychotherapy, the client’s childhood experiences are
reconstructed, discussed, interpreted, and analysed. The effort done by the therapist in
psychotherapy is not only solving problems and suggesting new behaviour but to venture
deep into the past lifestyle of the client. By doing so, the therapist will be able to develop
the self-understanding of the client; this is very much needed for a change in character.6
In a nutshell, psychotherapy in the Freudian concept refers to the effort done by the
therapist to explore and analyse the contents of the id and to make adjustments to it, so
that it will comply with the existing world of reality. The therapist will have access to the
contents of the unconscious during free association with the client, by interpreting dreams
and also when the client is under the state of hypnotism.
Human Nature According to Radical Behaviorism
Radical Behaviorists’ concept of man is based on the ‘tabula rasa’ theory popularized
by John Locke (1632-1704). According to behaviorists, a child is a blank slate at birth waiting
4
Abdul Razak, M. A. (2013). Iqbal’s Theory of Personality: A Contrastive Analysis with Freud. Saarbrucken: Lap
Lambert Academic Publishing, pp.169-172.
5
Stevenson, L. (1987). Seven Theories Of Human Nature. New York: Oxford University Press, p.77.
6
Corey, G. (1986). Theory And Practice Of Counseling And Psychotherapy (3rd. ed.). California: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Company, p.29.

19 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
to write down its experiences with the passing of time. As such, they laid great emphasis on
learning experience. To them, man is like a mechanical object that can be controlled
through conditioning. According to behaviourists like Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), J.B Watson
(1878-1958) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), the environment plays a vital role in shaping
man’s behaviour and personality. With their ‘S-R’ (stimulus and response) theory, the
behaviourists took the neutral stand by saying that man is neither good nor bad in his
nature. By putting man on a neutral position, they are of the opinion that man becomes
good when placed in a good environment and becomes otherwise when placed in a bad
environment. In taking a neutral position, they do not believe in the concept that states
man is born with some innate knowledge. Furthermore, they also reject the existence of
constructs such as the conscious and unconscious in the human mind. With such ideas, it is
understood that the form of psychology they believe in is just purely a scientific one, which
is based on the learning theory and which pays heed only to the observable behaviour of
man.7
Mental Health According to Radical Behaviourism
The behaviourist concept of mental health explains one’s ability to develop the
natural tendencies and habits that help one to adapt, interact and to get along with others
in the society and it also explains the manner how one faces matters that involve decision-
making. The individual’s habits should comply with the accepted practice of the immediate
environment in which he or she lives. Under such a condition one is deemed to be in a good
state of mental health. On the contrary, when one develops or acquires the wrong sort of
habits which are not acceptable to the society then he or she will be in a bad state of mental
health where the emotion of the individual will be disturbed. So, the criterion that decides
the well-being of a person and his or her mental health is a social one which relates to the
environment.8
Psychotherapy in Radical Behaviourism
Psychotherapy under the behaviourist concept is an attempt intended to change
certain targeted behaviours as well as pathological symptoms of the clients and not as an
attempt intended to alter some unseen or unconscious inner state of the human psyche as
advocated by psychoanalysis.9
In behaviourism the terms modification and behaviour
therapy are synonymous, they describe the effort made by the therapists to help clients
change their pathological behaviours. The behaviourist therapist functions as a teacher,
director and also as the expert in diagnosing the maladaptive behaviour and in prescribing
curative measures that will help clients to improve their behaviours.10
In psychotherapy,
the behaviourist are of the assumption that clients during therapy, with the given
7
Abdul Razak, M.A. (1997). Human Nature: A Comparative Study Between Western and Islamic Psychology. Kuala
Lumpur: IIUM, pp.53-55.
8
Langgulung, Hasan. (1981). Beberapa Tinjauan Dalam Pendidikan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka
Antara, pp.128-129.
9
Ewen, R.B. (1993). An Introduction To Theories Of Personality. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publications,p.486.
10
Corey, (1986), Op. Cit., pp.176-179.

20 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
techniques and skills of self-change have the capacity to improve their pathological
problems by modifying one or more of the various factors that influence their behaviour.
