Mewujudkan REDD+Strategi nasional dan pilihan kebijakan

Editor's Notes

• #3: CIFOR is one of 15 centres in the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).CIFOR fills a very specific niche in providing policy-relevant research related to forest management. It has around 200 full-time staff globally. CIFOR is described as a ‘centre without walls’, because its work involves many partners, including NGOs, universities, development agencies, media outlets and all levels of government (52 partners in 2007).
• #4: This is the part of the new research strategy for 2008-2018.Our research focuses on six synergistic, linked domains that reflect the cross-sectoral nature of forest management.
• #6: Global Comparative Study on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (GCS-REDD)Component 1: National REDD process and strategies, or National policies and politicsComponent 2: REDD demonstration activities, or REDD+ pilot impact assessmentComponent 3: Monitoring and reference levels, or Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) and reference levels
• #8: One core principle of REDD+ is to capture the value of forests in providing climate services (carbon sequestration services). The transition of an economy of goods towards an economy of services is omnipresent in other spheres of the economy. However, it is less so for Nature. But Nature provides important environmental services - here for our climate - and the idea is to value these services and include them in our land use decision-making. A second core idea of REDD+ is performance-based payments. That is, payments are conditional on the outcome of a REDD+ action. The main argument for payment for outcomes (as opposed to payment for inputs) is that linking incentives as directly as possible to problems will be most effective. For example, a payment for a policy reform cannot take into account how effectively a policy will be implemented, or whether other complementary reforms are also necessary.Conceptually, the overall REDD+ architecture can be compared to a multilevel payment for environmental services (PES) scheme (Angelsen and Wertz- Kanounnikoff 2008). There are at least two levels. At the international level, buyers (e.g. voluntary or compliance markets) will pay sellers (governments or subnational entities) in tropical forest countries for an environmental service or measures likely to deliver this service (e.g. tenure reform, law enforcement). At the national level, governments or other intermediaries (buyers) will pay subnational governments or local landowners (sellers) to reduce emissions or to take other measures to reduce emissions (e.g. strengthen law enforcement or remove subsidies). In practice, the problems of national implementation of PES call for a much broader policy approach, as argued in several chapters of the book ‘Realising REDD+’.
• #9: Book on global REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) architecture, published byCIFOR in 2008.
• #11: The change in the area of forest in a country may follow the pattern suggested by the forest transition theory (Mather 1992). Initially, a country has a high and relatively stable portion of land under forest cover. Deforestation begins, then accelerates and forest cover reduces. At some point deforestation slows, forest cover stabilises and then begins to recover.The forest transition is not a law of nature, and transitions are influenced by national contexts, global economic forces and government policies. Countries may have very little remaining forest before forest cover stabilises, or they might, if policies are appropriate, be able to ‘bridge the forest transition’ – a central aim of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation).The forest transition curve can serve as proxy to illustrate the different national circumstances and challenges
• #12: An effective REDD+ strategy must be based on a realistic understanding of the pressures on forests and forest carbon change. First, the primary agents and activities causing deforestation and degradation must be identified, i.e. the subsistence farmers, commercial farmers and ranchers, logging and mining companies, etc. Note that the main drivers of forest carbon change can differ from the main drivers of deforestation/degradation. This is because the carbon density differs across space. If possible, try to identify the DRIVERS OF FOREST CARBON CHANGE when designing a REDD+ strategy.Second, we need to understand how these activities are driven by factors such as agricultural prices, tenure conditions, and agro-ecological conditions, which again are linked to deeper and underlying causes such as population growth, poverty and national export policies. These pressures also vary over space and time. Remote forests tend to experience less pressure, but infrastructure development and the pace of development tend to advance the agricultural frontier.REDD: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation
• #13: The book ‘RealisingREDD+’ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) is divided into five parts:*- Part 1 describes the links between discussions at the global and national levels, putting the discussion about national REDD+ strategies and policies in the global context. *- Part 2 discusses REDD+ national institutional structures, defining the capacities and responsibilities of different actors, and the rules for their interaction.*- Policy outputs: The institutions and processes lead to a set of outputs (policy documents and decisions), which in turn produce a set of outcomes for forests and people (the 3Es are effective, efficient and equitable). *- Parts 3 and 4: REDD+ policy options are divided into (i) transformational reforms (Part 3) and (ii) specific, simpler policies (Part 4)*- Part 5 gives a snapshot of current projects, particularly in the three largest tropical forest countries, Brazil, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It also asks how we can ‘learn while doing’ in REDD+ projects. *- The concluding chapter presents a set of dilemmas that national policymakers face in designing and implementing REDD+ strategies and policies.(Source: Angelsenet al. 2009: 'RealisingREDD+', page 7)
• #20: Institutional structure for the REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanism.Conceptually, the three main elements of a national REDD+ architecture are incentives, information and institutions (the 3Is). REDD+ incentives flow from international sources to a national fund or to regular budgets (e.g., ministries of finance) and then to the subnational level through the government budget or direct payments to carbon rights holders. Carbon rights holders include private landholders, communities, concession holders and government agencies. International performance payments can also flow directly to local carbon rights holders, without passing through national REDD funds or government budgets (see left). This would occur in the subnational and nested approaches. Although the nested approach is limited to the early phases of REDD+ implementation (since a national approach is the long-term goal), it could persist for much longer if countries choose the project-based crediting route.REDD+ information refers to data on forest emissions reduced or carbon stocks enhanced from each forest, by type and location. This information will be gathered and processed through a national, regional or international measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) system and submitted to a national REDD+ payment authority (fund or treasury), a UNFCCC institution, and to international buyers of REDD+ credits. Payments to local carbon rights holders will be determined by this information.REDD+ institutions will manage the flow of information on changes in forest carbon stocks between levels, and the flow of incentives to carbon rights holders. These institutions could build on existing institutions, and would include a REDD+ payment authority and an MRV system. The REDD+ payment authority would channel funds from the international to the subnational level according to the volume, location and type of emission reductions.*- Most probably, sub-institutions will be needed to manage technical, financial, administrative and supervisory aspects. The MRV system will gather and verify information on actual reductions in forest emissions and report to national and international counterparts. *- In principle, the MRV system could cover any level, from national to international. Since MRV capabilities are costly to develop and maintain, regional MRV systems, such as envisaged by Central African Forest Commission (COMIFAC) countries, could be a cost-effective solution. *- Note that some institutions and their functions will most likely evolve over time to respond to the changing demands in the different phases of the REDD+ implementation process, including the transition from subnational or nested approach to a fully national approach where project-level activities need to be integrated into the national system.
• #21: Monitoring in the REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) mechanismA cornerstone of any national REDD+ scheme is a reliable, credible system of measuring, reporting and verifying (MRV) changes in forest carbon stocks. The MRV capabilities required for REDD+ are much higher than has been the case in most national forest monitoring to date.But few countries have even the minimum capacity needed for measuring and monitoring. Most developing countries also have a long way to go before they will be ready to fully participate in an international system that provides compensation for REDD+ actions based on results.
