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EDUCATION AND SKILLS
This work is published under the auspices
of the OECD Centre for Co-operation
with Non-Members (CCNM). The Centre
promotes and co-ordinates the OECD’s
policy dialogue and co-operation with
economies outside of the OECD area.
Reviews
of
National
Policies
for
Education
LITHUANIA
Reviews of National Policies for Education
LITHUANIA
Reform of education, training and human resource development is an integral part
of the transition to a democratic society and market economy. Lithuania has made
progress in all these areas since reform began in 1990. The challenge for the
Ministry of Education and Science has been to promote and support changes that
meet the needs of the new economy and society as well as the interests of all
young people and adults, in the face of a shortage of financial and human
resources.
This book first gives a brief overview of regional issues and a history of education
in Lithuania and describes the development of education in the country since the
political changes. It then presents an analysis of the entire education system and
identifies key directions for the reinforcement of the reforms in light of the
challenges encountered by officials, communities, enterprises, educators, parents
and students under very dynamic conditions. It concludes with a set of key
recommendations of goals of education, learning effectiveness, outcomes and the
curriculum, management and governance for flexibility, responsiveness and
change and, resources and financing. This review will be very useful to both
Lithuanian professionals and their international counterparts.
This review is part of the OECD’s ongoing co-operation with non-Member
economies around the world.
EDUCATION AND SKILLS
«Reviews of National Policies
for Education
LITHUANIA
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Reviews of National
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Lithuania
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Publié en français sous le titre :
Examens des politiques nationales d’éducation
Lituanie
© OECD 2002
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3
© OECD 2002
Foreword
The transition of Lithuania towards a pluralistic democracy and a market
economy has been marked by economic, social and political changes of extraordi-
nary breadth and depth. The talents, skills and knowledge base of the Lithuanian
population are crucial in this process; hence the ambitious scale and urgency of
the reforms being advanced for education. Education has been a central priority of
the Baltic Republics since regaining independence. As a small country with limited
natural resources, Lithuania sees its human capital as an important asset for entry
into the European Union and to compete in the global economy.
This report offers a comprehensive picture of the significant progress in educa-
tion reform since Lithuania re-established independence. Changes have occurred in
the contents of instruction (a new structure and content of curricula), the system of
education, institutions (new types of education institutions, a redesigned schooling
network) and education provision including new principles of the management and
financing of the education system. In 1992, Lithuania produced a General Concept of
Education, which set out a programme for the reform of education. Although the
principal lines of this Concept have been followed, nevertheless, the OECD exam-
iners concurred with the conclusions of the Lithuanian Government that, despite
the progress, the reforms have not always resulted from a comprehensive and
publicly supported view on the architecture of the Lithuanian education system
and its functioning. Problems have been addressed separately without the neces-
sary co-ordination from the perspective of the whole education system. A renewed
emphasis on the updated General Concept supported by the President of Lithuania
provides an overall framework for reform and set forth concrete steps for addressing
remaining policy issues at every level of the education system. The OECD report
provides an overview of the impressive forward thinking leading to these policy
statements. and supports these national strategies and offers advice on issues of
access, equity, quality, the introduction of new technologies and decentralisation of
management and financing responsibilities.
Against the background of material prepared by the Lithuanian authorities
and information supplied in meetings in the course of site visits, the examiners’
report provides an overview education in the Baltic region and covers the entire
system of Lithuanian education from pre-school through tertiary education and

