![MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES OF LOCOMOTION.
12. The superiority which the modern railroad possesses over the
common, McAdam, plank, or turnpike-road, consists, first, in the
reduction of the resistance to motion, and second, in the application
of the locomotive steam-engine.
13. The effect of grades of a given incline upon a railroad is relatively
more than upon common roads; for as the absolute resistance on a
level decreases, the relative resistance of grades augments: whence
to obtain the full benefit of the system, we must reduce much more
the grades and curvature upon a railroad, than on a common road.
For example, if the resistance to moving one ton upon a level upon a
railroad was ten pounds, and upon a common road forty pounds,
where a twenty-three feet grade would be admissible upon the
former, we might use an incline of ninety-three feet per mile upon
the latter.
14. The resistance to the motion of railroad trains increases rapidly
with the speed;[1]
whence the grades of a passenger road where a high
average speed is used, may be steeper than those of a road doing a
freight business chiefly.
1. See chapter XIV.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/6598-250529151542-89e978da/85/Psychology-Applied-to-Modern-Life-Adjustment-in-the-21st-Century-11th-Edition-Weiten-Solutions-Manual-30-320.jpg)
![DETERMINATION OF CHARACTER OF ROAD.
15. Upon a correct idea of what the road ought to be, depends in a
great degree its success. The amount of capital expended upon the
reduction of the natural surface, depends upon the expected amount
of traffic. The traffic remaining the same, the greater the capital
expended in reducing grades and curvature, the less will be the
working expense; and the less the construction capital, the greater
that for maintenance. The limit of expenditure must be such as to
render the sum of construction and maintaining capital a minimum.
The bad effect of grades upon the cost of maintaining and of working
railroads, is not so great as many suppose. Of the whole cost of
working, only about forty per cent. can be charged to locomotive
power; and of this, not more than sixty-two per cent. is effected by
grades.[2]
2. See appendix F.
16. The degree of curvature to be admitted upon any road depends
somewhat upon the speeds at which trains are to be run. The larger
the radius of curvature, the greater may be the speed; at the same
time the elevation of the exterior rail upon curves may be less, and
therefore more adapted to freight trains. High rates of speed are
considered upon some competing roads necessary; but are, even in
such cases, necessary evils. The wear of cars and of engines, of
permanent way and of bridges, increase in a rapid ratio with the
velocity. The maximum speed for freight trains should never exceed
fifteen miles per hour, or for passenger trains from twenty to twenty-
five miles per hour.[3]
3. See chapter XVI.
17. The agricultural nature of the country and its commercial
position, will determine the nature of the traffic, whether passenger
or freight, and also the amount. The amount and nature of the traffic
will limit the curvature, and will partially determine the arrangement
of grades.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/6598-250529151542-89e978da/85/Psychology-Applied-to-Modern-Life-Adjustment-in-the-21st-Century-11th-Edition-Weiten-Solutions-Manual-31-320.jpg)
Psychology Applied to Modern Life Adjustment in the 21st Century 11th Edition Weiten Solutions Manual
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- 5. 97 CHAPTER 7 SOCIAL THINKING AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE LEARNING OBJECTIVES Forming Impressions of Others (APA Goals 1, 4) • Cite the five sources of information people use to form impressions of others. • Understand the key differences between snap judgments and systematic judgments. • Define attributions and describe two attribution-based expectancies that can distort observers’ perceptions. • Recognize four important cognitive distortions and how they operate. • Identify some ways in which perceptions of others are efficient, selective, and consistent. The Problem of Prejudice (APA Goals 4, 8) • Explain how “old-fashioned” and modern discrimination differ. • Understand how authoritarianism and cognitive distortions can contribute to prejudice. • Clarify how intergroup competition and threats to social identity can foster prejudice. • Describe the operation of several strategies for reducing prejudice. The Power of Persuasion (APA Goals 4, 7) • Cite the key elements in the persuasion process and how each one operates. • Discuss the evidence on one-sided versus two-sided messages and the value of arousing fear or positive feelings in persuasion. • Explain how the two cognitive routes to persuasion operate. The Power of Social Pressure (APA Goal 1) • Summarize what Asch discovered about conformity. • Discuss the difference between normative and informational influences on conformity. • Describe Milgram’s research on obedience to authority and how to resist inappropriate demands of authority figures. Application: Seeing Through Compliance Tactics (APA Goals 3, 9) • Describe compliance strategies based on the principles of consistency and reciprocity • Discuss how the principle of scarcity can increase a person’s desire for something.
- 6. 98 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Forming Impressions A. Person perception is the process of forming impressions of others B. Key sources of information 1. Appearance 2. Verbal behavior 3. Actions 4. Nonverbal messages 5. Situations C. Snap judgments versus systematic judgments 1. Snap judgments are those that are made quickly and based on only a few bits of information and preconceptions; they may not be accurate 2. Systematic judgments involve taking time to observe the person in a variety of situations and to compare the person’s behavior with that of others D. Attributions are inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others' behavior, and events 1. Three key dimensions of attributions a. Internal/external b. Stable/unstable c. Controllable/uncontrollable 2. Types of attributions people make about others can have major impact on social interactions 3. People are selective about making attributions; most likely to make them in specific cases a. When others behave in unexpected or negative ways b. When events are personally relevant c. Motives underlying someone’s behavior are suspicious E. Perceiver expectations 1. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek information that supports one's beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information a. For first impressions "believing is seeing" rather than "seeing is believing" b. Confirmation bias also occurs via selective recall to fit one's view of others c. Presenting people with information that is inconsistent with their perceptions and preferences can encourage them to engage in more divergent thinking 2. Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations about a person cause the person to behave in ways that confirm the expectations a. Three steps involved in a self-fulfilling prophecy 1) Perceiver has initial impression of someone (target person) 2) Perceiver behaves toward target person in a way that is consistent with expectations 3) Target person adjusts behavior to perceiver's actions b. Perceiver mistakenly attributes target person's behavior to internal causes F. Cognitive distortions 1. Social Categorization