• #22: Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) systems have three major challengesChallenge 1: Linking MRV to policy: International policies and MRV concepts focus on emissions and carbon impacts. However, national policy needs to focus on the drivers of forest emissions.  For an MRV roadmap, one needs an understanding of the active drivers and processes of forest emissions, sufficient data to assess their importance (carbon impact), and policies that will achieve REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) objectives.Challenge 2: Early participation and interim performance: Countries with weak capacities and limited data will need more time to reach full REDD+ readiness than countries with stronger capacity and better data. Since early action is important, countries could apply the ‘conservativeness’ approach in the absence of a fully developed MRV system. Conservativeness was introduced in the Kyoto Protocol. In the REDD+ context, conservativeness may mean that, when completeness or accuracy of estimates cannot be achieved, the reduction in emissions or increases in carbon stocks should not be overestimated and the risk of overestimation should be minimised. As an MRV system is implemented and improves, the need for conservative estimates may be replaced by the use of ‘best estimates’ if independent assessments show they are correct.A set of simple interim indicators, or verifiable proxies, could be used to assess the performance of REDD+ actions in cases of incomplete and uncertain data. These would provide justification and help set priorities for implementation of REDD+ actions in the short term. The indicators would be based on the principle of conservativeness, while encouraging development of more accurate MRV over time. Monitoring using satellite data, for example, is straightforward. Just the fact that a country systematically acquires satellite data covering all its territory would engender confidence that key activities (forest area change) are being captured and that activities could be verified at a later date. In this context, the data on area change may be most important. For some interim indicators, actual carbon data might not be needed initially. (This could be understood as a Tier 0 approach.) However, it is important to assume that all actors will use the best data available and internationally accepted methods, and will abide by the IPCC (International Panel on Climate Change) reporting principles of completeness, consistency, transparency, uncertainty and comparability. Independent international reviews of results are to be encouraged. Challenge 3: National MRV needs to support subnational implementation : A national REDD+ strategy needs to encourage specific local actions. A national carbon monitoring system should provide data on these local actions, but also be flexible to incorporate measurement at the subnational scale driven by REDD+ related activities. This could be through a national stratification system that provides for all (subnational) REDD+ implementation activities to be measured with an appropriate degree of certainty. (i.e. more precision and accuracy in REDD+ action areas versus less detailed, systematic monitoring in the rest of the country). Community monitoring: Communities in forest areas can be trained to map and inventory forests although they may need technical support for some tasks. The cost of community carbon monitoring is likely to be much lower than for professional surveys, and accuracy is relatively good. Entrusting forest inventory work to communities could have other advantages for national REDD+ programmes, such as transparency and recognition of the value of community forest management in providing carbon services.
• #24: Two-track approach to REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)
• #25: Enabling REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) through broad policy reformsTENURE*- The allocation of carbon rights is a precondition for subnational carbon crediting. The allocation can in most cases be deducted from existing legal principles. The clarification of carbon rights is not a condition for REDD+ policies that are not associated with entity-level carbon crediting and trading (e.g. hire additional park rangers). If carbon ownership is not regulated, there is a legal assumption that REDD services would be treated like any other economic benefit of a particular activity. The entity that has a right to the forest land is usually recognised as the owner of the primary carbon rights. Assuming that the right to the carbon follows the right to the land and to use the forest, carbon rights would rest with the government where the government controls both land and forests. Where local communities or indigenous people have a right, customary or codified, to use the forest, they would also hold rights to the forest carbon. The primary right to the forest carbon of private land and forest rests with the owner of that land.[Taking a strict ‘no rights, no REDD+’ stance risks missing out on ‘no regrets’ REDD+ interventions. ‘No regrets’ interventions could include policies to reduce demand for land and forest products that indirectly drive deforestation and degradation.]*- The discussion about sharing international benefits must go hand in hand with a discussion about sharing the costs and burdens of REDD+. It is important to manage expectations regarding benefits, in particular where the international incentive systems are still under development. Where a government claims international benefits for activities implemented by local, private actors on non-state land, it would have to establish compensation schemes that allow those owners to participate in the international financing for REDD+.CORRUPTION*- The design of anti-corruption policies need to consider whether a country has bad, fair or good governance conditions.*- Anti-corruption policies limited to the forest sector are unlikely to work in countries with high corruption levels, which require systemic institutional changes.*- REDD+ is likely to be affected by corruption, but REDD+ MRV (measurement, reporting and verification) of carbon and money flows can also contribute to reducing corruption.DECENTRALISATION*- REDD+ is more likely to be just and locally legitimate if the design, implementation and allocation of benefits represent local needs and aspirations.*- Decentralisation of meaningful decisions to locally accountable and responsive (e.g., representative) local authorities would promote local engagement in REDD+ decision making.*-The level at which rules are made and benefits distributed will be a key issue in the legitimacy, effectiveness, efficiency and equity of REDD+.