The main principle in behaviour therapy is that the client is given the major say in deciding
the objectives of the treatment. A client in therapy is asked to act rather than to ponder
passively and introspect deeply on their problems.11
Human Nature According to Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology, which emerged as the ‘Third Force’ of the Western
mainstream psychology, deems man to be of innately good nature. Based on the existential
and phenomenology philosophies, this school of psychology emphasized much on the
conscious experience of man rather than paying too much emphasis on the unconscious
mind, as what has been done by psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychologists also rejected the
behaviourist school of psychology for its mechanistic view on how behaviour and
personality develop. They do not agree with the behaviourist concept, which states that all
human actions can be reduced to a stimulus-response type of reaction. According to them,
man has a subjective inner dimension, which influences his actions and thoughts. As such,
man has the freedom of choice either to respond or not to respond to the demands of his
environment. The main icons of humanistic psychology like Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
and Carl Rogers (1902-1987) believed that the good potentials of man could only manifest in
totality when he undergoes the process of ‘fully-functioning person’ and ‘self-
actualization’.12
They paid much attention and emphasized strongly on the parts of human
nature that are uniquely of human potentials such as reflection, reasoning, judgment, self-
awareness, rationality and creative imaginations. Moreover, humanistic psychologists
believe that every individual has a freedom of choice, a tendency to enjoy interpersonal
relationship, can have his own intention and purpose in life and also able to undergo
spiritual experience, otherwise called as ‘peak experience’ in one’s life. Even though
humanistic psychologists emphasized a great deal on man’s unique potentials, they did not
fail to acknowledge the existence of the unconscious and irrational motives as part of
human nature. To them what was more important than the unconscious and irrational
motives are the conscious planning and rational choices in human behaviour. Furthermore,
humanistic psychologists believed and emphasized that each person is unique due to his
learning and personal experience. According to them, the uniqueness of an individual
should draw the attention of that person to discover who he is, and to find out what sort of
a person he wants to be. Only through such an effort, one can fully develop his potential as
a self-directing human being.13
Mental Health According to Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology deems people who are psychologically healthy as those who
are able to actualize their potentials as much as possible. In Maslow’s opinion the
11
Fadimen, J. & Frager, R. (1994). Personality And Personal Growth (3rd. ed.). New York: Harper Collins College
Publishers, pp.360-361.
12
Abdul Razak, M. A. (2013), Op. Cit., pp.77-78.
13
Morris, C.G.( 1990). Contemporary Psychology and Effective Behavior (7th
ed.). New York: Harper Collins College
Publishers, p.40.

21 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
psychologically healthy people have the tendency to accept themselves for what they are.
They are more open to admit their weaknesses even though they do not make efforts to
improve them. They also feel less restricted by the cultural norms and customs and feel free
to express their desires. In other words, they are not ruled by the standards imposed and
expected by the society but by their own character. Furthermore, Maslow thinks, people
who cherish good mental health tend to have relatively few friends, but they enjoy a very
deep and rewarding friendship with their friends. He also considers people who are creative
according to his own definition of creativity to be people of good mental health. Last but
not least, people who are psychologically healthy are considered to be potentially fit to
experience peak experience in their lives. Peak experience according to Maslow, is a
pleasant experience where people feel free from anxieties and feel the togetherness with
nature and humanity.14
Psychotherapy in Humanistic Psychology
Psychotherapy in humanistic psychology is based on client-centred therapy. Carl
Rogers, who popularized the client-centred therapy, emphasized that the aim of the
therapy though meant for solving client’s problems; it is also meant to assist clients in their
growth process that will enable them to cope with their immediate and future problems.
Besides that, psychotherapy in humanistic psychology also invites individuals to discover
their real selves. The ultimate aim of the therapy is to help individuals undergoing therapy
to become a fully functioning person. Rogers further explained that the type of individuals
expected to emerge after going through psychotherapy are people who become immensely
actualized with having an openness to experience trust, in themselves, an internal source of
evaluation and also a willingness to continue growing. In humanistic psychology, the
therapist builds a good relationship with his or her clients on a person to person level that
creates the much-needed freedom and courage for clients to venture and explore the areas
of their life that were either overlooked or distorted prior to the therapy15
In addition to the above, the therapist in the process of psychotherapy should listen
very attentively to the clients and must feel empathy and sympathy to what comes out
from the deep recesses of the client’s heart. Also, during psychotherapy, the therapist does
not move into any authoritative position to direct the client in any decision making. Hence,
the goals in psychotherapy is something decided by the client, like any behavioural change
that is desired, normally from bad to good, etc. Psychotherapy in the humanistic context is
more concerned in remedying the immediate situation of the client and to prepare the
client on how to successfully handle future problems. This approach is diametrically
opposite to the psychoanalysis approach in psychotherapy which places great importance
in the immediate and the past experiences in life as far as going back to childhood
experience of the client. Furthermore, humanistic psychologists do not apply methods
applied by psychoanalysis, like hypnotism, dream interpretation, etc. in psychotherapy in
order to understand the psychological problems faced by the client. On the contrary, they
14
Burger, J.M. (1986). Personality: Theory and Research. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, pp.272-273.
15
Corey, (1986), Op. Cit., pp.101-107.