- 7. 99 a. People tend to perceive those similar to themselves as members of ingroup ("us") and those dissimilar as members of outgroup ("them") b. Categorizing has important consequences 1) Attitudes tend to be less favorable toward outgroup members 2) The outgroup homogeneity effect occurs when we see outgroup members as being much more alike and seeing members of one's ingroup as unique individuals 3) Heightens visibility of outgroup members when only a few of them are in a large group 4) People are even likely to see outgroup members as looking more like each other than they actually do 2. Stereotypes are widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group a. Some examples include ethnicity, race, gender b. Also based on physical appearance (e.g., what-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype) 1) Attractive people are perceived more favorably than justified 2) Although cross-culturally people associated attractiveness with positive qualities, cultural values determine which qualities are considered desirable c. Stereotypes can exist outside a person’s awareness and occur automatically d. Exerting self-control is one way to reduce prejudice e. Imagining an encounter between oneself and an outgroup member can reduce hostile feelings linked to stereotyping f. The persistence of stereotypes 1) Function to reduce complexity to simplicity 2) Confirmation bias 3) Self-fulfilling prophecy 3. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to explain other people's behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational, factors a. Different from stereotyping because it's based on actual behavior b. Making attributions is a two-step process 1) Occurring spontaneously, observers make an internal attribution 2) Only with cognitive effort and attention, observers weigh the impact of the situation and adjust their inference c. Evidence suggests that the two steps may link to different types of brain activity d. Americans (reflecting individualistic culture) tend to use internal attributions more so than Hindus, Chinese, Japanese, or Koreans (reflecting collectivistic culture) 4. Defensive attribution is a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way G. Key themes in person perception 1. Efficiency a. People prefer to exert minimal cognitive effort and time b. Result is error-prone judgments 2. Selectivity a. "People see what they expect to see" b. Lecturer labeled as "warm" or "cold" results in varied ratings 3. Consistency a. Primacy effect occurs when initial information carries more weight than subsequent information b. Initial negative impressions may be especially hard to change
- 8. 100 CHAPTER 7 II. The Problem of Prejudice A. Prejudice versus discrimination 1. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward members of a group 2. Discrimination involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group 3. Tend to go together, but that is not always the case 4. Prejudices and stereotypes can be triggered without conscious awareness and can have consequences for behavior B. "Old-fashioned" versus modern discrimination 1. Over the past 40 years, prejudice and discrimination in the U.S. has diminished, racial segregation is no longer legal 2. "Old-fashioned" discrimination against minority groups has declined 3. More subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination have emerged a. With modern discrimination, people may privately harbor negative attitudes toward minorities but express them only when they feel justified or safe b. Aversive racism is an indirect, subtle, ambiguous form of racism that occurs when the conscious endorsement of egalitarian ideals is in conflict with non- conscious, negative reactions to minority group members C. Causes of prejudice 1. Authoritarianism a. Early research identified an authoritarian personality type, characterized by prejudice toward any group perceived to be different from one’s self b. Now termed right-wing authoritarianism (RWA), it is characterized by authoritarian submission, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism c. RWA correlates with prejudice and discrimination d. Two key factors underlie RWA prejudice 1) Organizing social world into ingroups and outgroups 2) Tendency toward self-righteousness, fear of change e. Social dominance orientation (SDO) involves preference for inequality among groups, hierarchy, domination 2. Cognitive distortions and expectations a. Social categorization predisposes people to divide the social world into ingroups and outgroups b. Although racial stereotypes have declined in the last 50 years, they still occur c. People are particularly likely to make the fundamental attribution error when evaluating targets of prejudice d. Perceiving negative characteristics as being dispositionally based due to group membership is labeled as the ultimate attribution error e. Defensive attributions, when people unfairly blame victims of adversity to reassure themselves that the same thing won’t happen to them, can contribute to prejudice f. Expectations can also foster and maintain prejudice 3. Competition between groups a. Based on early research by Muzafer Sherif and colleagues (Robber’s Cave summer camp study) b. Effects of competition on prejudice often occurs in the real world c. Perception of threats to ingroup more problematic than actual threats 4. Threats to social identity
- 9. 101 a. Social identity theory states that self-esteem is partly determined by one’s social identity or collective self, which is tied to one’s group memberships b. Threats to social identity provoke prejudice and discrimination c. Most common response is to show in-group favoritism d. Outgroup derogation may also occur, to criticize outgroups perceived as threatening e. "Ingroup love" not "outgroup hate" underlies most discrimination f. Ingroup favoritism is often subtle and can be triggered by arbitrary and inconsequential factors, such as shared musical tastes 5. Stereotype threat a. Occurs when individuals are the targets of a stereotype by others to characterize the group they belong to b. Feelings of stereotype vulnerability can undermine group members’ performance on academic tests, D. Reducing prejudice 1. Cognitive strategies a. Stereotypes may kick in automatically, unintentionally b. But can intentionally inhibit stereotyping, prejudice with shift from automatic processing to controlled processing, or from mindlessness to mindfulness 2. Intergroup contact a. Based on principle of superordinate goals (or cooperative interdependence): requiring two groups to work together to achieve a mutual goal b. Four necessary conditions for reducing intergroup hostility 1) Groups must work together for common goal 2) Must be successful outcomes to cooperative efforts 3) Group members must have opportunity to establish meaningful connections 4) Must ensure equal status contact c. To test the contact hypothesis in a field study, white college students were randomly assigned to share a dorm with a white or a black roommate 1) Students in the interracial rooms did report less satisfaction with their roommates than those with same-race assignments 2) But more positively, students living in the interracial rooms were found to be less prejudiced across time compared to those with same-race living arrangements III. The Power of Persuasion A. Persuasion defined 1. Persuasion involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes 2. Attitudes are beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas a. Beliefs are thoughts and judgments b. The "feeling" component refers to positive/negative aspect of attitude, as well as strength of feeling B. The elements of the persuasion process 1. Source is the person who sends a communication a. Credibility of source is important factor 1) Expertise can give a person credibility 2) Trustworthiness of source is even more important than expertise
- 10. 102 CHAPTER 7 b. Likeability also increases effectiveness of source 1) Physical attractiveness can affect likeability 2) Similarity of source to target also an important factor 2. Message is the information transmitted by the source a. Two-sided arguments generally more effective than one-sided arguments 1) One-sided arguments work only when audience is uneducated about issue 2) One-sided arguments work if audience is favorably disposed to message b. Arousal of fear may increase effectiveness of message if people feel susceptible to the threat, within limits c. Generating positive feelings can be effective 3. Receiver is the person to whom the message is sent a. Mood can matter: optimistic people process uplifting messages better than pessimists b. Some people have a need for cognition, the tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful thought, problem-solving activities, and in-depth analysis. Such people are more likely to be convinced by high-quality arguments rather than superficial analyses c. Forewarning may reduce effectiveness d. People display disconfirmation bias when evaluating arguments incompatible with their existing beliefs e. People from different cultures respond to different themes in persuasive messages C. The whys of persuasion 1. According to the elaboration likelihood model, an individual’s thoughts about a persuasive message (rather than the message itself) determine whether attitude change will occur 2. When