• #27: Agricultural policies and REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)On place-based agricultureIn a wide-ranging survey, ‘Agriculture for Development’, in 2008 (World Bank 2008b), analysts noted that during the past two decades agricultural policies the world over have become ‘placeless’, i.e., applicable everywhere in a country. While credit, tax and price support schemes benefited many farmers, they also led to a relative neglect of various place-specific public works, such as irrigation schemes or farm-to-market roads that would have promoted agricultural intensification in particular regions. Given the relative neglect of such agricultural infrastructure, World Bank analysts argued for more place-specific agricultural development policies (World Bank 2008b).  Agricultural policies intended to encourage REDD+ should be place specific, that is, they should strengthen agriculture near central places (major centres of population).On remote agriculture:Policies stimulating intensive agriculture in certain areas might ignore agriculture in remote forest areas where poverty rates are typically higher (Sunderlin et al. 2008b). Is it possible to raise productivity, boost output prices by improving access to markets, and support extensive agriculture without increasing deforestation? A summary of more than a dozen studies on the effect of technological changes on tropical deforestation (Angelsen and Kaimowitz 2001) concluded that ‘trade-offs and win-lose between forest conservation and technological progress in agriculture in areas near forests appear to be the rule rather than the exception’.Certain technologies and market conditions may produce win-win outcomes. New labour-intensive or capital-intensive technologies could slow rates of deforestation and increase profits. Most farmers have labour or capital constraints and could be expected to adopt technologies that save labour or capital. But, with some important exceptions, we are not likely to get the kind of technological change that would save the forests (Angelsen and Kaimowitz 2001). For example, it is technically possible to make more intensive use of pastures throughout Latin America, but farmers typically do not do this until there is no more forest to be cleared (Kaimowitz and Angelsen 2008). This confirms Boserup’s (1965) hypothesis that farmers will exploit the extensive margin before they exploit the intensive one.A more likely win-win way to help farmers in remote areas would be in situations where they are involved in both intensive and extensive production systems side by side, and the extensive system being the principal source of deforestation. In Zambia, high-yielding maize varieties introduced in the 1970s lessened the need for extensive shifting cultivation and slowed down deforestation (Holden 2001). Similarly, more recent and widely adopted programmes on ‘conservation agriculture’ in the country have the potential to reduce the pressure on natural forests (Ibrekk and Studsrød 2009).
• #28: There are clear lessons to be learned from decades of policy interventions in the forest–energy system. First, introducing maximum prices on woodfuels consumed in urban areas leads to high demand, low supply, queues and black markets. Second, establishing large forest plantations to supply fuel wood is rarely effective. Third, control measures along transport routes from forest to city are rarely effective and often lead to corruption. Fourth, new technologies for producing charcoal or the combustion of woodfuel are not readily adopted unless they are extremely cheap, and unless measures to make wood from indigenous forests relatively more expensive are also introduced.Several policies could reduce forest and woodland degradation from unsustainable harvesting of woodfuel, but policies that combine various measures are likely to be the most successful. *- On the demand side, policies could aim to accelerate substitution of ‘clean’ electricity for fuel wood and charcoal. These could be combined with aggressive marketing and subsidies for improved domestic charcoal stoves. However, the latter may lower the price of charcoal and increase demand, thereby dampening the impact.*- Supply-side policies could take the form of community development projects in woodfuel supply zones, including the introduction of subsidised, efficient charcoal kilns. These policies would, however, have little effect if they were not combined with compulsory stumpage fees for indigenous trees. The latter requires a transfer of ownership to local communities or farmers, and it may still be necessary to control harvesting centrally to avoid overexploitation in high-demand areas.There is no substitute for better control of harvesting. Open-access forests and woodlands will be overexploited if harvesting is profitable. If payment of stumpage fees becomes common practice and those who harvest wood have to make better use of it to make a profit, then the private sector may find that plantations for fuel wood become a lucrative investment. Measures to encourage better use of harvested timber or trees felled to provide woodfuel would also contribute to REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation).