Reviews of National Policies for Education – Lithuania
4
© OECD 2002
lifelong learning for all. The report gives an analysis of these sectors in light of the
economic, social and political context of Lithuania. The final chapter on strategic
development brings together in the form of a synthesis those specific recommen-
dations and sets out how policies can and should be addressed system-wide,
linked to priority issues of access and equity, quality, efficiency and governance.
This review of education policy was undertaken within the framework of the
Baltic Regional Programme of the OECD Centre for Co-operation with Non-Members
(CCNM). The conclusions and recommendations were discussed at a special session
of the Education Committee, hosted by Finland on 26 and 27 June 2000 in Helsinki
and attended by all three Baltic Ministers of Education. This report incorporates key
points raised in the course of that discussion.
Members of the review team were: Aims McGuinness (United States), Gen-
eral Rapporteur, Johanna Crighton (The Netherlands), Boris Galabov (Bulgaria),
Constantine Tsolakidis (Greece), Maree Bentley (Australia), Jerzy Wisniewski
(Poland), Peter Darvas (The World Bank), Henrik Faudel (European Training
Foundation) and Ian Whitman (OECD Secretariat).
This volume is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of
the OECD.
Eric Burgeat
Director of the OECD
Centre for Co-operation
with Non-Members

5
© OECD 2002
Table of Contents
Overview of Education Policy Reviews of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania......................... 9
Background of the reviews ................................................................................................. 9
Similarities and differences among Baltic States............................................................ 11
Phases of reform .................................................................................................................. 13
Conceptual foundation for reform..................................................................................... 15
Common themes ................................................................................................................. 16
Conclusion............................................................................................................................ 25
Chapter 1. Context ...................................................................................................................... 27
Geographic and historical context..................................................................................... 27
Demography......................................................................................................................... 29
Ethnic and language distribution...................................................................................... 31
Governmental structure...................................................................................................... 32
Economy............................................................................................................................... 33
Chapter 2. Lithuanian Education System: an Overview ....................................................... 39
Reform process .................................................................................................................... 39
Structure of Lithuanian education system ....................................................................... 41
Enrolments ........................................................................................................................... 46
Distribution of responsibilities.......................................................................................... 50
Financing of the education system ................................................................................... 52
Chapter 3. Pre-School, Compulsory and General Education.............................................. 59
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 59
A – Schools, Governance and Finance........................................................................... 59
Types and characteristics of schools............................................................................. 59
B – Curriculum, Standards and Assessment in General Education.......................... 68
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 68
The content of learning ............................................................................................... 70
The delivered curriculum............................................................................................ 76
Recommendations regarding curriculum.................................................................. 83
Recommendations related to textbooks .................................................................. 88
Recommendations related to computers in schools............................................... 95
Recommendations related to teaching for reform................................................... 101
The attained curriculum: what students learn.......................................................... 103

6
© OECD 2002
Recommendations related to assessment............................................................... 112
Recommendation on outcomes of learning ............................................................. 115
C – Financing and Management of Compulsory and General Education ............... 116
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 116
Levels of responsibility for financing and financial flows....................................... 117
Issues related to finance and management............................................................. 121
Recommendations on financing and management................................................. 127
Summary of recommendations on compulsory and general education............... 128
Chapter 4. Vocational Education and Training..................................................................... 137
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 137
Policy structure and governance....................................................................................... 138
Providers and programmes in vocational education and training................................ 139
Financing of vocational education and training.............................................................. 149
Status of reform and policy issues.................................................................................... 150
Teacher training and retraining......................................................................................... 159
Recommendations on vocational education and training............................................. 160
Chapter 5. Adult Education....................................................................................................... 165
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 165
Governance and legislation............................................................................................... 166
Literacy................................................................................................................................. 170
Adult Continuing Vocational Education........................................................................... 170
Recommendations on adult education............................................................................ 173
Chapter 6. Social Inclusion: Access, Equity and Special Needs........................................ 177
A – Access, Equity and Social Issues.............................................................................. 177
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 177
Access to early childhood education................................................................................ 178
Drop-out and non-attendance .......................................................................................... 179
Poverty.................................................................................................................................. 180
Roma (Gypsy) children....................................................................................................... 182
Street children..................................................................................................................... 183
Youth schools and ward homes......................................................................................... 185
Ward homes......................................................................................................................... 186
Recommendations related to access, equity and social issues.................................... 187
B – Special Needs Provision in Lithuania...................................................................... 188
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 188
Legal framework.................................................................................................................. 188
Placement and provision ................................................................................................... 190
Issues in special needs education.................................................................................... 193
Recommendations related to special needs .................................................................. 195
Summary of recommendations on social inclusion........................................................ 196

Table of Contents
7
© OECD 2002
Chapter 7. The System of Higher Education.......................................................................... 201
History................................................................................................................................... 201
Status of reform and remaining challenges...................................................................... 204
Legislative framework and system structure ................................................................... 206
Higher education institutions ............................................................................................ 210
Academic staff in higher education establishments ....................................................... 218
Students in higher education establishments................................................................. 220
Financing of higher education ........................................................................................... 223
Quality assessment and accountability............................................................................ 234
Distance Learning in higher education............................................................................. 238
Governance and management of higher education establishments............................ 243
State co-ordination, long-term planning and state leadership structures................... 246
Research in higher education institutions........................................................................ 247
Summary of recommendations on higher education...................................................... 254
Chapter 8. Future Challenges and Sustaining Reform......................................................... 265
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 265
Ensuring quality................................................................................................................... 266
Ensuring accessibility ......................................................................................................... 267
Harmonisation of the educational system ....................................................................... 268
Renovation of the infrastructure of the education network ........................................... 270
Reforming financing and strengthening school and institutional management.......... 271
Sustaining the momentum of education reform.............................................................. 272
Selected Bibliography............................................................................................................... 275

9
© OECD 2002
Overview of Education Policy Reviews
of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
Background of the reviews
This review is one of three on education policy in the Baltic States since they
regained independence in 1991.
Methodology
The reviews were undertaken by three separate international teams com-
posed of experts and high ranking officials drawn from OECD Member countries
and Central and Eastern European States. The same rapporteur, however, partici-
pated in each review. Each country provided extensive background data and infor-
mation. To complement the information gathered for these reports and to avoid
duplication, the OECD reviews drew upon reports of the World Bank, the United
Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
the European Training Foundation (ETF) and other European Union (EU) agencies
and the Soros Foundation as well as other non-governmental organisations. A 1999
OECD review of economic policy in the Baltic States also provided important
background information for the education policy reviews.1
Importance of the reviews
Education has been a central priority of each of the Baltic States since they
regained independence. It is critical to each country’s transition from a half-
century of Soviet occupation and pervasive impact of Soviet policy, ideology and
command economy. As small countries with limited natural resources, the Baltic
States recognise that human capital is among their most important assets to com-
pete in the global economy. All three Baltic States understand that progressive
education and training policies are essential prerequisites to accession to the
European Union.
The OECD reviews are in-depth analyses of policy affecting all education lev-
els and sectors – from early childhood and pre-school education through the doc-
toral level. While not a specific subject for review, the teams examined science

10
© OECD 2002
policy as it interacts with higher education policy. Since education underpins the
economic and social well being of all countries, the reviews addressed the links
between education and other issues such as the status of women and children,
regional economic development and public administration reform.
The reviews were carried out at the specific request of national authorities.
Each government recognised the value of the reviews to contribute to the national
debate about the future of education policy and to raise important issues that it
would be difficult for authorities within the country to raise.
The intent of an OECD review is not to evaluate a country’s education policy
but to place those policies in a comparative perspective. The Baltic States reviews
emphasised both themes that cut across all three countries as well as issues that
were unique to each country. Particular attention was given to:
• Identifying and respecting the unique geography, demography and economy
of each state.
• Identifying good practice in policy and process that could be shared among
the three countries and with other OECD Member and Non-Member states.
• Avoiding the uniform application of inappropriate policies to diverse problems.
The reviews focused in particular on the perspective of the state and the public
interest and the interaction between state policy and institutions (providers),
students/learners and other clients of the education system (social partners, for
example). These relationships are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Relationship between the state, institutions, students and other clients
The public interest
The state
Social
partners,
communities,
etc.
Students/
Learners
Institutions
Providers
The public interest
The state
Social
partners,
communities,
etc.
Students/
Learners
Institutions
Providers

Overview of Education Policy Reviews of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania
11
© OECD 2002
As in countries throughout the world, governments in the Baltic States have
been shifting their focus from a primary concern for maintaining and supporting
public institutions toward a greater emphasis on encouraging a wider range of pro-
viders (e.g. private institutions) to serve student demand and public priorities.
The governments are using public policy to ensure responsiveness of the educa-
tion system to the needs of students/learners and social partners. The OECD
teams, therefore, sought to understand how these changes are taking place – and
the developing policy issues related to the changes – in each of the Baltic States.
Similarities and differences among Baltic States
While Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have a number of points in common, it is
important to recognise points of difference that have a direct bearing on education
policy.
Similarities
The following is a summary of important similarities:
• Through their early histories, all three countries experienced extended
periods of conflict and domination by foreign powers, most notably the
Order of Teutonic Knights, Tsarist Russia, German states and Sweden and in
the case of Lithuania, Poland.
• In the aftermath of World War I, all three countries emerged from more than
a century within the Russian Empire to gain independence and member-
ship in the League of Nations. All three countries suffered severely in struggles
among German, Russian and other forces in the course of World War I.
• In the initial period of independence, all three countries experienced a
period of economic growth, improvement in the standard of living and
development of democratic institutions, although each experienced periods
of political instability and threats to democratic institutions.
• All three countries were subjected to the secret conditions of the 1939 Molotov-
Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union that led to the
stationing of Soviet troops and Soviet control in 1940, followed in June 1940
by Nazi invasion and German occupation until the closing months of World War
II, when the Soviet Union regained control. During the alternative periods of
Soviet and German occupation, hundreds of thousands of Latvians, Lithuanians
and Estonians were either killed or deported to Siberia and hundreds of
thousands of others escaped to other countries.
• All three countries experienced Stalin’s brutality as the Soviet Union estab-
lished control after World War II, including imprisonment and deportation of
thousands to Siberia, forced immigration of Russian-speaking populations

12
© OECD 2002
from the Soviet Union to work on collectivised farms and in large industries,
suppression of religion and imposition of Soviet ideological, military and
economic controls.
• In almost 50 years of Soviet occupation, all three countries were subjected
to the full force of Soviet ideological, political and economic policies as
republics within the Soviet Union. To varying degrees, the Baltic States
were afforded limited flexibility to adopt unique education policies reflect-
ing language and culture, but in all other respects the countries were fully
integrated into the Soviet Union.
• All three countries experienced a new awakening and drive for indepen-
dence in the late 1980s in the climate of glasnost and perestroika and the
deterioration of Soviet institutions, culminating in the “Singing Revolution”
and the re-establishment of independence in 1990 and 1991. (Lithuania
re-established independence on 11 March 1990, Estonia on 20 August 1991
and Latvia on 21 August 1991.
• Upon re-establishing independence, all three countries reverted to Con-
stitutions based largely upon those established in the initial period of
independence after World War I.
• All three countries have moved aggressively to adopt progressive govern-
mental, economic, social and education reforms. All three countries have
been accepted as candidates for accession to the European Union.
Differences
Several significant differences among the Baltic States, however, are especially
important to an understanding of differences in education policy:
• All three countries had unique early histories and relations with other
nations and cultures that have had lasting effects on culture and language
and continue to influence national perspectives and policy. Lithuania has at
times been linked to – and often has had contentious relations with –
Poland over its history (Vilnius was part of Poland until World War II). Large
parts of Estonia and Latvia were the country of Livonia until the mid-
XVIth century. Latvia and Estonia have historically had closer ties with the
Nordic countries than Lithuania – Estonia with Finland, Denmark and Sweden
and Latvia with Denmark and Sweden.
• Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian are three highly distinct languages.
Latvian and Lithuanian belong to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European
language family. Estonian belongs to the Finno-Ugric family of languages –
along with Finnish, Hungarian, Udmurt, Sami, Komi, Mari, Livonian and
Mordvinian.