people are distracted, tired, etc., they may be persuaded by cues along the peripheral route, the usual route of persuasion 3. With the central route, the receiver cognitively elaborates on the message 4. Two requirements for central route to override peripheral route a. Receivers must be motivated to process message b. Receivers must be able to understand message 5. Attitudes formed via central route are longer lasting, better predict actual behavior IV. The Power of Social Pressure A. Conformity and compliance pressures 1. Conformity occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure 2. We are apt to explain the behavior of other people as conforming but not think of our own actions this way 3. The dynamics of conformity are illustrated by classic experiment in which Solomon Asch examined effect of group pressure on conformity in unambiguous situations a. Participants varied considerably in tendency to conform, although 28% conformed on more than half the trials b. Two important factors were group size and unanimity 1) Conformity increased as group size increased from two to four, peaked at seven, then leveled off 2) Group size had little effect in presence of another dissenter, underscoring importance of unanimity 4. Conformity versus compliance
- 11. 103 a. Later studies indicated that Asch's participants were not really changing their beliefs b. Theorists concluded that Asch's experiments evoked a type of conformity, called compliance (when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed) 5. The whys of conformity a. Normative influence operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences b. Informational influence operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations 6. Resisting conformity pressures a. Conformity can range from harmless fun to tragic consequences b. The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone c. Suggestions for resisting conformity pressures include 1) Pay more attention to social forces 2) Try to identify one other dissenter 3) Consider inviting along a friend with similar views B. Pressure from authority figures 1. The dynamics of obedience: Stanley Milgram demonstrated the power of obedience (a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority) a. A "teacher" (participant) was instructed to administer electric shocks to a "learner" (confederate) b. Although apparatus was fake, participant thought he was administering increasingly stronger shocks c. Twenty-six of 40 participants (65%) administered all 30 levels of shock 2. The causes of obedience a. Demands on participants were escalated gradually b. Authority figure claimed responsibility c. Subjects evaluated their actions on how well they were living up to expectations of authority figure, not in terms of the victim 3. To obey or not to obey a. With “crimes of obedience,” social pressures can cause morally repugnant behavior b. Aligning oneself with supportive others can decrease obedience to risky demands V. Application: Seeing through Compliance Tactics A. The consistency principle 1. The foot-in-the-door technique involves getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later 2. The lowball technique involves getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed B. The reciprocity principle 1. Reciprocity principle: the rule that one should pay back in kind what one receives from others 2. Norm is so powerful, it works even when
- 12. 104 CHAPTER 7 a. Gift is uninvited b. Gift comes from someone you dislike c. Gift results in an uneven exchange 3. Reciprocity-based influence tactics include a. The door-in-the-face technique, which involves making a very large request that is likely to be turned down to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later b. Other examples such as free samples, business dinners C. The scarcity principle 1. Telling people they can’t have something makes them want it more 2. Reactance occurs when people want what they can’t have 3. Examples include “limited supplies,” “time is running out” DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Our perceptions of other people are influenced by their physical appearance, including the clothes they wear. Can you think of some examples of how your perceptions are affected by the way people dress? How do you think your attire affects others' perceptions of you? 2. What are everyday examples of the self-fulfilling prophecy at work? For instance, if you expect rude service from a cashier versus expecting friendliness? If you expect a blind date to be boring versus fun? 3. In the textbook, the authors suggest that because people know that verbal behavior is more easily manipulated than nonverbal behavior, they often rely on nonverbal cues to determine the truth of what others say. Do you find yourself relying on nonverbal cues in social situations? What specific nonverbal cues do you think are “dead giveaways” for certain thoughts or attitudes? 4. Do you think there may be gender differences in the ability to identify and make use of information from nonverbal behavior? Can you cite an example or two to support your answer? 5. Evidence indicates that people tend to attribute their own behavior to situational (external) causes, and observers tend to attribute the same actions to the individual's dispositional (internal) qualities. Can you think of some explanations for these tendencies? 6. Do you tend to think of attractive people as more competent and better adjusted than those who are less attractive? Why do you think this is the case? 7. Given that perceptual inaccuracies promote racial prejudice, what do you think could be done to reduce problems that occur as a result of racial prejudice, particularly in schools? 8. Some researchers suggest that elections are determined mainly by the public's impressions of the candidates rather than the candidates' views on important issues. Do you think this is the case? If so, what are some possible explanations for this behavior on the part of voters?
- 13. 105 9. Can you think of any specific advertisements that you think would be particularly effective in getting people to purchase products? Describe the qualities these ads have that make them so effective, referring to the list of persuasive techniques from the applications section of the textbook. 10. When you think of advertising and spokespersons, what people come to mind? What source factors seem to make these individuals particularly strong as spokespersons? 11. In what situations is obedience to authority desirable or even necessary? In what situations can it be problematic? 12. In your opinion, what are the main ethical problems with Stanley Milgram's study of obedience to authority? Do you think the scientific contributions of the study outweigh the ethical concerns? 13. How could the findings of the Robber’s Cave study be applied to problems with prejudice and discrimination among children in today’s schools? 14. The Application section discusses several compliance tactics. When and where have you seen any of these in use? Did they appear to be effective? 15. Blind obedience to authority can have disastrous consequences. So, why does obedience exist? Does it serve a purpose in society? How can one draw the line between appropriate and inappropriate types of obedience? DEMONSTRATIONS AND ACTIVITIES Campus Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies (APA Goals 4, 9): In order to make students aware of how universal the cognitive activity of stereotyping is, ask them to list the qualities that they associate with the following people: Football Player (Athlete) Engineering Major English Major Cheerleader Drama Club Member Honor Student Part-time Student Freshman Single Mother Fraternity Brother/Sorority Sister After the students have listed the qualities for themselves, have them call out their answers and list them on the board. Although there will be some variations, there will most likely be many qualities in common identified by most students in the room, even though (upon further questioning) the students will also acknowledge that the members of each group who are known to them are far more diverse than the stereotypes that are held. They will also be compelled to admit that they hold the stereotypes. This is instructive because people so often are reticent to admit this, as they automatically associate the relatively neutral, universal categorizing activity of stereotyping with prejudice.