22 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
get access to the information they wanted to know from the client in an effort to help him
or her through verbal communication. As such, they believe and emphasize on good
listening skills on the part of the therapist. To them, listening attentively to the client can
take a therapist to the root of any psychological problem faced by the client.16
Human Nature According to Qurʾan, Sunnah and Islamic Pscychology
Among all creations in the heaven and earth, only man has been bestowed with
many distinct qualities. Some of these distinctive features are; man has been created in the
best of forms17
, provided with the creative intelligence18
, given the power of speech and
freedom of choice.19
Due to the fact that man has been endowed with such noble qualities or
for some other reasons only known to the Creator, man has been chosen to be His Khalīfah
(vicegerent) on earth. Apart from that, man has been further honoured in his stature and
position when Allah made all things created in the heaven and earth to be of service to
him.20
Due to these special qualities, Allah the Almighty has placed man on the highest
pedestal in the hierarchy of creations. Islamic psychology based on the religion of Islam has
given a concept of human nature, which is diametrically opposed to what has been conceived by
the Western schools of psychology. It presented a concept of human nature, which is
comprehensive and all encompassing; describing that man has a physical, social, psychological and
spiritual dimensions. The last mentioned dimension, is something missing in almost all Western
schools of psychology. Islamic psychology highlights the many interesting facts about man that
he is the best creation of Allah, born with the Fitrah (primordial nature). He has a dual nature;
body and spirit, he is the Khalifah of Allah (God’s vicegerent), he is the recipient of the Amānah
(trust), Mīthāq (covenant), etc. With these concepts, Islamic psychology elucidates the condition
of man before his birth, his life on this world and also on what happens to him after death.21
Mental Health According to Islamic Psychology
Mental health in the context of Islamic psychology not only describes the state of an
individual who is free from psychopathology, but it also pays much attention on the many
positive aspects through which mental health can be maintained and improved. According
to Hasan Langgulung (1934-2008), mental health in Islam describes the condition of the
human psyche which feels content and tranquil by abiding the good morals of Islam in life.
He further believes that the Islamic emphasis on good morals and avoidance of bad habits
and degrading conducts in life in a way explains the fact that following good morals will
lead one to a good state of mental health and on the contrary bad habits and conduct will
lead one to a bad state of mental health.22
The reason why Hasan thinks that the good morals
of Islam as the strong base on which the Islamic concept of mental health rest upon is due
16
Abdul Razak, M.A. (1997), Op. Cit., pp.66-69.
17
al-Qur’ān, al-Tīn:1-4.
18
al-Qur’ān, al-Baqarah: 31-34.
19
al-Qur’ān, al-Rahmān:4; al-Insān:3.
20
al-Qur’ān, al-Jāthiyah: 13; al-Isrā’:70.
21
Abdul Razak, M.A. (1997), Op. Cit., pp.13 & 141.
22
Langgulung, Hasan. (1991). Kreativitas dan pendidikan: Analisis psikologi dan falsafah. Jakarta: Penerbit Pustaka
al-Husna, pp.203-204.

23 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
to the fact that it encourages and nurtures an individual to build a good relationship with
Allah Almighty, with his/her Self, nature and others in the society. It is hoped that an
individual who succeeds in binding and maintaining the above said good relationships will
cherish a positive state of mental health for the reason, that much of man’s psychological
problems like stress, anxiety, conflict, envy, rage, etc. arise when either one or all the
relationships become debacle.
Islamic psychology further explains that man in his effort to achieve a positive
mental health has to go through a process of spiritual purification popularly known as
‘tazkiyat al-nafs’. During the course of spiritual purification, many of man’s spiritual diseases
are cured not physically with drugs and surgery, but with spiritual cure and healing such as
Dhikr (meditation and remembrance of Allah), tilāwah (reading of the Qur’an), tawbah
(repentance) and etc. Early Muslim scholars wrote many books on how man can maintain a
positive mental health. Very particular, al-Ghazali (1058-1111) who was a great thinker,
philosopher and a Sufi-scholar wrote quite passionately on human nature and on the
spiritual path of man. In his monumental work the Ihyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn (Revival of the
Religious Sciences) he wrote on the journey of the human nafs (human soul). In Ihya, al-
Ghazali elaborates the many dimensions of the human life pertaining to physical and
spiritual cleanliness, knowledge, worship, man-God relationship, man to man relationship,
etc. In this book too, al-Ghazali explained on how one can purify one’s soul from the lowly
animalistic passions through religious rituals and meditation. al-Ghazali also provided ways
and means through which man can change his behaviour to be a better person in order to
experience the spiritual upliftment that will grant man happiness in this life and an
everlasting felicity in the hereafter. On the spiritual dimension of man, al-Ghazali
elaborates on the nature of the human soul and its psychospiritual development towards
perfection. His ideas on the personality development of man towards Insan Kamil or Insan
Salih (perfect man or righteous man) among others include the maintenance of a positive
mental health and spiritual training done by an individual to avert the spiritual diseases
that linger in the human soul.23
Very particularly, in Kitab Riyada al-Nafs (spiritual training) of the Ihya, al-Ghazali
explains on the Amrad al-Qulub (spiritual diseases of the heart). In this chapter the great
Imam dwells at length on the different kinds of spiritual disease that attack the human soul.