13
© OECD 2002
• Lithuania is a more ethnically homogeneous country than Estonia and Latvia.
In 1999, Lithuanians comprised 81.3% of the populations and Russians (8.4%)
and Poles (7%) constituted the largest minority populations. In contrast,
55.7% of Latvia’s population was Latvian and 32.2% were ethnic Russians. In
Estonia, 65.2% were Estonians and 28.1% were ethnic Russians. The high
percentage of ethnic Russians – especially in Estonia and Latvia – reflects
the years of forced immigration, especially in the post-World War II period.
Since re-establishment of independence, all three countries have experi-
enced an out-migration of Russian populations, although out-migration has
slowed considerably in recent years. Within Latvia and Estonia, the concen-
trations of the ethnic Russian population tend to be in the major urban
areas (Riga and Tallinn) and in regions associated with former Soviet industries
or large collective farms.
• In Estonia and Latvia the largest religious group is Lutheran but in Lithuania
it is Roman Catholic.
• All three countries are parliamentary republics in which the Government is
headed by a Prime Minister appointed by the president and a council
(Latvia and Estonia) or cabinet (Latvia) of ministers and a president who is
head of state. In contrast to Estonia and Latvia where the president is
elected by the parliament and plays a largely ceremonial role, the President
of Lithuania is elected by popular election to a five-year term and has
broader executive powers than the presidents of the other two countries.
• All three countries have pursued economic reforms to move dramatically
from the command economy totally controlled by and oriented toward the
Soviet Union, to market economies with increasingly strong relationships with
Europe and the global economy. Each, however, has pursued independent
economic policies with consequent differences in key economic indicators.2
Phases of reform
Education reform in the Baltic States is best understood in terms of phases
beginning in the late 1980s. Each country’s reforms can be traced to initiatives
in 1988 (if not earlier) undertaken in the spirit of the new awakening, perestroika and
the deterioration of Soviet institutions. In this period, each country experienced
unprecedented grass roots engagement of educators in the exploration of new pos-
sibilities – initially within the Soviet Union and then increasingly with the realisation
that full re-establishment of independence was possible.
In the 1990/1992 period all three countries re-established independence and
established Constitutions (based largely on earlier Constitutions) and the initial
legal framework for education. Each country enacted a basic framework law, a Law
on Education, for the education system. While each of these initial education laws

14
© OECD 2002
reflects unique points for each country, the laws include common points regarding
democratic principles, freedom from the ideological controls of the past, opportu-
nities for private institutions and significantly increased autonomy for universities.
Enacted in the rapidly developing circumstances of 1991, these initial laws would
require further refinement in later years.
In the 1992/1994 period, each of the Baltic States faced extraordinary chal-
lenges in gaining economic stability and establishing new legal frameworks and insti-
tutional structures. The economic dislocation in the collapse of the Soviet-oriented
command economy and the slow development of new social and economic poli-
cies created severe hardships for each country’s education systems. Nevertheless,
each country continued to make progress on basic elements of education reform:
eliminating ideologically oriented elements within universities, development of
new curricula, textbooks and teaching materials and developing new links with
Western donors and partners such as the Soros Foundation, the British Council
and the European Union Phare programme.
The 1995/1996 period brought a temporary pause in the positive developments
since re-establishing independence as banking crises and economic instability drew
attention and energy away from education reform. This was also a period in which
the governments in each country attempted to shape new state policies to provide
a degree of order and direction (e.g. through national curricula and standards) to the
previously largely decentralised and often fragmented reforms.
In the 1996/1998 period, all three countries experienced their strongest peri-
ods of economic revitalisation and growth since 1991. In education reform, each
country broadened the conceptual foundation for education reform and devel-
oped the second generation of legal frameworks for general education, vocational
and professional education and higher education. The Laws on Education first
enacted in 1991/1992 were either replaced or amended significantly to reflect an
increased maturity in each country’s education reforms. Each country embarked
on the development of new national curricula and assessment/testing policies,
drawing on the expertise of foreign advisors and reflecting the best practice of
many Western countries.
The Russian economic crisis beginning with the devaluation of the rouble on
17 August 1998 slowed the economic growth as well as the pace of education
reform of the previous two years in all three countries. This pause was clearly evi-
dent at the time of the site visits for the OECD reviews in 1999. Yet the commitment
to reform remained strong as evidenced by continued progress on national curric-
ula, new assessment policies, development of new textbooks and teaching materi-
als and enactment of new laws for non-university higher education (“colleges”). The
countries continued to make progress on higher education reform through contin-
ued strengthening of the capacity of universities to accommodate escalating

15
© OECD 2002
demand and the international expectations for quality in academic programmes
and research.
Conceptual foundation for reform
As mentioned above, all three countries adopted framework Laws on Educa-
tion in 1991 (Lithuania and Latvia) and 1992 (Estonia) that included similar con-
cepts and principles. At the same time, each country pursued a different path in
the development of a conceptual foundation for education reform.
Lithuania provides the clearest example of the development of a basic docu-
ment, the 1992 General Concept of Education in Lithuania, which has served as the
foundation of education reform and legislation throughout the pre- and post-
independence periods. The Concept sets out four phases: phase I from the end
of 1988 to 11 March 1990; phase II leading to the framing of the Concept in 1992;
and phases III and IV (1992 to 2005) during which “a uniform, permanent Lithuanian
educational system is created covering formal and informal education and an
expanded network of public and private educational institutions”.
In both Estonia and Latvia, the development of a broadly accepted concep-
tual foundation for education reform has been more of an evolving process. In
Estonia, for example, not until the late 1990s did a broad consensus emerge
around the concept “Learning Estonia”, developed by the Academic Council con-
vened by the President of the Republic of Estonia, “Estonian Education Strategy”
compiled by the Ministry of Education and “Estonian Education Scenarios 2015”
designed by the task force of the Committee of the Education Forum. In Latvia,
the Ministry of Education and Science developed a “Latvian Concept of Educa-
tion” in 1995, but from the observations of the OECD team, this document did not
receive wide acceptance as the foundation for reform. Nevertheless, despite
changes in governments, Latvian education reform has evolved on the basis of an
informal consensus about the principles that should guide the country’s education
system.
In their reports, the OECD review teams emphasised the importance of a
broad understanding of and commitment to the principles of education reform as
an essential condition for sustained progress and for translating concepts into
strategies and actions – especially in the case of frequent changes in political
leadership. Such an understanding and commitment must reach not only to all
levels of the education system but also to the nation’s political and civic leader-
ship and social partners. Whether or not the conceptual foundation is reflected in
a formal document, all three countries face the challenge of engaging the society
as a whole in the process of change.

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© OECD 2002
Common themes
Despite the clear differences among Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the OECD
teams observed a number of common themes in education policy shared by all
three countries. These can be divided between sector-specific themes and those
that cut across all sectors.
Sector-specific themes
All three countries are engaged in reform of each level and sector of their
education systems from pre-school through higher education. The issues identi-
fied by the OECD teams most often related to the points of intersection or transition.
Examples include:
• The intersection between education and broader social and economic
problems such as the relationship of pre-school education to the health and
welfare of young children and women and the relationship of vocational
education to the changing economy and labour market.
• The transition between pre-school education and compulsory education and
policies to ensure that all young children are prepared and ready to learn.
• The transition between compulsory education and upper-secondary educa-
tion and policies designed to ensure that a wider range of students com-
plete compulsory education with the depth and breadth of academic
preparation to pursue further education or to enter the labour market – and
to continue learning throughout their lifetimes.
• The transition between upper-secondary general and professional/voca-
tional education (grades 10 through 12) and either the labour market or
higher education.
The following are highlights of the themes related to the major sectors.
Strengthening Pre-school/Early Childhood Education
In all three countries, pre-school enrolment dropped precipitously following
independence as the countries moved away from the extensive network of pre-
school establishments linked to Soviet-era working places. The need to ensure
that all young children are prepared for compulsory education is a shared concern,
but the approaches being taken to address the issues differ. At the time of the OECD
review, Lithuania was moving to lower the age of the beginning of compulsory educa-
tion from age 7 to include children in “zero” level classes (generally 6-year-olds).
Latvia extended compulsory education to include pre-school education in the Law on
Education enacted in 1998 but repealed this provision (primarily for economic
reasons) in 1999. Estonia is taking steps to strengthen pre-school education
including strengthening the requirements for teacher preparation and establishing

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new financing policies. The OECD reviews strongly supported the initiatives to
achieve the goal of ensuring that all young children are prepared to enter school,
but the teams raised concerns about the adequacy of resources, training of teach-
ers and other support – especially in rural areas – to make this goal a reality.
Another common concern is that there should be strong links between state initia-
tives aimed at improving the health and welfare of young children and women and
policies related to pre-school education. In some cases, the responsibility for
these inter-related areas is divided among different ministries.
Strengthening (extending) compulsory education and improving the quality of education
for all students
Reform of compulsory education has been a central focus of education
reform in all three Baltic States since the late 1980s. All countries moved rapidly
to “de-ideologise” the curriculum and to establish the basis and transition process
(curriculum, textbooks and curricular materials and retraining of teachers) for educa-
tion systems in which the language of instruction was primarily in the national lan-
guage (Estonian, Latvian, or Lithuanian). In the initial years, reform was largely a
grass-roots phenomenon with great variation throughout the countries in the extent
and direction of change. Multiple well-intentioned but often unco-ordinated foreign
initiatives and pilots both stimulated reform and contributed indirectly to the lack
of coherence in education reform. By the mid-1990s, however, each country moved
to develop national curricula and standards and began the process of developing
quality assurance mechanisms such as centrally set and/or administered assessments
and examinations. The countries faced – and continue to face – a number of common
problems:
• Refining the initial assessment and testing instruments to ensure that they
reflect the goals of national curricula such as integration of knowledge and
practice and active learning.
• Narrowing the gap between the goals of reform and the realities of change
at the classroom and school levels including the need for basic instructional
materials, teacher in-service education and other support.
• Increasing the coherence in the often-fragmented provision of teacher
in-service education and a stronger link of the available programmes to
implementation of new curriculum and assessment policies.
• Undertaking fundamental reform of pre-service teacher education to reflect
the principles of education reform.
• Ensuring quality across diverse systems.
• Addressing the problems of small rural schools and severe differences
between urban and rural areas in the quality and cost-effectiveness of schools.

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With the assistance of the Soros Foundation and EC-Phare and other external
assistance, the Baltic States have made impressive progress in extending the
application of information technology (ICT), especially access to computers and
the Internet, throughout their education systems, but especially in compulsory/
general education. Estonia’s Tiger Leap initiative, for example, which began as a
commitment to ensure that all students had access to computers, has evolved into
a far broader initiative aimed at ensuring that Estonians are prepared to thrive
and compete in the global information economy.
Reforming post-compulsory education (upper secondary education)
Many of the issues that relate to compulsory education (e.g. curriculum,
standards, quality assurance and teacher training) were also evident at the post-
compulsory (upper-secondary) level. A basic challenge faced by all three coun-
tries is to provide a larger proportion of each post-compulsory age cohort with a
broader general education within either general secondary education schools
(gymnasia) or secondary vocational education. In Soviet times, many academi-
cally weaker students entered vocational schools directly following compulsory
education to be trained for narrowly defined working places in state-owned enter-
prises. Only limited general education was included in that training. Other students
entered secondary vocational schools to prepare for specialised technical fields
that required a broader general education foundation but generally did not prepare
students further education at the university level, although some students continued
in specialised post-secondary education training.
With the collapse of the command economy linked to the Soviet Union, the
state enterprises for which vocational schools trained students ceased to exist. A
combination of low-prestige and outdated training programmes, equipment and
teachers contributed to a precipitous decline in demand for secondary vocational
education.
The pattern in the post-independence period in all three Baltic countries has
been to lengthen the period of general education for all students and to delay spe-
cialisation. An increasing proportion of those completing compulsory education is
seeking to enter general secondary education – and, if possible, more highly selective
gymnasia – which will increase the chances for university entrance. At the same time,
vocational secondary education is converging with general secondary education, as
countries are developing new national standards and examinations for grade 12 that
all students must complete – whether in general or vocational secondary education.
The increased demand for vocational education is at the post-secondary level for
students who have completed secondary education and seek specialised training
to enter the labour market.