- 14. 106 CHAPTER 7 Discussing the qualities that are present in the group members is also an interesting way to introduce the notion of the influence of role on behavior (in other words, it may be unclear to all of us the degree to which that people in each category have the qualities because of the expectation that they should be that way). The What-Is-Beautiful-Is-Good Stereotype (APA Goals 4, 9): The textbook discusses how attractive people are often seen as more competent, better adjusted, etc. than unattractive people. Students often react to this information with disbelief, convinced that no one would evaluate people in such a shallow manner. If you conduct this exercise before discussing person perception, you can "catch" your students using the stereotype, making the point in convincing fashion. Obtain a yearbook from your school that is several years old (or collect pictures from the Internet) and have a group of students from another class select five pictures each of attractive and unattractive men and women. You may also want to include some pictures from the middle of the attractiveness spectrum so that the difference between the two groups of pictures isn't too obvious. You could tell your students that before you begin the chapter dealing with person perception, you want to examine their ability to perceive certain characteristics in others. Show your class the pictures you have cut from the yearbook and have them rate each picture using the rating scale shown below (or your own version). You might want to tell your class that because the pictures are of former students, you know the actual characteristics on which they are being rated. The question of interest, of course, is how the ratings of the attractive individuals differ from those of the unattractive individuals. The results should provide clear support for the "what-is-beautiful-is-good" stereotype. Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unfriendly Reliable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unreliable Intelligent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unintelligent Popular 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unpopular Modest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Not modest Sociable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unsociable Honest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Dishonest Athletic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unathletic The Fundamental Attribution Error (APA Goal 1): Watson (1987) developed this demonstration based on an experiment conducted by Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz (1977). To do the exercise, you need to form pairs of students who do not know each other very well and have them sit together. Tell them they are going to play a game in which one person is the contestant and the other is the quiz master. Randomly determine each role by flipping a coin. You might assign those whose names are closer to the beginning of the alphabet to "heads" and the others to "tails" so that all pairs can be assigned at the same time. Have the quiz masters make up five challenging general-knowledge questions (e.g., the capital of a distant state, the U.S. President in a certain year) or use questions from a game like Trivial Pursuit. Have each quiz master ask his or her contestant the questions and immediately say whether the answers are correct or not. Then have everyone anonymously fill out a question sheet like the one shown below. After you have collected the sheets, you can explain the purpose of the exercise. Tally the results on the board by the role played, contestant or quiz master. Generally, contestants will be rated as having less knowledge than quiz masters. You can discuss how the ratings show that students are ignoring the situation and attributing behavior to dispositional factors (i.e., knowledge). Have
- 15. 107 students imagine playing the game a second time, with the roles reversed and discuss how their attributions might change. Explain to them that the exercise is set up in such a way that it favors the quiz master and places the contestant at a disadvantage, thus evoking the fundamental attribution error. Question Sheet Did you: Give questions Ask questions Compare how knowledgeable your partner seems relative to yourself. Be as honest as possible. Your answer will be kept confidential. My partner is much I am much more more knowledgeable 1 2 3 4 5 knowledgeable Ross, L.D., Amabile, T.M., & Steinmetz, J.L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485-494. Watson, D.L. (1987). The fundamental attribution error. In V.P. Makosky, L.G. Whittemore, & A.M. Rogers (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology: Vol. 2 (pp. 135- 137). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Culture, Persuasion, and Advertising (APA Goal 8): To conduct this activity, you'll need an array of visual advertisements. These can easily be found online through an image search. You can gather these images yourself, or have the students find advertisements themselves as part of the activity. Choose a general category of product, such as beverages or automobiles, and collect advertisements from various countries and across various decades. During your classroom presentation of persuasion, remind the students about the qualities associated with collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Then share the various ads with them and ask them to help you categorize each as individualistic or collectivistic in their focus. Keep a running tally to determine whether advertisements from more collectivistic cultures tend to promote conformity and advertisements from the United States (a highly individualistic culture) tend to promote uniqueness. Along with the cross-cultural comparison, you can look at whether advertisements in the past century in the United States have shown a shifting focus from conformity to uniqueness. Although you can find many advertisements through a general online search engine, following is a list of sites with various types of advertisements: http://tobaccofreekids.org/adgallery/ Search tobacco advertising by country http://www.plan59.com/ American advertisements from the 1950s http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html Historic advertisements archived by the Library of Congress Obedience in the Classroom (APA Goal 5): Hunter (1981) and Halonen (1986) developed an exercise that you can use before you discuss obedience to make the topic more meaningful to your students. Halonen suggests using this exercise on the first day of class; Hunter suggests using another instructor to conduct the exercise if it is not the first day of class. First, you should make some requests that seem perfectly normal in the context of the classroom (e.g., asking everyone to move toward the front of the room, asking students to remove
- 16. 108 CHAPTER 7 everything from the top of their desks). You should gradually make the requests stranger (e.g., require notes to be taken only in pencil, have students take off their watches, have everyone raise a hand on which they have a ring). Finally, the requests should escalate to complete bizarreness, so that people look silly by complying (e.g., have people with blonde hair stand up and face the back of the room while the rest of the class applauds, have students flap their arms and cluck like a chicken). Ask students why they did what you requested. Typically, you will find that the instructor is perceived as an authority figure that should be obeyed. You should then be able to generate a lively discussion focusing on obedience. For example, should authority figures always be obeyed? How can blind obedience to authority be overcome? Once students have experienced an obedience situation themselves, Milgram's research becomes more credible, more interesting, and easier to understand. Halonen, J. (1986). Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology. Milwaukee: Alverno Productions. Hunter, W.J. (1981). Obedience to authority. In L.T. Benjamin, Jr., & K.D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities Handbook for the Teaching of Psychology (pp. 149-150). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Blaming the Victim (APA Goals 1, 3): Bloyd (1990) developed this exercise based on a story from Dolgoff and Feldstein (1984). Read your class the following story: Once upon a time, a husband and a wife lived together in a part of the city separated by a river from places of employment, shopping, and entertainment. The husband had to work nights. Each evening, he left his wife and took the ferry to work, returning in the morning The wife soon tired of this arrangement. Restless and lonely, she would take the next ferry into town and develop relationships with a series of lovers. Anxious to preserve her marriage, she always returned home before her husband. In fact, her relationships were always limited. When they threatened to become too intense, she would precipitate a quarrel with her current lover and begin a new relationship. One night, she caused such a quarrel with a man we will call Lover 1. He slammed the door in her face, and she started back to the ferry. Suddenly, she realized that she had forgotten to bring money for her return fare. She swallowed her pride and returned to Lover 1's apartment. But Lover 1 was vindictive and angry because of the quarrel. He slammed the door on his former lover, leaving her with no money. She remembered that a previous lover, who we shall call Lover 2, lived just a few doors away. Surely he would give her the ferry fare. However, Lover 2 was still so hurt from their old quarrel that he, too, refused her the money. Now the hour was late and the woman was getting desperate. She rushed down to the ferry and pleaded with the ferryboat captain. He knew her as a regular customer. She asked if he could let her ride free and if she could pay the next night. But the captain insisted that rules were rules and that he could not let her ride without paying the fare. Dawn would soon be breaking, and her husband would be returning from work. The woman remembered that there was a free bridge about a mile further on. But the road to the bridge was a dangerous one, known to be frequented by highwaymen. Nonetheless, she had to get home, so she took the road. On the way a highwayman stepped out of the bushes and demanded her money.
- 17. 109 She told him that she had none. He seized her. In the ensuing tussle, the highwayman stabbed the woman, and she died. Thus ends our story. There have been six characters: Husband, Wife, Lover 1, Lover 2, Ferryboat Captain, and Highwayman. Please list, in descending order of responsibility for this woman's death, all the characters. In other words, the one most responsible is listed first; the next most responsible, second; and so on. After students have followed the instructions at the end of the story, list the characters on the board, ask for a show of hands for each of the six characters, and record the results. Bloyd reports that about half will typically choose the wife first and half will list the highwayman first. Those choosing the wife will often give such reasons as, "she deserved it," or "she was asking for trouble." Basically, they are blaming the victim. A simple change in the story can produce dramatically different results. If the wife is a widow who works at night to make money to support her children and has to get home before the babysitter leaves, the highwayman is blamed more often. His behavior has not changed, however. This result makes it clear that the wife is being blamed because of her morals. You can use this exercise to generate some interesting class discussions about rape, crime, poverty, etc. Also, the exercise helps sensitize students to the tendency to blame the victim, which can be related to the fundamental attribution error, or the “just world” hypothesis. Bloyd, J.R. (1990, October). Blaming the Victim. Presented at the Mid-America Conference for Teachers of Psychology, Evansville, IN. Dolgoff, R., & Feldstein, D. (1984). Understanding Social Welfare (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. Application: Compliance Techniques (APA Goals 4, 7): Based on the Applications section in the chapter, ask students to create a skit that demonstrates how various compliance techniques could be used to sell a particular product, or to ask a friend for a specific favor. Handout 7.1 is a worksheet to guide this process. You can have students complete the worksheet only or also present their ideas in the form of a skit or role-playing. On this same topic, you might consider bringing in various advertisements from magazines and newspapers. Students can identify ways that compliance techniques are attempted in these advertisements, or discuss other examples that come to mind as they view the sample advertisements. Self-Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale (APA Goal 9): This scale, a copy of which appears in the Personal Explorations Workbook, is designed to measure one aspect of a person's social influence behavior. Specifically, it assesses one's tendency to argue with others in persuasive efforts. Studies of the scale's validity show that it correlates well with other measures of communication tendencies and with friends' ratings of subjects' argumentativeness. After administering the scale to your students, you can discuss how the scores might be related to a person's tendency to be persuaded by others. Self-Reflection: Can You Identify Your Prejudicial Stereotypes? (APA Goals 5, 8): This exercise, appearing in the Personal Explorations Workbook, provides students with a structured reflection on self-identified stereotypes.