As a mystic, al-Ghazali not only highlighted the spiritual diseases experienced by man but
also provided remedy on how to overcome many of the spiritual and psychological
problems faced by man. Among the spiritual diseases enlisted by the like of al-Ghazali,
Suhrawardi (1154-1191) and others are:
1. Nifāq (hypocrisy)
2. Pride and arrogance
3. Hawā or desire
4. Self-beholding
5. Avarice
23
Langgulung, Hasan. (1981). Beberapa Tinjauan Dalam Pendidikan Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka
Antara, p.101.

24 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
6. Negligence
7. Restlessness and levity
8. Ostentatiousness or riyāʾ 24
Further reading into al-Ghazali explains that stability and harmony of the human
soul acts as a prerequisite for an individual to enjoy good mental health and happiness. To
al-Ghazali, the human soul is the ‘king of the body’ and all other parts of the body act as
servants that will follow its command. When the soul is well-guided with the Divine Will,
enriched with good spiritual qualities and inculcated with true knowledge, all of man’s
mental attitude and disposition will be good and positive. Islamic psychology which is based
on the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah explains that human personality development
and mental health are closely related to the spiritual dimension of man. In the Qur’an, the
spiritual dimension of man is explained using words like Ruh (spirit), Qalb (heart), ‘Aql
(intellect) and Nafs (self). The constant interplay and struggle of these four entities in the
human psyche will determine an individual’s type of personality and the level of mental
health enjoyed by him/her. Islamic psychology calls for keeping a balance on the demands
placed by the four psychic entities. An investigation into the spiritual dimension explained
in Islam has revealed the fact that among the four entities, the Qalb has a greater role and
function compared to the others. The word al-Qalb appears hundred and forty-four times in
the Qur’an. The heart (al-Qalb) mentioned in the Qur’an should not be mistakenly
understood with the gross physical organ that lies in the bosom of an individual. The Qalb as
explained by Muslim scholars is referred to the subtle spiritual light that is contained
within the cone shaped structure of the human heart. The physical human heart can be
considered as the point of interaction between the body and the Qalb as a spiritual entity.25
With regard to the role and function of the Qalb, Ansari (1992) said the following:
“[It] represents the faculty or capacity of human personality which enables the
person to know and understand the reality of things, make evaluative judgements,
and sift the right from the wrong. The functions of the qalb are described quite
frequently in the Qur’an along with the sensory capacities of human beings,
indicating that what the qalb does is an extension and a superior function of what is
being done at the lower level by the sensory organs like eyes and ears. However, if the
functions of the qalb are blocked the sensory organs lose their utility.”26
The relationship of the Qalb with the sense organs/sense perceptions can be well
explained that these organs act as windows or gateways through which the transcendental
Qalb gets information of the physical world. Data received by the Qalb will be processed by
its inner illumination and reveals their interrelationship and meaning to the self. Later this
meaning will form the basis of judgment and decision. As such, the Qalb makes the
evaluative judgement and arrives at a decision, while the brain and the nervous system
24
Cited in Amjad, Naumana. (1992). Psyche In Islamic Gnostic And Philosophical Traditions. In: Ansari, Zafar
Afaq (ed.), Qur’anic Concepts Of Human Psyche (pp.39-56). Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought
(Pakistan), pp. 49-50.
25
Haq, Manzurul. (1992). The Locus Of Human Psyche. In Ansari, Zafar Afaq (ed). Qur’anic concepts of human
psyche (pp.57-67). Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought Pakistan, p.62.
26
Ansari, Zafar Afaq (ed). (1992). Qur’anic concepts of human psyche (pp.1-14).Islamabad: International Institute
of Islamic Thought (Pakistan).p.6.

25 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
function as instruments to implement it.27
The Qalb’s role as the evaluative decision maker
in the human psyche makes it the centre or seat of personality, alongside with its other
roles as the seat of intellectual faculties, understanding, affections and emotions. The
human Qalb, when properly functioning, can enhance the positive tendencies of the human
personality that leads to a state of constant awareness and self-understanding. On the
contrary, when it becomes subdued by the continuous persuasive demands of the Nafs
Ammarah (the Nafs impelling towards evil/the evil self) it loses the proper perceptual and
cognitive functions. As a result of this, man’s God-consciousness and his capacity for
knowledge and sound judgment become clouded. 28 29
As a consequence of the above state, man loses his honoured position of being the
best creation to a level below to the animals in his nature. This downfall of man is caused by
the spiritual blindness of the Qalb that affects man’s sensory organs, emotion, affections,
cognition, and personality. The Qur’an elucidates vividly the condition of man whose Qalb is
defeated by the onslaught of the Nafs Ammarah.30
Additional information on the Qalb’s vital
and central role in producing man of sound personality, who is strong intellectually and
spiritually, and morally, socially and emotionally good has been candidly mentioned in the
following Hadith which gives the idea that all human potentials and goodness can only
emerge and materialize when the Qalb of an individual is in a good spiritual condition:
“Beware! There is a piece of flesh in the body if it becomes good (reformed) the
whole body becomes good but if it gets spoilt the whole body gets spoilt and that is
the heart”.31
Another aspect of the Qalb (heart) that deserves mentioning here is its meaning in
Arabic and its nature and relationship with the Ruh and Nafs. In Arabic, the noun Qalb is
derived from the root word qalaba (verb) which means to turn around or to revolve.32
Its
unfixed, unstable and moving condition puts it in a condition whereby it will have an
inclination or tendency either to follow the Ruh or the Nafs. During the time when the Nafs
Ammarah becomes the dominant entity in the human psyche, the Qalb becomes weak and
feeble that makes it descent to the lowest of low level of the Nafs to join the Nafs Ammarah.
