Psychology of Adjustment
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The document discusses the concept of adjustment in modern life. It describes adjustment as referring to the psychological processes through which people manage or cope with the demands of everyday life. The document outlines several topics related to adjustment, including personality, stress, coping strategies, interpersonal relationships, psychological health, and psychological disorders. Overall, the document provides an overview of the broad scope of issues studied within the concept of adjustment in the 21st century.
Psychology of Adjustment
- 1. Psychology Applied to Modern Life Adjustment in the 21st Century Dr. Mehran Rostamzadeh INTI International University Nilai ,2015
- 2. How miserable is the modern life
- 9. The Paradox of Progress • Describe three examples of the paradox of progress. • We are the children of technology. Example: 1. We take for granted such impressive feats as transporting 300 people over 1500 miles in a matter of hours. 2. Modern Western society has made extraordinary strides (developments) in transportation, energy, communication, agriculture, and medicine. • Yet despite our technological advances, social problems and personal difficulties seem more prevalent and more prominent (noticeable) than ever before. • This paradox is evident in many aspects of contemporary life, as seen in the following examples.
- 10. Point • Modern technology has provided us with countless time-saving devices. Automobiles, telephones, vacuum cleaners, dishwashers, photocopiers, and personal computers all save time. • Today, cell phones with headsets allow people to talk to friends or colleagues while battling rush hour traffic. • In a matter of seconds, a personal computer can perform calculations that would take months if done by hand. Counterpoint Nonetheless, most of us complain about not having enough time. Our schedules overflow with appointments, commitments, and plans. Thus, Peter Whybrow (2005) comments, “Citizens find themselves tethered to their jobs around the clock by the same tools— cell phones, pagers, wireless email—that were heralded first as instruments of liberation”. To deal with this time crunch, more and more people are cutting back on their sleep as they attempt to juggle work, family, and household responsibilities. Sleep experts assert that American society suffers from an epidemic of sleep deprivation (Walsh, Dement, & Dinges, 2011). as well as their mental and physical health (Banks & Dinges, 2011).
- 11. Point The range of life choices available to people in modern societies has increased Example, Barry Schwartz (2004) describes how a simple visit to a local supermarket can require a consumer to choose from 285 varieties of cookies, 61 suntan lotions, 150 lipsticks, and 175 salad dressings. Today, people tend to have unprecedented opportunities to make choices about how they will be educated , how and where they will work , how their intimate relationships will unfold (people have increased freedom to delay marriage, cohabit, not have children, and so forth), and even how they will look (advances in plastic surgery have made personal appearance a matter of choice). Counterpoint recent research suggests that an overabundance of choices has unexpected costs. Studies suggest that when people have too many choices, they experience “choice overload” and struggle with decisions (White & Hoffrage, 2009). Decision dilemmas can deplete mental resources and undermine self-control (Vohs et al., 2008). Furthermore, Schwartz (2004) argues that when decisions become more complex, errors are more likely. Ultimately, he argues, the malaise associated with choice overload undermines individuals’ happiness and contributes to depression. The incidence of depressive disorders has increased over the last 50 years (Hidaka, 2012). Average anxiety levels have also gone up substantially in recent decades (Twenge, 2000, 2011).
- 12. The basic challenge of modern life • search for meaning, • a sense of direction, • and a personal philosophy (Dolby, 2005; Emmons, 2003; Sagiv, Roccas, & Hazan, 2004). • This search involves struggling with such problems as forming a solid sense of identity, arriving at a coherent set of values, and developing a clear vision of a future that realistically promises fulfillment. Centuries ago, problems of this kind were probably much simpler but today it appears that many of us are foundering in a sea of confusion.
- 13. Learning Outcome ● Describe the two key facets of psychology. ● Explain the concept of adjustment. ● Identify the various factors that are surprisingly unrelated to happiness. ● Describe the factors that are somewhat or very important to happiness. ● Summarize conclusions about the determinants of happiness.
- 14. What Is Psychology? • Psychology is • the science that studies behavior and the physiological and mental processes that underlie it, • and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems. 1. Psychology as a science : Psychology is an area of scientific study, much like biology or physics. Whereas biology focuses on life processes and physics focuses on matter and energy, psychology focuses on behavior and related mental and physiological processes.
- 15. What Is Psychology? • Behavior is any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. • Psychology does not confine itself to the study of human behavior. • Many psychologists believe that the principles of behavior are much the same for all animals, including humans. • As a result, these psychologists often prefer to study animals—mainly because they can exert more control over the animals’ behavior.