- 18. 110 CHAPTER 7 VIDEOS American Experience: A Class Apart. Built around the 1954 legal case Hernandez v. Texas, the film interweaves the stories of its central characters with a broader story of the civil rights movement. It brings to life the post-World War II struggle of Mexican Americans fighting to dismantle the discrimination targeted against them. PBS, 2009, 60 minutes. Anatomy of Prejudice: Jane Elliott's Seminar on Race. This program documents one of Elliott’s diversity training seminars, modeled on an experiment she first conducted as a third- grade teacher in 1968. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2009, 49 minutes. Blink. This documentary examines the dramatic story of one-time white supremacist leader Gregory Withrow, and in so doing explores the underlying themes of violence, racism, and domination in American life and culture. Berkeley Media LLC, 2000, 57 minutes. Brownsville, Black and White. This documentary explores the complex history of interracial cooperation, urban change, and social conflict in Brownsville, a neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, from the 1930s to the present. Berkeley Media LLC, 2002, 83 minutes. Candid Camera: Social Psychology. This program features humorous scenarios from Candid Camera that illustrate basic themes and principles in social psychology, including conformity, compliance, obedience, construction of social reality, persuasion, and expert influence. Insight Media, 1994, 58 minutes. The College Eye: The Angry Eye. This DVD shows Jane Elliott’s blue-eyed/brown-eyed experiment set in a college environment. Insight Media, 2001, 35 minutes. Conformity. Offering illustrative examples, this program examines the psychological concept of conformity, defines the two types of conformity, and explores research and theory related to the phenomenon. Insight Media, 2008, 19 minutes. Conformity: In the Real-Life Lab. This ABC News program explores conformity, highlighting neurological research that helps explain conformity and sheds light on the relationship between group and individual behavior. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 10 minutes. Confronting Discrimination and Prejudice. Encourage students to explore biases and stereotypes with this group of ABC News segments. Each scenario puts actors into exchanges with unwitting bystanders, generating a wide range of responses—from overt hostility toward other races and cultures to acts of genuine compassion. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 37 minutes. Obeying or Resisting Authority: A Psychological Retrospective. Social psychologist Jerry Burger interprets the findings of a recent re-creation of the Milgram obedience experiments. Also included are the 1971 Stanford prison experiment and the 2004 event in which a McDonald’s manager and her fiancé strip-searched and abused an employee. Original footage is included, along with present-day commentary from Philip Zimbardo. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2007, 35 minutes.
- 19. 111 Persuasion in Everyday Life. This program examines the forces that influence personal judgments and beliefs. It shows how taste tests, the actions of others, laugh tracks, shop-at-home television networks, and placebos influence opinions and actions. Insight Media, 2007, 25 minutes. Prejudice: More Than Black and White. In this program, Susan Fiske of Princeton University and Mahzarin Banaji of Harvard University, representatives from such tolerance groups as the Council on American-Islamic Relations, and victims of prejudice share their insights into and experiences with prejudice. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 35 minutes. The Psychology of Evil. Philip Zimbardo shares insights and graphic unseen photos from the Abu Ghraib trials. Then he talks about the flip side: how easy it is to be a hero, and how we can rise to the challenge. TED DVD on Demand, 2008, 23 minutes. Psychology of Power. This program explores the nature of power and considers such issues as balance, influence, responsibility, and abuses of power. It outlines the sources of power and discusses normative and informational influences. Insight Media, 2008, 23 minutes. Quiet Rage: The Stanford Prison Experiment. This DVD documents Philip Zimbardo’s landmark study in which he created a mock prison, randomly dividing a group of students into prisoners and guards. It shows how the behavior of each group rapidly conformed to assigned roles. Insight Media, 1990, 50 minutes. Race and Sex: What We Think (But Can’t Say). Our subconscious mind categorizes people by details such as gender, race, and age. Can prejudice be overcome? What is the “stereotype effect”? Is it possible to visually perceive sexual orientation? This ABC News program seeks answers to these and other questions by exploring various lines of research. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 39 minutes. Racial Stereotypes in the Media. This program examines the relationship between mass media and social constructions of race from political and economic perspectives while looking at the effects media can have on audiences. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Production, 2008, 42 minutes. Sexual Stereotypes in the Media. This program illustrates some of the commercial, cultural, psychological, and sociological forces that have shaped sexual stereotypes in the media. Films for the Humanities and Sciences Production, 2008, 38 minutes. Them and Us: Cultural Awareness. Explaining that prejudice is rooted in a need to distinguish between “us” and “them,” this video explores the mental processes used to evaluate other cultures. It shows how cognitive habits can lead to prejudices. Insight Media, 2007, 25 minutes. Zimbardo Speaks: The Lucifer Effect and the Psychology of Evil. In this lecture, Zimbardo discourses on theories of conformity, prejudice, aggression, social influence, and antisocial behavior. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2008, 127 minutes.
- 20. Random documents with unrelated content Scribd suggests to you:
- 21. — 384, in last part of example, for “ 5280 4½ × 3.1416 × 4 = 37300,” read “25 × 5280 4 × 3.1416 × 4 = 37348.” — 421, bottom line, for “decision,” read “division.” — 423 and 424, in table, for “count,” read “cost.” — 427, l. 32, for “which,” read “we.” — 428, l. 4, transpose “Dr. Lardner, (1850,)” to the end of line 3. — 443, l. 28, for “valuation,” read “solution.” — 446, l. 11, for “attained,” read “obtained.” — 459, l. 20, for “Hectametre,” read “Hectometre.” — 459, l. 21, for “Ridometre,” read “Kilometre.” — 461, l. 7, for “less than a, or o,” read “less a, or 0.” — 468, l. 30, for “fractions,” read “functions.” — 474, l. 18, for “Balbett,” read “Babbitt.” — 479, l. 10, for “one sixth, with much less,” read “one sixth; with sand, much less.”
- 23. INTRODUCTION. “They build not merely roads of earth and stone, as of old, but they build iron roads: and not content with horses of flesh, they are building horses of iron, such as never faint nor lose their breath.”—Dr. Bushnell.