• #29: Conclusions on payments for environmental services (PES)Clearly, payments for environmental services can reduce deforestation and forest degradation. Payments for environmental services, or conservation by contract, prove to be fairly effective when payments depend on delivering results. If payment rates are set appropriately, PES can also be cost effective for reducing deforestation and forest degradation, although small-scale schemes may have high start-up transaction costs. Because they are voluntary and based on incentives, PES are more equitable for conserving forests than erecting fences or imposing fines.That said, PES schemes must meet information, economic, cultural and institutional preconditions. In particular, forest stewards must have exclusive land rights. Many forest frontier zones, where deforestation is currently concentrated, do not meet this requirement. Where there is outright land grabbing, PES will not work. Clarifying land tenure can help establish conditions in which PES will work effectively. In some cases, a mix of collective and private incentives, and, in areas remote from markets, of cash and non- cash incentives (including enhanced land and resource rights), may be needed to customisePES to local sociocultural settings.Like other conservation tools, PES schemes face trade-offs between effectiveness and efficiency on the one hand and equity on the other. A narrow short-term focus on ‘the biggest carbon bang for the buck’ could backfire by creating perceptions of unfair and unidirectional policies, and fostering political resistance. So far, in large-scale government-led PES, there has been too little focus on efficiency and effectiveness. The tendency is to get side-tracked by other objectives. Implementers of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) can learn from past PES mistakes by doing things in the appropriate order, while still striking a reasonable balance regarding equity and other objectives.
• #30: Protected areas (PAs) and integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) in REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation)The REDD+ discussions have paid little attention to forest PAs, and this needs to be corrected. Forest PAs are likely to become a critically important element of tropical forest countries’ strategies to implement and benefit from REDD+. The effective management of forest PAs (in some cases linked to ICDPs) has the potential to make significant contributions to national REDD+ performance and the sale of carbon credits if forest carbon markets emerge as expected.There are similarities and overlaps between the approaches and methods of ICDPs linked to PAs and REDD+ demonstration projects. REDD+ project proponents could usefully take lessons from ICDPs into account. The reasons why most ICDPs have failed to meet their objectives are well understood and thoroughly documented. Despite this, mistakes continue to be repeated, demonstrating the disconnect between research and practice.REDD+ demonstration projects have generated considerable excitement, relatively large donor support and very high expectations among stakeholders. They are also being implemented in an atmosphere of impatience and haste. This increases the risk of failure and could undermine the REDD+ initiative, the most exciting development in tropical forest conservation in the past 30 years.
• #33: The landscape of emerging REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) projects
• #34: Testing REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)
• #37: Future dilemmas with REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)
• #38: Key messages for realising REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)
• #39: CIFOR's site-specificREDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) research in Indonesia
• #40: Demonstration REDD(Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) activitiesThis map shows the spatial distribution of REDD activities in Indonesia. The large circles are activities that are happening at a landscape level: District-level activities in Malinau and Kapuas Hulu (Germany), Berau (The Nature Conservancy), UluMasen project in Aceh (Fauna and Flora International and Carbon Conservation). Smaller circles are site-level activities.If there is one project, but it includes two or more distinct, non-contiguous interventions, I counted it as more than one project.Red circles are ones that I know a little bit about.
• #41: A list of CIFOR publications from 2009 that cover topics related to REDD (reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation)
• #44: CIFOR's knowledge-sharing activities in 2009, especially related to REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)
• #46: A website and publications were created to build literacy on REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation)