Quantitative and qualitative analysis of data
- 5. • PHENOMENOLOGY: IMPOSSIBILITY OF GAINING DIRECT ACCESS TO RESEARCH • PARTICIPANTS’ LIFE WORLDS • AIM IS TO EXPLORE THE PARTICIPANT’S EXPERIENCE/PERCEPTION OF THE WORLD FROM HIS OR HER PERSPECTIVE;
- 6. • INTERPRETATION: IMPLICATION OF THE RESEARCHER’S OWN VIEW OF THE WORLD • THE ATTEMPT TO REPORT ON THE PARTICIPANT’S EXPERIENCE WILL INEVITABLY BE DISTORTED (BIASED) BY THE PHENOMENOLOGY OF THE RESEARCHER
- 7. METHODOLOGY • DATA COLLECTION • PURPOSIVE HOMOGENOUS SAMPLING: RECRUITING PARTICIPANTS WHO HAVE EXPERIENCED THE PHENOMENON UNDER INVESTIGATION, E.G. SUFFERING FROM POST TRAUMATIC STRESS OR HAVING BEEN BULLIED (NOT RANDOM SAMPLING …) • FLEXIBLE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE: SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS. CONSTRUCTING AN INTERVIEW SCHEDULE.
- 8. • ANALYSIS • IDENTIFICATION OF THEMES IN THE FIRST CASE • SEARCH FOR CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THEMES (‘CLUSTERS’) • MOVE ACROSS THE CASE WITH THE AIM TO ESTABLISH SUBORDINATE THEMES • INTEGRATION OF CASES: IDENTIFICATION OF ‘MASTER THEMES’
- 9. CODING
- 10. CODING
- 14. GROUNDED THEORY •INDUCTIVE PROCESS OF GENERATING THEORY FROM DATA •NO PRIOR ASSUMPTIONS •RESEARCHER DETECT PATTERNS IN THEIR OBSERVATION AND THEN CREATE WORKING HYPOTHESIS THAT LEAD THE PROGRESSION OF INQUIRY
- 17. WHAT IS “DISCOURSE”? • DISCOURSE IS: • LANGUAGE ABOVE THE SENTENCE OR ABOVE THE CLAUSE • A CONTINUOUS STRETCH OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE LARGER THAN A SENTENCE, OFTEN CONSTITUTING A COHERENT UNIT • A STRETCH OF LANGUAGE PERCEIVED TO BE MEANINGFUL UNIFIED, AND PURPOSIVE; LANGUAGE IN USE • (VIEWED) AS SOCIAL PRACTICE DETERMINED BY SOCIAL STRUCTURES
- 18. RECENT APPROACH TO DA • DISCOURSE IS NO LONGER STUDIES FOR ITS OWN SAKE. DISCOURSE IS VIEWED AS A SOCIAL PRACTICE. • M. FOUCAULT, N. FAIRCLOUGH • FOUCAULDIAN DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- 19. •DISCOURSE IS CHARACTERISED AS: PRODUCED/CONSUMED/MONITO RED BY SOCIAL ACTORS (PRODUCERS/RECEIVERS OF SOCIAL PRACTICES); SHAPED BY SOCIAL STRUCTURES;
- 20. AUSTIN’S SPEECH ACT THEORY • ARGUES THAT TRUTH CONDITIONS ARE NOT CENTRAL TO LANGUAGE UNDERSTANDING. UTTERANCES DO NOT ONLY SAY THINGS, THEY DO THINGS.
- 21. WITH SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS; SOCIALLY VALUED AND REGULATED (PRODUCTION, RECEPTION AND CIRCULATION).
- 23. HOW TO DO A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- 24. A. THINGS TO LOOK FOR WHAT TO NOTICE WHEN DOING A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- 25. 1. HIDDEN RELATIONS OF POWER PRESENT IN THE ARTICLES 2. WHO IS EXERCISING THE POWER, THAT IS, WHOSE DISCOURSES ARE BEING PRESENTED.
- 26. 3. WHO ARE CONSULTED FOR THE ARTICLE (WHO ARE THE SPOKESPEOPLE). 4. WHO IS THE ‘IDEAL SUBJECT’ OR AUDIENCE FOR THE ARTICLE. 5. WHAT IS LEFT UNSPECIFIED OR UNSAID.