- 24. RISE AND PROGRESS OF RAILROADS. 1. In 1825, the Stockton and Darlington Railroad (England), was opened. In 1827, the Quincy (of Massachusetts), and Mauch-Chunk (Pennsylvania), were completed. In 1829, the Liverpool and Manchester road, (England), was finished. In 1833, a road was opened from Charleston, (South Carolina), to Augusta (Georgia). In 1840, Belgium opened 190 miles of railroad. In 1843, the railroad from Paris to Rouen (France), was completed. In 1844, Belgium finished her system of 347 miles. In 1846, Russia opened a railroad from the Wolga to the Don. In 1847, Germany had in operation 2,828 miles. In 1852, the Moscow and St. Petersburg road was finished. 2. In 1856, the United States of America had in operation 23,000 miles, and in progress 17,000 miles; employing 6,000 locomotive engines, 10,000 passenger and 70,000 freight cars; costing in all about 750,000,000 of dollars; running annually 114,000,000 miles, and transporting 123½ millions of passengers, and 30 millions of tons of freight per annum; performing a passenger mileage of 4,750,000,000, and a freight mileage of 3,000,000,000. 3. By mileage is meant the product of miles run, by tons or by passengers carried. Thus, 500 persons carried 100 miles, and 750 persons carried 75 miles, give a passenger mileage of 500 × 100 + 750 × 75 = 106,250. 4. The rate of progress in the United States has been as follows:— In 1828, there were 3 miles.
- 25. In 1830, 41 miles. In 1840, 2,167 miles. In 1850, 7,355 miles. In 1856, 23,242 miles. At the present time, January 1, 1857, there is probably, in round numbers, 25,000 miles of completed road, or enough to extend entirely around the world. As regards the ratio of completed road to population, and as regards the actual length of railroad in operation, the United States stand before any other country.
- 26. INFLUENCE OF RAILROADS. 5. The effect of a judicious system of railroads upon any community is to increase consumption and to stimulate the production of agricultural products; to distribute more generally the population, to cause a balance between supply and demand, and to increase both the amount and safety of travelling. It is stated that within two years after the opening of the New York and Erie Railroad, it was carrying more agricultural produce than the entire quantity which had been raised throughout the tributary country before the road was built. 6. The following table, cut from a Chicago paper, shows the effect of railroad transport upon the cost of grain in that market:— Wheat. Corn. By R. R. By Wagon. By R. R. By Wagon. At market, $49.50 $49.50 $25.60 $25.60 10 miles, 49.25 48.00 24.25 23.26 50 miles, 48.75 42.00 24.00 17.25 100 miles, 48.00 34.50 23.25 9.75 150 miles, 47.25 27.00 22.50 2.25 200 miles, 46.50 19.50 21.75 0.00 250 miles, 45.75 12.00 21.00 0.00 300 miles, 45.00 4.50 20.25 0.00 330 miles, 44.55 0.00 19.80 0.00 Thus a ton of corn carried two hundred miles, costs, per wagon transport, more than it brings at market; while moved by railroad, it is worth $21.75 per ton. Also wheat will not bear wagon transport of three hundred and thirty miles; while moved that distance by railroad it is worth $44.55 per ton. 7. By railroads, large cities are supplied with fresh meats and vegetables, butter, eggs, and milk. An unhealthy increase of density of population is prevented, by enabling business men to live five, ten, or fifteen miles away from the city and yet do business therein. The amount of this diffusion is as the square of the speed of transport. If a person walks four miles per hour, and supposing one hour allowed
- 27. for passing from the house to the place of business, he cannot live at a greater distance than four miles from his work. The area, therefore, which may be lived in, is the circle of which the radius is four, the diameter eight, and the area fifty and one quarter square miles. If by horse one can go eight miles per hour, the diameter becomes sixteen miles, and area two hundred and one square miles; and, if by railroad he moves thirty miles per hour, the diameter becomes sixty miles, and the area 2,827 square miles. The effect of such diffusion is plainly seen about Boston, (Massachusetts). People who in 1830 were mostly confined to the city, now live in Dorchester, Milton, Dedham, Roxbury, Brookline, Brighton, Cambridge, Charlestown, Somerville, Chelsea, Lynn, and Salem; places distant from two to thirteen miles. 8. In railroads, as in other labor saving (and labor producing) machines, the innovation has been loudly decried. But though it does render some classes of labor useless, and throw out of employment some persons, it creates new labor far more than the old, and gives much more than it takes away. Twenty years of experience shows that the diminished cost of transport by railroad invariably augments the amount of commerce transacted, and in a much larger ratio than the reduction of cost. It is estimated by Dr. Lardner, that 300,000 horses working daily in stages would be required to perform the passenger traffic alone, which took place in England during the year 1848. It is concluded, also, from reliable returns, that could the whole number of passengers carried by railroad, have been transported by stage, the excess of cost by that method above that by railroad would have been $40,000,000.
- 28. SAFETY OF RAILROAD TRAVELLING. 9. If we know that in a given time the whole distance travelled by passengers was 500,000 miles, and that in such time there occurred one fatal accident, it follows that when a person travels one mile, the chances are 499,999 against one of losing life. If he travel ten miles, the chances are 49,999 against one, or ten times as many of meeting with loss of life; and generally the chances of accident are as the distance travelled. In 1855, the whole number of miles run by passengers in the United States was, in round numbers, 4,750,000,000, while there were killed one hundred and sixteen; or one in every 41,000,000, very nearly. (The ratio in England is one in every 65,000,000.) Now if for each 400,000 miles travelled by stage passengers, (a distance equal to sixteen times round the world,) one passenger was killed, and if the whole railroad mileage could be worked by stages, there would be annually 11,875 lives lost; or one hundred times the number annually lost by railroad. Thus it would be one hundred times safer to travel by railroad than by stage. The danger of steamboat travelling is far greater than by stage.
- 29. PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS. 10. The first step to be taken in starting a railroad enterprise, is the choice of a board of directors (provisional), whose duty is to find all that can be known of the commercial, financial, and agricultural nature of the country to be traversed. To determine as near as possible its ability to build and support a road; and to obtain the necessary legislative enactments. 11. The determination of the increase of traffic which the road may be expected to excite, is a difficult matter. There can be few rules given for proceeding in such an inquiry. It seems very easy to prove by what roads have done, that any project will be profitable. An abstract of a report lately published, tries to prove that a road will pay forty-five and one half per cent. net; the working expenses being assumed at only thirteen and one half per cent. of the gross receipts. The error here lies in assuming the working expenses too low, as few roads in the country have been worked for less than forty per cent.; a more common ratio being fifty one-hundredths of the gross receipts. Not one half of railroads are built for the original estimate. In few cases has sufficient allowance been made for the sacrifice undergone in negotiating the companies’ securities. All general instructions that can be given relating to the determination of prospective profits, are, to keep the estimate of constructing and working expenses high, and that of the assumed traffic low; not so low, however, as to require a too lightly built road.