- 16. What Is Psychology? • Psychology is also interested in the mental processes—the thoughts, feelings, and wishes— that accompany behavior. • Mental processes are more difficult to study than behavior because they are private and not directly observable. • However, they exert critical influence over human behavior, so psychologists have strived to improve their ability to “look inside the mind.”
- 17. • Finally, psychology includes the study of the physiological processes that underlie behavior. • Thus, some psychologists try to figure out how bodily processes such as neural impulses, hormonal secretions, and genetic coding regulate behavior. • Practically speaking, all this means that psychologists study a great variety of phenomena. • Psychologists are interested in maze running in rats, salivation in dogs, and brain functioning in cats, as well as visual perception in humans, play in children, and social interaction in adults.
- 18. What Is Psychology? 2. Psychology as a profession: psychology is not all pure science. It has a highly practical side, represented by the many psychologists who provide a variety of professional services to the public. Example: Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.
- 19. What Is Adjustment? The concept of adjustment was originally borrowed from biology. It was modeled after the biological term adaptation, which refers to efforts by a species to adjust to changes in its environment. Example: a person has to adjust to changes in circumstances such as anew job, a financial setback, or the loss of a loved one. Adjustment refers to the psychological processes through which people manage or cope with the demands and challenges of everyday life.
- 20. What Is Adjustment? The demands of daily life are diverse, so in studying the process of adjustment we will encounter a broad variety of topics. Firstly, we discuss general issues, such as how personality affects people’s patterns of adjustment, how individuals are affected by stress, and how they use coping strategies to deal with stress.
- 21. What Is Adjustment? From there we move onto examine adjustment in an interpersonal context. The topics will be prejudice, persuasion, social conflict, behavior in groups, friendship, love, marriage, divorce, gender roles, career development, and sexuality. Finally, we discuss how the process of adjustment influences a person’s psychological health, look at how psychological disorders can be treated, and delve into the newly developing domain of positive psychology. As you can see, the study of adjustment enters into nearly every corner of people’s lives, and we’ll be discussing a diverse array of issues.
- 22. The roots of happiness: an empirical analysis What exactly makes a person happy? Commonsense hypotheses about the roots of happiness abound. For example, you have no doubt heard that money cannot buy happiness. But do you believe it? A television commercial says, “If you’ve got your health, you’ve got just about everything.” Is health indeed the key? What if you’re healthy but poor, unemployed, and lonely? We often hear about the joys of parenthood, the joys of youth, and the joys of the simple, rural life. Are these the factors that promote happiness? In recent years, Quite a number of survey studies have been conducted to explore the determinants of subjective wellbeing—individuals’ personal assessments of their overall happiness or life satisfaction. As you will see, many commonsense notions about happiness appear to be inaccurate.
- 23. • The first of these ideas is the apparently widespread assumption that most people are relatively unhappy. • Writers, social scientists, and the general public seem to believe that people around the world are predominantly dissatisfied, yet empirical surveys consistently find that the vast majority of respondents—even those who are poor or disabled—characterize themselves as fairly happy (Diener & Diener, 1996). • When people are asked to rate their happiness, only a small minority place themselves below the neutral point on the various scales used (see Figure 1.6). • When the average subjective well-being of entire nations is computed, based on almost 1000 surveys, the means cluster toward the positive end of the scale, as shown in Figure 1.7 (Tov & Diener, 2007). • That’s not to say that everyone is equally happy. • Researchers have found substantial and thought-provoking disparities among people in subjective well-being.
- 25. What Isn’t Very Important? Quite a number of factors that one might expect to be influential appear to bear little or no relationship to general happiness. A. Money. Most people think that if they had more money, they would be happier. There is a positive correlation between income and feelings of happiness, but the association is surprisingly weak (Diener & Seligman, 2004).
- 26. Obviously, being poor can contribute to unhappiness. • Yet it seems once people ascend above a certain level of income, additional wealth does not foster greater happiness. • One recent study in the United States estimated that once people exceed an income of around $75,000, little relation is seen between wealth and subjective well-being (Kahneman & Deaton, 2010).