- 27. B. ASK THESE QUESTIONS: WHEN DOING A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- 28. 1. WOULD ALTERNATIVE WORDING OF THE SAME INFORMATION HAVE RESULTED IN A DIFFERENT DISCOURSE BEING PRIVILEGED? 2. HOW ARE THE EVENTS PRESENTED? 3. HOW ARE PEOPLE IN THE ARTICLE CHARACTERISED?
- 29. 4. WHAT MESSAGE DOES THE AUTHOR INTEND YOU TO GET FROM THE ARTICLE? 5. WHY WAS THIS PARTICULAR PICTURE CHOSEN TO ACCOMPANY THE ARTICLE (IF APPLICABLE)? 6. WHAT REPETITION EXISTS (A) WITHIN THE ARTICLE AND (B) BETWEEN DIFFERENT ARTICLES ON THE SAME TOPIC?
- 30. 7. WHAT PROFESSIONAL MEDIA PRACTICES ASSIST WITH THE PRESENTATION OF DOMINANT DISCOURSES (EG EDITORIAL CONSTRAINTS, JOURNALISTIC STANDARDS ETC)?
- 32. STEP-BY-STEP APPROACH TO NARRATIVE ANALYSIS • DECEPTIVELY SIMPLE SUMMARY OF AN APPROACH BORROWED FROM DOUGLAS EZZY’S 2002 BOOK, QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: • 1. COMPILE THE STORIES 2. ANALYZE THE CONTENT, THE DISCOURSE, AND THE CONTEXT OF EACH STORY, FOCUSING ON INSIGHTS AND UNDERSTANDINGS 3. COMPARE AND CONTRAST STORIES FOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN CONTENT, STYLE, AND INTERPRETATION
- 33. • 4. CONSIDER THE EFFECTS OF BACKGROUND VARIABLES (IE:GENDER, AGE) 5. IDENTIFY STORIES OR CONTENT THAT ILLUSTRATE YOUR THEMES, INSIGHTS, AND UNDERSTANDINGS.
- 34. Educational Research 2e: Creswell STEPS IN NARRATIVE RESEARCH Identify a phenomenon that addresses an educational problem Purposefully select an individual to learn about the phenomenon Write a story about the participant’s personal and social experiences Validate the accuracy of the report Collaborate with participant storyteller in all phases of research Restory or retell The individual’s storyCollect stories from the individual that Reflect personal experience Have them Tell story Collect other Field texts Build in past, Present, future Build in place or setting Describe their story Analyze story for themes
- 36. STAGES
- 37. ORGANIZING DATA • FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION • SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
- 38. VISUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA • BAR GRAPH (COLUMN CHART, HISTOGRAM): BEST WITH FEWER CATEGORIES • PIE CHART: GOOD FOR DISPLAYING PERCENTAGES; EASILY UNDERSTOOD BY GENERAL AUDIENCE • LINE GRAPH: GOOD FOR NUMERICAL VARIABLES WITH MANY VALUES OR
- 39. data Are our inferences valid?…Best we can do is to calculate probability about inferences
- 40. Inferential Statistics When making comparisons btw 2 sample means there are 2 possibilities Null hypothesis is true Null hypothesis is false Not reject the Null Hypothesis Reject the Null hypothesis
- 41. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY MEAN MEDIAN MODE
- 42. ARITHMETIC MEAN •“THE SUM OF THE TOTAL OF THE OBSERVATIONS DIVIDED BY THE NUMBER OF ITEMS OBSERVED”
- 43. MEDIAN •“MEDIAN IS THE MIDDLE ITEM OF A SERIES IF ALL THE ITEMS ARE PLACED IN AN ARRAYED ORDER”
- 44. MODE •THE SIZE OF THE VARIABLE AT WHICH THE FREQUENCY IS MOST CONCENTRATED OR OCCURS MOST FREQUENTLY”
- 46. MEASURES OF VARIATION • SAMPLE RANGE • SAMPLE VARIANCE • SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION • SAMPLE INTERQUARTILE RANGE
- 47. SAMPLE RANGE R = LARGEST OBS. - SMALLEST OBS. or, equivalently R = xmax - xmin
- 48. SAMPLE VARIANCE s x x n i i n 2 2 1 1
- 49. SAMPLE STANDARD DEVIATION s s x x n i i n 2 2 1 1
- 50. SAMPLE INTERQUARTILE RANGE IQR = THIRD QUARTILE - FIRST QUARTILE or, equivalently IQR = Q3 - Q1
- 51. STATISTICAL TESTS • PARAMETRIC AND NON PARAMETRIC TESTS