At this stage the Qalb’s divine light fades away causing it to lose it power of cognition. On
the contrary, when the Nafs Mutmainnah becomes the dominant entity in the human psyche,
then the Qalb will move towards the Ruh. At this stage, the Qalb becomes luminous and
enjoys peace and tranquillity.
27
Haq, Manzurul, (1992), Op. Cit., p.62.
28
Ansari, (1992), Op. Cit., p.11.
29
Ahmad, Absar. (1992). Qur’anic concepts of human psyche. In: Ansari, Zafar Afaq (ed.), Quranic Concepts Of
Human Psyche (pp. 15-37). Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought (Pakistan), p.32.
30
“Many are the Jinns and men We have made for Hell: They have hearts wherewith they understand not, eyes
wherewith they see not, and ears wherewith they hear not. They are like cattle-nay more misguided: for they
are heedless (of warning)” [al-Qurʾan: al-Aʿrāf 7:179].
31
Cited in Khan, Muhammad Muhsin. (1986). The Translation Of The Meanings Of Sahih Al-Bukhari. (6th edn.).
Lahore: Kazi Publications, vol. 1, pp. 44.
32
Haeri, Shaykh Fadhlalla. (1989). The journey of the self. London: Element Books Limited, p.49.

26 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
Unlike the Western schools of psychology, Islamic psychology not only gives
attention to the problem of mental health, but it also provides effective ways and means by
which good mental health can be maintained and improved. According to Islamic
psychology, one among the many causes of human mental illness is caused by the feeling of
frustration and despair which arise due to envy and jealousy present in the human psyche.
The effect of these negative emotions in man causes the human psyche to experience
anxiety and depression. The Qur’an which works as a remedy and a healing for the human
soul, advises man not to compare his condition and situation with others who are in a
better situation with envy and jealousy. The most ideal thing for them to do is to look at
those who are less fortunate and in a difficult situation in life. By doing so, their hearts will
find contentment in what God has given them.33
Besides avoiding envy and jealousy, man is also encouraged by the Qur’an to
inculcate Sabr (patience) and Shukr (feeling of gratitude and contentment with Allah’s
blessings). By having such good qualities man can taste peace and harmony within his inner
self. Thus, the emphasis on Sabr and Shukr has been mentioned many places of the Qur’an.34
Furthermore, man is bound to face trials and tribulations in life. At times when he faces
calamity, grief and utter helplessness this is what he has to say by calling on to the
Almighty Allah: “To Allah we belong, and to Him is our return”.35
One more thing that causes depression and many other psychopathological
problems is the concept of guilt in human lives. In Western psychology, very particularly in
psychoanalysis, repression of guilt causes many psychological tensions. On the contrary,
Islamic psychology introduces the concept of Tawbah (repentence) that gives hope for a
new life free from sin, anxiety, and depression. The concept of tawbah which brings hope,
peace and harmony to the human self has been mentioned in many parts of the Qur’an.36
In addition to the above, the Qur’an also has the potential to easily subdue man’s
anger or rage which can cause certain imbalance in his psyche, by motivating him to be
patient. For those who are able to subdue their anger and love the acts of forgiveness and
charity, for them Allah promises that they will be loved by Him.37
In general the concept of
mental health from the perspective of Islamic psychology can be well understood and
explained by referring to this verse of the holy Qur’an: “Those who believe, and whose hearts
find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allah: for without doubt in the remembrance of Allah do
hearts find satisfaction”.38
In the remembrance of Allah, man becomes free from stress,
anxiety, frustration, mental conflict and all other forms of mental illnesses. He becomes
psychologically and spiritually strong that will make him sail through all bitterness and
hardship in life regardless of how big and great the psychological burden he has to
shoulder. The Islamic concept of mental health prepares man to face all difficult situations
33
al-Qurʾan, al-Nisāʾ 4: 32.
34
Particularly in al-Qur’an, al- Baqarah 2: 153, Ibrahim 14: 7.
35
al-Qur’an, al- Baqarah 2: 156.
36
al-Qurʾan, al-Anʿām 6: 54, Āli ʿImrān 3: 13, al-Zumar 39: 53.
37
al-Qurʾan, Āli ʿImrān 3: 134.
38
al-Qur’an, al- Ra’d 13: 28.

27 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
and conditions without giving up to the psychological pressure that exerts on him. Among
others the difficult situation man has to face can be in the form of adversity, calamity,
destruction, and tragedy. Thus, the Islamic concept of mental health provides man the
much-needed patience, perseverance and persistence in facing the challenging times in his
life. These inner qualities which form the psychological as well as the latent spiritual
powers will help man to be on the right track without being misled by Satan or other
worldly forces. Finally, the Islamic concept of mental health also creates peace and
harmony within the human self that makes an individual feel satisfied with all that happens
in his life without having any rebellious attitude towards Allah the Almighty.
Psychotherapy According to Islamic Psychology
The way psychotherapy is viewed, conducted, and advocated by Islamic psychology
is very different from the diverse theories of psychotherapy conceptualized and practiced
by Western schools of psychology. According to Malik Badri, the existing Western theories
on psychotherapy as advocated by the popular schools, namely psychoanalysis,
behaviourism and humanistic psychologies are based on the secularist and non-judgmental
principles.39
Being secularist in their concept of psychotherapy, Western counsellors and
psychotherapists are not religiously oriented in their work and do not suggest and engage
their clients in any form of religiously directed discussion in finding a solution to their
problems. On the contrary, they are more rationalistic and apply all modern scientific
means and ways to relieve clients from their psychological problems like stress, anxiety,
depression, conflict, split personality, etc.
The non-judgmental principle in the Western schools of psychology explains that
psychotherapists and counsellors should not make attempts to indoctrinate their clients
with their beliefs and values. Thus, psychotherapists and counsellors should deem
themselves as scientists who apply a ‘value-free’ science that will enable them to predict,
control, and change the maladjusted human behaviours of their clients without
conditioning any philosophical, ethical, spiritual or religious views in deciding what is good
and bad or evil for the clients.40
Another aspect that is clear about Western counselling and
psychotherapy is the fact that counsellors and psychotherapists do not provide their clients
with the ideal role models that can be followed and imitated in terms of behaviour and in
the way they face the many challenges in their daily lives.41
In contrast to the Western perspective of counselling and psychotherapy, the
Islamic perspective presents a spectrum of interesting ideas and concepts. First and
foremost, psychotherapy as well as counselling under Islamic psychology is based on the
religion of Islam. As such, the teachings of Islam form the guiding principles in counselling
and psychotherapy. Since Islamic principles form the cornerstone of Islamic
psychotherapy, then there is no room for a ‘value-free’ psychotherapy that has been
39
Badri, Malik Babikir. (1995). Success with Islamic counseling and psychotherapy. Paper presented at the 4th
National Seminar on Islamic Counseling. Islamic Centre of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 26th
August, p.13.
40
Ibid., p.13.
41
Ibid., p.25.

28 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
practiced in the West within the Islamic Ummah. Islamic psychotherapy and counselling are
‘value-laden’ in nature directed towards helping those who are in need. As such, the
psychotherapists and counsellors should always direct their clients to all that is good and
permissible in the religion of Islam. Malik Badri who thinks therapy and counselling as a
form of da’wah cautioned that Muslims psychotherapists and counsellors who render their
help to their clients, should be aware that:
All human actions of a Muslim are carefully categorized by jurists into Fard, good
deeds and obligatory religious duties, Mustahabat, good deeds which are not
obligatory, Halal, actions which are neither forbidden nor necessarily rewarding,
Makruh, deeds that are frowned upon, and Haram, tabooed and clearly evil actions.42
With the above guiding principles, Muslim psychotherapists and counsellors in no
way apply the “no evil and no good” paradigm practiced by Western schools of psychology.
On the other hand, they should take all opportunities to practice al-amr bil ma’ruf wa al-
nahyu ‘an al-munkar (to induce people to what is good and prevent them from all that are
bad and evil). Such an effort by a therapist goes in tandem with what has been mentioned in
the Qur’an. 43
Besides the above Qur’anic verses, the following Hadith of Prophet Muhammad
PBUH also emphasized the prevention and eradication of evils:
He who amongst you see something abominable should modify it with the help of
his hand; and if he has not strength enough to do it, then he should do it with his
tongue; and if he has not strength enough to do it, (even) then he should (abhor it)
from his heart, and that is the least of faith.44
With regard to the above ḥadīth, Muslim psychotherapists and counsellors take the
second position mentioned as people who use their knowledge and good manners in
rendering good advice to their clients. Thus, good words and good example from them are
bound to create a positive impact in the hearts and minds of their clients. This impact can
generate new tendencies in the inner self of the clients to abandon bad, evil or confused
thoughts, immoral behaviours, attitudes, etc. Another special aspect of Islamic
psychotherapy and counselling is that they are not solely left to a few specialized
individuals. Very particularly, counselling can be carried out by parents, teachers,
preachers and all those who are wise and religiously oriented in their way of thinking.