- 30. MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES OF LOCOMOTION. 12. The superiority which the modern railroad possesses over the common, McAdam, plank, or turnpike-road, consists, first, in the reduction of the resistance to motion, and second, in the application of the locomotive steam-engine. 13. The effect of grades of a given incline upon a railroad is relatively more than upon common roads; for as the absolute resistance on a level decreases, the relative resistance of grades augments: whence to obtain the full benefit of the system, we must reduce much more the grades and curvature upon a railroad, than on a common road. For example, if the resistance to moving one ton upon a level upon a railroad was ten pounds, and upon a common road forty pounds, where a twenty-three feet grade would be admissible upon the former, we might use an incline of ninety-three feet per mile upon the latter. 14. The resistance to the motion of railroad trains increases rapidly with the speed;[1] whence the grades of a passenger road where a high average speed is used, may be steeper than those of a road doing a freight business chiefly. 1. See chapter XIV.
- 31. DETERMINATION OF CHARACTER OF ROAD. 15. Upon a correct idea of what the road ought to be, depends in a great degree its success. The amount of capital expended upon the reduction of the natural surface, depends upon the expected amount of traffic. The traffic remaining the same, the greater the capital expended in reducing grades and curvature, the less will be the working expense; and the less the construction capital, the greater that for maintenance. The limit of expenditure must be such as to render the sum of construction and maintaining capital a minimum. The bad effect of grades upon the cost of maintaining and of working railroads, is not so great as many suppose. Of the whole cost of working, only about forty per cent. can be charged to locomotive power; and of this, not more than sixty-two per cent. is effected by grades.[2] 2. See appendix F. 16. The degree of curvature to be admitted upon any road depends somewhat upon the speeds at which trains are to be run. The larger the radius of curvature, the greater may be the speed; at the same time the elevation of the exterior rail upon curves may be less, and therefore more adapted to freight trains. High rates of speed are considered upon some competing roads necessary; but are, even in such cases, necessary evils. The wear of cars and of engines, of permanent way and of bridges, increase in a rapid ratio with the velocity. The maximum speed for freight trains should never exceed fifteen miles per hour, or for passenger trains from twenty to twenty- five miles per hour.[3] 3. See chapter XVI. 17. The agricultural nature of the country and its commercial position, will determine the nature of the traffic, whether passenger or freight, and also the amount. The amount and nature of the traffic will limit the curvature, and will partially determine the arrangement of grades.
- 32. GAUGE. 18. The question of broad and narrow gauge has led to much discussion, and both plans claim among their advocates some of the best engineers. The narrow gauge (American and English,) is four feet eight and one half inches (from inside to inside of rail). The maximum adopted, is (the Great Western of England) seven feet. The American maximum (New York and Erie, and Ohio and Mississippi) is six feet. There is also in America four feet ten inches, five feet, and five feet six inches. The advantage of the broad gauge for a road doing an extensive business, is the increased stowage room in freight cars, thus rendering admissible shorter trains; by which the locomotive power is more directly applied on curves. More comfortable passenger cars, (the same length of car of course accommodates the same number of passengers). The disadvantages of a wide gauge are, increased expense of cutting, embanking, bridging, and masonry; increased expense of engines, cars, rails, sleepers, and all machinery; more wear and tear upon curves, by reason of greater difference between the lengths of inner and outer rails, and increased atmospheric resistance to fast trains, from increased bulk. 19. The general conclusion arrived at by a commission appointed by the Great Western Railway Company, (England,) consisting of Messrs. Nicholas Wood, J. K. Brunel, and John Hawkshaw, was, that four feet, eight and one half inches was rather narrow, but still enough for a certain class of roads; that two or three inches made no material difference; that seven feet was too wide for any road; that the weight of the broad gauge engine, compared with the small increase of power, was a serious evil; that engines could be run with perfect safety upon the narrow gauge at any speed from thirty to sixty miles per hour, and that no more had been attained upon the broad; that rolling friction was less upon the broad, owing to the increased diameter of wheels, but that friction from curves and atmospheric resistance was greater.
- 33. 20. D. K. Clark, in “Railway Machinery,” p. 300, 301, makes the resistance as deduced from experiments made upon both the four feet, eight and one half inches, and the seven feet gauge, considerably greater upon the former than on the latter; but as the narrow gauge trials were made upon a curved road, with rails in a bad state, in average weather, while those upon the broad were made in good weather, upon a good and straight line, he leaves the gauge question open, and uses the same formula for all widths. 21. Want of increased power, can be an apology for increased gauge, until the capacity of the narrow gauge has been filled. The strongest engines in the world are upon the four feet, eight and one half inch gauge. No engines in America surpass or compare for absolute strength, with those upon the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The most powerful passenger engine ever built for high speeds, is Crampton’s engine “Liverpool,” (London and North-western Railroad, England,) gauge four feet, eight and one half inches.
- 34. GENERAL ESTABLISHMENT OF ROUTE. 22. The straight and level line connecting any two points, is of course the best for the completed road; but this is seldom practicable. Way towns must be accommodated to a certain extent; but the main line should not be lengthened on that account, unless the traffic and capital furnished by such town is not only sufficient to pay for the construction and maintenance of the extra length, but also to carry the entire through traffic over such increased distance. If the town is unable to support such a burden, it may be able to build and maintain a branch. 23. Routes placed upon the immediate bank of a large stream, are generally crossed by a great number of deep gorges, which serve to drain the side lands. 24. Routes placed upon sloping land, when the axis of the road and the natural descent are at right angles to each other, are more subject to slides than when placed upon plateaus or “bottoms.” 25. Lines crossing the dividing ridges of separate waters, rise and fall a great deal; thus rendering necessary a strong motive power to work the road. Such roads are the Western of Massachusetts, passing from the valley of the Connecticut at Springfield, to the Hudson River valley at Greenbush. Also those roads crossing the Alleghanies. And such will be the Pacific road, crossing first the Rocky Mountains to the Great Basin, and second, the Sierra Nevada into the Sacramento valley.
- 35. CHAPTER I. RECONNOISSANCE. 26. The object of the reconnoitre is to find approximately the place for the road, (i. e. within half of a mile,) to find the general form of the country, and to choose that part which with reference to the expected traffic, shall give the best gradients; to determine the elevations of summits upon competing routes; and, in fine, to prepare the way for the survey.
- 36. GENERAL TOPOGRAPHY. 27. The general topography of a country may be ascertained by reference to State maps, where such exist, and when not, by riding over the district. The direction and size of watercourses, will show at once the position of summits. Fig. 1. 28. Water flowing as in fig. 1, indicates a fall from B to E; and also traverse slopes from a a and c c to d d. Fig. 2.
- 37. 29. Fig. 2 shows a broken ridge a a a from which the water flows in both directions; and in general, the sources of streams point towards the higher lands. Fig. 3. 30. If it be required to join the points A and D by railroad, (fig. 3.) it may be better to pass at once from A through B and C, than to go by the streams F E, F′ E′. By the latter route the road would ascend all of the way from A to E; and descend from E′ to D. By the first if it requires steep gradients to rise from A to B, and to fall from C to D, still if the section B C is a plateau, and if the rise between A and B and A and E is the same, by grouping the grades at B and C we may so adapt the motive power, as to take the same train from A to D without breaking. The general arrangement of grades by the line A B C D is then as fig. 4; and A F E E′ F′ D, as in fig. 5. The saving in this case is by length, as the same amount of power is required to overcome a given ascent.