- 27. Why isn’t money a better predictor of happiness? 1. Recent research (Johnson & Krueger, 2006) suggests that the correlation between actual wealth and people’s subjective perceptions of whether they have enough money to meet their needs is surprisingly modest (around .30). 2. in this era of voracious consumption, rising income contributes to escalating material desires (Kasser et al., 2004). People who have lots of nice things tend to want even more. When they cannot afford more, their frustration is likely to undermine their wellbeing (Norris & Larsen, 2011; Solberg et al., 2002). Interestingly, there is some evidence that people who place an especially strong emphasis on the pursuit of wealth and materialistic goals tend to be somewhat less happy than others (Van Boven, 2005). Perhaps they are so focused on financial success that they derive less satisfaction from other aspects of their lives (Nickerson et al, 2003).
- 28. B. Age. Age has generally been found to be unrelated to global estimates of happiness (Lykken, 1999; Myers & Diener, 1997). For example, a study of over 7000 adults concluded that levels of happiness did not vary with age(Cooper et al., 2011). That said, some recent studies have found modest-sized links between age and subjective wellbeing. For instance, a recent Gallup telephone poll of over 340,000 people uncovered a U-shaped relationship between age and happiness (Stone et al., 2010). That is, reports of happiness were relatively high for people in their 20s and 30s, dipped a bit when people were in their 40s and 50s, and climbed steadily for people in their 60s and 70s. Thus, conclusions about the relationship between age and happiness may require some revision, although more research is needed.
- 29. C. Gender. Women are treated for depressive disorders about twice as often as men (Nolen- Hoeksema, 2002), so one might expect that women are less happy on the average. And Lykken (1999) notes that “men still tend to have better jobs than women do, and get higher pay for the same jobs . . . but they report wellbeing levels as high as those of men”(p. 181). Thus, surprisingly, research suggests that gender accounts for less than 1% of the variation in people’s subjective well-being (Myers, 1992).
- 30. D. Parenthood. Children can be a tremendous source of joy and fulfillment, but they can also be a tremendous source of headaches and hassles. Compared to childless couples, parents worry more and experience more marital problems. Apparently, the good and bad aspects of parenthood balance each other out, because the evidence indicates that people who have children are neither more nor less happy than people without children (Argyle, 2001).
- 31. E. Intelligence. Intelligence is a highly valued trait in modern society, but researchers have not found an association between IQ scores and happiness (Diener, Kesebir, & Tov, 2009). Educational attainment also appears to be unrelated to life satisfaction (Ross & Van Willigen, 1997). F. Physical attractiveness. Good-looking people enjoy a variety of advantages in comparison to unattractive people. Given that physical attractiveness is an important resource in Western society, we might expect attractive people to be happier than others, but the available data indicate that the correlation between attractiveness and happiness is negligible (Diener, Wolsic, & Fujita, 1995).
- 32. What Is Somewhat Important? • Research has identified four facets of life that appear to have a moderate impact on subjective well-being: • health, • social activity, • religious belief, • and culture. • Health. Good physical health would seem to be an essential requirement for happiness, but people adapt to health problems.
- 33. • Research reveals that individuals who develop serious disabling health conditions aren’t as unhappy as one might guess (Riis et al., 2005). • Good health may not, by itself, produce happiness, because people tend to take good health for granted. • Such considerations may help explain why researchers find only a moderate positive correlation (average = .32) between health status and subjective well-being (Argyle, 1999). • While health may promote happiness to a moderate degree, happiness may also foster better health, as • research has found a positive correlation between happiness and longevity (Veenhoven, 2008).
- 34. • Social activity. Humans are social animals, and people’s interpersonal relations do appear to contribute to their happiness. • People who are satisfied with their friendship networks and who are socially active report above-average levels of happiness (Diener & Seligman, 2004). • And people who score as exceptionally happy tend to report greater satisfaction with their social relations than others (Diener & Seligman, 2002). • One recent study that periodically recorded participants’ daily conversations found; that people who had more deep, substantive conversations were happier than those who mostly engaged in small talk (Mehl et al., 2010).
- 35. • Religion. The link between religiosity and subjective wellbeing is modest, but a number of surveys suggest that people with heartfelt religious convictions are more likely to be happy than people who characterize themselves as nonreligious (Myers, 2008). • The association between religion and happiness appears to be stronger in societies where circumstances are difficult and stressful, and it is weaker in more affluent societies where circumstances are less threatening (Diener, Tay, & Myers, 2011).
- 36. • Culture. Surveys suggest that there are some moderate differences among nations in mean levels of subjective wellbeing. • These differences correlate with economic development, as the nations with the happiest people tend to be affluent and those with the least happy people tend to be among the poorest (Diener, Kesebir, & Tov, 2009). • Although wealth is a weak predictor of subjective well- being within cultures, • comparisons between cultures tend to yield rather strong correlations between nations’ wealth and their people’s average happiness (Tov & Diener, 2007). How do theorists explain this paradox?
- 37. • Specifically, they point out that nations’ economic development correlates with greater recognition of human rights, greater income equality, greater gender equality, and more democratic governance (Tov & Diener, 2007). • So, it may not be affluence per se that is the driving force behind cultural disparities in subjective well- being. • Consistent with this analysis, a recent study found that income inequality is associated with reduced happiness (Oishi, Kesebir, & Diener, 2011).
- 38. What Is Very Important? • The list of factors that turn out to be very important ingredients of happiness is surprisingly short. Only a few variables are strongly related to overall happiness. • Love, marriage, and relationship satisfaction. Romantic relationships can be stressful, but people consistently rate being in love as one of the most critical ingredients of happiness (Myers, 1999). • Furthermore, although people complain a lot about their marriages, the evidence indicates that marital status is a key correlate of happiness.
- 39. What Is Very Important? • Among both men and women, married people are happier than people who are single or divorced (Myers & Diener, 1995). • And among married people, marital satisfaction predicts personal well-being (Proulx, Helms, & Buehler, 2007). • In other words, one does not have to be married to be happy. Relationship satisfaction probably has the same association with happiness in cohabiting heterosexual couples and gay couples. • In support of this line of thinking, a recent study found that both married and cohabiting people were happier than those who remained single (Musick & Bumpass, 2012).
- 40. • Work. Given the way people often complain about their jobs, we might not expect work to be a key source of happiness, but it is. • Although less critical than relationship satisfaction, job satisfaction is strongly associated with general happiness (Judge & Klinger, 2008). • Studies also show that unemployment has strong negative effects on subjective well-being (Lucas et al., 2004). • It is difficult to sort out whether job satisfaction causes happiness or vice versa, but evidence suggests that causation flows both ways.
- 41. • Genetics and personality. The best predictor of individuals’ future happiness is their past happiness (Lucas & Diener, 2008). • Some people seem destined to be happy and others unhappy, regardless of their triumphs or setbacks. • The limited influence of life events was highlighted in a fascinating study that found only modest differences in overall happiness between recent lottery winners and recent accident victims who became quadriplegics (Brickman, Coates, & Janoff-Bulman, 1978). • Investigators were amazed that extremely fortuitous and horrible events like these didn’t have a dramatic impact on happiness. • Actually, several lines of evidence suggest that happiness does not depend on external circumstances— • buying a nice house, • getting promoted—as much as on internal factors, • such as one’s outlook on life (Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005).
- 42. • With this finding in mind, researchers have investigated whether a hereditary basis might exist for variations in happiness. • These studies suggest that people’s genetic predispositions account for a substantial portion of the variance in happiness, perhaps as much as 50% (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005).
- 43. • How can one’s genes influence one’s happiness? • Presumably, by shaping one’s temperament and personality, which are known to be highly heritable. • Hence, researchers have begun to look for links between personality and subjective well-being, and they have found some relatively strong correlations (Steel, Schmidt, & Schultz, 2008). • For example, extraversion is one of the better predictors of happiness. People who are outgoing, upbeat, and sociable tend to be happier than others.
- 44. • Another potent predictor is neuroticism—the tendency to be anxious, hostile, insecure, and self-conscious. • Those who score high in neuroticism tend to be less happy than others. • Such personality traits may influence happiness by shaping how people recall and evaluate their personal experiences (Zhang & Howell, 2011). • Extraverts tend to look at their lives through rose- tinted glasses, leaning toward positive evaluations with few regrets. • Those who are neurotic tend to evaluate their experiences with more of a negative slant.
- 45. Conclusions • We must be cautious in drawing inferences about the causes of happiness, because most of the available data are correlational. • Nonetheless, the empirical evidence suggests that many popular beliefs about the sources of happiness are unfounded. • The data also demonstrate that happiness is shaped by a complex constellation of variables. Despite this complexity, however, a number of worthwhile insights about human adjustment can be gleaned from research on the correlates of subjective well-being. • First, research on happiness demonstrates that the determinants of subjective well-being are precisely that: subjective. • Objective realities are not as important as subjective feelings. In other words, your health, your wealth, your job, and your
- 46. Improving academic performance Class/ Group activity: Providing the slides and present it.