Counselling as an attempt to help people who are faced with problems has been emphasized
in the holy Qur’an under the obligation al-amr bil ma’ruf wa al-nahyu ‘an al-munkar (inducing
others to righteousness and preventing them from evil and shameful deeds).
Supplementary to the above, one marked difference that exists between the
Western and Islamic perspectives on counselling and psychotherapy is that, in the Islamic
perspective there exists role-models that can be followed and imitated by clients in solving
42
Ibid., p.20.
43
al-Qur’an, Ali ‘Imran 3:104,110 & al-Ma’idah 5:2.
44
Narrated by al-Nawawī. (1405/1984). Sahih muslim bi-sharah al-nawawi. 3rd
edition. Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath
al-ʿArabi, vol. 3, pp.22-25.

29 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
many of their psychological problems. The biographies of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh),
earlier prophets, the Prophet’s companions (al-Sahabah), Shaykh or spiritual leaders can be
employed in psychotherapy as a source of motivation for clients to overcome their
problems.45
Besides those great personalities, the therapist himself should be a shining
example to his clients who wish to change their character, attitude and behaviour from bad
to good. Very specifically, Malik Badri gives much emphasis to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)
as a role-model for clients and for the whole of humanity in these words:
The ideal personality of the Prophet Muhammad SAW and his spiritually rich life as
a Messenger of God, as a parent, as an army general, as a politician, as a teacher and
counsellor and as a husband is a living example for the Holy Revelation he received.
It concretizes all aspects of his blessed life in sickness and health, in suffering and
pleasure in Divine contemplation or humour. All this is sentimentally and
cognitively engraved in the hearts and souls of Muslims, and as patients or
counselled, this rich psychic and spiritual reservoir can easily be tapped to treat,
motivate, redeem or change negative habits.46
Najati 47
and Badri believe that the holy Qur’an can be an efficacious remedy if it is
used in counselling and psychotherapy. Both scholars are of the opinion that al-Qur’an as
an heavenly book that speaks much of man’s psychological and spiritual well-being in this
world as well as in the hereafter can bring dramatic change in clients who suffer from
depression, tension, anxiety, bereavement of death, conflict, dilemma, etc. Their common
view or rather their conviction is based on the statements mentioned by Allah in the
Qur’an.48
Malik Badri reports many interesting cases of how he solved the psychological
problems of his clients by reading to them the many passages from the holy Qur’an
pertaining to their problems. According to him, many of his clients were emotionally
moved and burst into tears when they listened to his recital of the holy Qur’an49
. Individual
reading of the Qur’an by people who face crisis, conflict and dilemma in their lives can feel
the relief and comfort in their hearts when they contemplate the meanings of the verses
they read. Besides that, it is also accepted by most Muslim scholars that reading the Qur’an
is not only considered as an Ibadah (worship) but it also forms as a kind of communication
that takes place between man with Allah the Almighty. Many verses of the Qur’an state that
reading of the Qur’an can act as a remedy for the hearts. True believers who read the Qur’an
will taste peace and tranquillity in their hearts.50
By employing the Qur’an in psychotherapy
the therapists endeavour to heal the feelings of the clients through the spiritual dynamism
present in the Qur’an. The Holy Book of Islam on its part has the dynamic power to awaken
45
See: al-Qurʾan, al-Anbiyāʾ 21: 107 and al-Qalam 68: 4, and the prophetic ḥadīth: “I have been sent only for the
purpose of perfecting good morals.” Narrated in: al-Bayhaqi. (n.d.). pp. 192.
46
Badri, Malik, Op. Cit., p.28.
47
Najati, Muhammad ‘Uthman. (1406/1985). al-Qur’an Dan Ilmu Jiwa. Usmani, Ahmad Rofi’ (Trans.). Bandung:
Penerbit Pustaka, p.284.
48
al-Qur’an, al-Isra 17: 82, Yunus 10: 57.
49
See Badri, Malik Babikir. (1979). The Dilemma of The Muslim Psychologists. London: MWH London Publishers,
pp.86-90.
50
See: al-Qurʾan, al-Ra’d 13: 28.

30 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
and to invite those who come closer to it towards a greater consciousness in life. As such,
men who come under the light and guidance of the Qur’an will feel as though they are
rejuvenated once more again in life.51
In addition to the above, the Qur’an as the divine guidance for mankind promises
Allah’s forgiveness to those who have sinned against their souls. It invites those who read it
to contemplate on the mighty works of Allah in the universe, and also it gives hope and
direction for man to amend and adjust his ways in life; from bad to good. The Qur’an
without failing in many places promises felicity in the hereafter for those who are good and
reminds punishment for those who are bad and evil. All these and many more dynamic
teachings of the Qur’an can be very effective remedy and a healing for those who undergo
psychotherapy.