- 38. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 31. Valleys generally rise much faster near their source, than at any point lower down; also the width increases as we approach the debouch. Fig. 6 shows the cross sections of a valley from its source to the mouth. Fig. 6. 32. In the case of parallel valleys running in the same direction, the form will be as in fig 7. Let 1 2, 1 2, etc., represent a datum level, or a horizontal plane passing through the lowest point. The line a b,
- 39. shows the height of the bottom at B; c d that at D, e f that at E, and g h that at C. The broken lines i, k, l, m, n, show the general form of the land. Now by the route m m m m, from A to F, we have the profile m m m m, fig. 8, by n n n n, the profile n n n n, and by o o o, the profile o o o. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 33. In the case of parallel valleys running in opposite directions, as in fig. 9, we have the form there shown; and the profiles corresponding to the several lines are shown in fig. 10. As we should always adopt
- 40. the line giving the least rise and fall, other things being equal, it is plain which line on the plan we must follow. Fig. 10. 34. In passing from A to B, figs. 11 and 12, by the several lines c, d, e, f, we have the profiles shown at c, d, e, f, from which it appears, that the nearer we cross to the heads of streams, the less is the difference of heights. Fig. 11.
- 41. Fig. 12. Fig. 12 (a). 35. If we wish to go from A to B, fig. 12 (a), we should of course take first the straight line; but being obliged to avoid the hill C, on arriving at d, we should not try to recover that line at e, but proceed at once to B. Also as we are obliged to pass through d, we ought to go directly to d and not by the way of c; and the same idea is repeated between A and d; the last line being A b d B. Few rules can be given in the choice of routes. Practice only will enable the engineer to find the best location for a railroad.
- 42. BAROMETRICAL LEVELLING. 36. The relative height of summits, the rate of fall of streams, and absolute elevation, within a few feet, may be easily, rapidly, and cheaply found by the barometer. This also affords an excellent check upon subsequent levelling operations. The results thus obtained depend upon the physical property, that the density of the air decreases as the square of the height. 37. The barometer is a glass tube, partly filled with mercury, having a vacuum in the upper part. By it the exact density of the air at any point is determined. Accompanying are two thermometers; one attached, showing the temperature of the barometer; the other detached, showing the atmospheric temperature. 38. Knowing now the manner of finding the density of the air at any two points, and also the relation between density and height, the operation of levelling by the barometer is very simple. The modus operandi is as follows, (see tables A, B, C, and D):— Let us have the notes. Barom. Attached Therm. Detached Therm. Upper Station, 29.75 28.5 27.9 Lower Station, 26.80 36.8 36.3 Latitude 46° N. We have by table A, against the bar. point, 29.75, 6108.6 also by table A, against the bar. point, 26.80, 5276.6 The difference 832.0 Diff. of attached therm. 36.8°- 28.5° = 8.3° (table B) -12.2 819.8
- 43. Double the sum of detached thermometers multiplied by 1 1000 of 819.8 is 2(27.9 + 36.3) × .8198 = + 105.3 925.1 Correction (see table C) for lat. 46° N. and approximate height 925.1 + 3.1 928.2 Final correction by table D. The barometer at the lower station being 26.80, and the tabular number against 27.56 being 0.22, that for 26.80 will be 0.31, and we have 1000 to .31 as 928.2 to 0.287, or 0.3, which add to 928.2 and we have as the final height 928.5 metres, or 928.5 × 3.28 = 3045.48 feet. The tables above referred to, are those of Mr. Oltman, and are considered as the most convenient and reliable of any published. TABLE A. English Inches. Metres. 14.56 418.5 14.61 440.0 14.65 461.5 14.68 482.9 14.72 504.2 14.76 525.4 14.80 546.6 14.84 567.8 14.88 588.9 14.92 609.9
- 44. 14.96 630.9 15.00 651.8 15.04 672.7 15.08 693.5 15.12 714.3 15.16 735.0 15.20 755.6 15.24 776.2 15.28 796.8 15.31 817.3 15.35 837.8 15.39 858.2 15.43 878.5 15.47 898.8 15.51 919.0 15.55 939.2 15.59 959.3 15.63 979.4 15.67 999.5 15.71 1019.5 15.75 1039.4 15.79 1059.3 15.83 1079.1 15.87 1098.9 15.91 1118.6 15.95 1138.3 15.98 1157.9 16.02 1177.5 16.06 1197.1 16.10 1216.6 16.14 1236.0 16.18 1255.4 16.22 1274.8 16.26 1294.1 16.30 1313.3 16.34 1332.5
- 45. 16.38 1351.7 16.42 1370.8 16.46 1389.9 16.50 1408.9 16.54 1427.9 16.57 1446.8 16.61 1465.7 16.65 1484.7 16.69 1503.4 16.73 1522.2 16.77 1540.8 16.81 1559.5 16.85 1578.2 16.89 1596.8 16.93 1615.3 16.97 1633.8 17.01 1652.2 17.05 1670.6 17.09 1689.0 17.13 1707.3 17.17 1725.6 17.20 1743.8 17.24 1762.1 17.28 1780.3 17.32 1798.4 17.36 1816.5 17.40 1834.5 17.44 1852.5 17.48 1870.4 17.52 1888.3 17.56 1906.2 17.60 1924.0 17.64 1941.8 17.68 1959.6 17.72 1977.3 17.76 1994.9
- 46. 17.79 2012.6 17.83 2030.2 17.87 2047.8 17.91 2065.3 17.95 2082.8 17.99 2100.2 18.03 2117.6 18.07 2135.0 18.11 2152.3 18.15 2169.6 18.19 2186.9 18.23 2204.1 18.27 2221.3 18.31 2238.4 18.35 2255.5 18.39 2272.6 18.42 2289.6 18.46 2306.6 18.50 2323.6 18.54 2340.5 18.58 2357.4 18.62 2374.2 18.66 2391.1 18.70 2407.9 18.74 2424.6 18.78 2441.3 18.82 2458.0 18.86 2474.6 18.90 2491.3 18.94 2507.9 18.98 2524.3 19.02 2540.8 19.05 2557.3 19.09 2573.7 19.13 2590.2 19.17 2506.6
- 47. 19.21 2622.9 19.25 2639.2 19.29 2655.4 19.33 2671.6 19.37 2687.9 19.41 2704.1 19.45 2720.2 19.49 2736.3 19.53 2752.3 19.57 2768.3 19.61 2784.4 19.65 2800.4 19.68 2816.3 19.72 2832.2 19.76 2848.1 19.80 2864.0 19.84 2879.8 19.88 2895.6 19.92 2911.3 19.96 2927.0 20.00 2942.7 20.04 2958.4 20.08 2974.0 20.12 2989.6 20.16 3005.2 20.20 3020.7 20.24 3036.2 20.28 3051.7 20.31 3067.2 20.35 3082.6 20.39 3097.9 20.43 3113.3 20.47 3128.6 20.51 3143.9 20.55 3159.2 20.59 3174.4
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