Besides reading the Qur’an, Najati 52
also believes that total submission of the clients
to Allah with a strong faith in Him can also be one form of psychotherapy. By having a
strong faith in Allah will give one the feeling that he or she is closer to Allah, and there
should be no fear and anxiety in all situations of life as everything that happens in life,
happens with the Will of Allah.53
Other forms of worship like Solah (ritual prayers), Siyam
(fasting), Zakah (giving alms) and Haj (pilgrimage) in a way can be a form of psychotherapy
for those who face psychological problems in their lives. By performing any of these acts of
worship, peace and harmony prevail over the human soul of an individual. Very
particularly, Solah and Du’a (supplication) performed after prayers have a positive impact in
giving hope and confidence in gaining Allah’s pleasure. They also act as a psychological
push, impetus as well as a source of vitality for man to brave himself in facing all challenges
in his life. Allah’s assurance to help those who seek His help has been stated in many places
of the Qur’an.54
Findings & Conclusion
This study has highlighted the fact that all Western theories on human nature,
mental health and psychotherapy discussed within this research are based on the ‘here and
now’ of the materialistic and secular worldviews. As such, these Western theories did not
make any reference to religious views other than being scientific in their investigation on
man and his disposition. This stand in the West of marginalizing religious views at the
expanse of being scientific has its root in the 14th
century European Renaissance movement.
The spirit of the Renaissance movement from the start till to the present age is to keep
religion and science separately. As such, it has a dichotomous way of looking at things;
separation of mind and body, state (politics) and religion, this world and the hereafter,
education and religion, etc. This secular and dichotomous way of life started in the Western
society as a result of the oppression they went through during the European Dark Ages. The
Western paradigms in psychology discussed in this research, each contributed in its own
51
Najati. (1406/1985). Op. Cit., p.284.
52
Ibid. p.284.
53
See: al-Qurʾan, al-Baqarah 2: 112.
54
See: al-Baqarah 2:112,186; al-Ghafir 40: 60.

31 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
way some information to the understanding of who or what man is. But they did not
explain comprehensively on all matters pertaining to man. Questions like; where he has
come from, what is his purpose in life and where he is going from here, etc. Freudian
psychoanalysis was pretty much concern with the unconscious, while radical behaviourism
believed in the power of conditioning and humanistic psychology on the human freedom.
Each paradigm has its own theory on man, what is mental health and how psychotherapy
should be conducted.
In recent times, the inability to solve all issues pertaining to man, mental health and
psychotherapy through science and scientific investigations, has made Western psychology
to shift from its purely secular concepts on man to accommodate some religious and
philosophical ideas from the East. This shift and trend is more obvious in transpersonal
psychology. The West has come to realize that issues related to psychology, mental health
and psychotherapy could not only be solved by prescribing psychedelic drugs. As such,
psychologists and therapists recommend meditation and other forms of mind relaxation to
overcome mental health problems.
In a contrastive manner this research has also highlighted some of the ideas on man,
mental health and psychotherapy held by Islamic psychology and Muslim psychologists.
The concept on human nature advocated by Islamic psychology is different and unique
from Western psychology for the reason it provides detailed information on man. A
thorough understanding of its concept on man reveals the fact that it provides an all-
encompassing and comprehensive understanding on man by explaining his origin before
birth, his life in this world and eventually on the possibilities of the destiny that awaits him
after his bodily death. Islamic psychology not only provides solution on how to treat mental
health issues but also suggests ways and means through which mental illness can be
prevented. As the saying goes ‘prevention is better than cure’, in many ways Islamic ideas
suggest a way of looking at life as a challenge and how mental illness can be kept at bay
before it can ruin human lives.
Implications and Suggestions
It is the conviction of the researchers that long term prescription of psychedelic
drugs by psychologists and psychiatrists to treat mental illness will be counterproductive as
such drugs can cause addiction and dependency on the part of the patients/clients. Though
Islamic psychology not only attempts to cure but to prevent mental illness from happening,
it should not fail to benefit from the latest findings in the areas of psychology and
psychiatry. Psychiatrists in the Muslim world should give due consideration in the use of
modern medicine in treating severe psychological problem like psychosis faced by their
Muslim clients. It will be a good idea to integrate the spiritual ideas of the Qur’an and the
scientific approach in dealing with mental health issues in the Muslim world. The ideal
trend in Islamic psychology is not to reject all scientific ideas and approaches brought by
Western psychology, but to be selective in adopting, adapting, and assimilating the good
ideas from Western psychology without going against the existing metaphysical framework
(aqa’id) in Islam. The last thing that can be said on this research is that, Western and Islamic

32 AL-BURHĀN, VOL. 3, NO. 2, 2019
psychologies have their own strength. As such, psychologists from both sides should
acknowledge the advantage of one another and should synergize effort wherever possible
to provide the best solution in helping clients to solve their mental health problems.
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