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Common developments across the three countries include:
• Continuing development of national curricula and standards;
• Implementation of externally developed and administered grade 12
examinations;
• Gaining acceptance of universities of the use of grade 12 examinations for
university entrance (this is in place in Estonia and under consideration in
Lithuania and Latvia);
• Diversifying upper secondary education through “profiling” (Lithuania) and
other changes in the curriculum to accommodate a wider range of student
abilities and aspirations.
Reforming vocational education and training
As described above, the vocational education and training systems of all three
countries were closely tied to the Soviet command economy. Outdated curricula,
obsolete equipment and training materials, deteriorating facilities and teachers who
were ill-prepared for new professions and market economy combined to make the
vocational education and training systems largely irrelevant to the developing
labour market.
All three Baltic countries have made important progress in reform of vocational
education and training over the decade of the 1990s – stimulated by the goal of EU
accession and supported by foreign assistance. The EC-Phare programme and the
European Training Foundation (ETF) have played significant, positive roles in
developing conceptual and strategic basis for reform and in supporting pilot pro-
grammes in areas such as curriculum development, regional training and develop-
ment and teacher training. In the 1997-99 period, all three countries completed work
on and enacted new framework laws on vocational education and training. These
new laws establish national qualification systems, provide for extensive involve-
ment of social partners at every level, clarify the roles of different schools, establish
new non-university sectors (ISCED/4B and 5B) and strengthen the links between
vocational education and training and regional economic development. Common
issues faced by all three countries included:
• Moving from concepts and strategies to concrete actions. While the basic
legal framework and formal policy structures are in place, all three countries
need to accelerate implementation of concrete reforms. Foreign assistance
has been an indispensable catalyst for reform, but implementing and sustain-
ing reform will require stronger leadership and funding from the countries
themselves.
• Establishing state leadership structures for co-ordination of vocational edu-
cation and training across all ministries. Estonia and Lithuania have recently

20
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transferred responsibility for agricultural vocational education and training
institutions from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Ministry of Education with
the result that most vocational training institutions are now under a single
ministry. In Latvia, responsibility for these institutions continues to be shared
by several ministries, although the Ministry of Education and Science has
overall co-ordinating responsibility. Developing effective co-ordination
between the state vocational education system and state employment ser-
vices – the entity responsible for labour market information, short-term train-
ing of the unemployed and regional labour market services under the
jurisdiction of another ministry – remains an issue in all three countries.
• Optimising the school network. All three countries face the problem of too
many small, highly specialised vocational schools. Each is taking actions to
close or merge schools and to modernise and broaden the profiles of other
schools. In some instances, secondary vocational schools, or technicums, are
evolving into “colleges” at the ISCED/4B level and being linked with other
institutions to form complexes that are more cost-effective.
• Clarifying the roles of the developing “colleges”. The development of post-
secondary institutions at the non-university level is evolving in each of the
countries, yet there remains a degree of ambiguity about the role and mis-
sion of these new institutions. All the vocational education and training
reforms have emphasised the need for a new sector at the non-university
level to train highly skilled technicians for the developing labour market. All
the reforms emphasise that these institutions should relate “horizontally”
to the labour market and should be closely linked with social partners.
When fully developed, such institutions should also provide an alternative
to university-level education. Essentially two kinds of institutions are
developing. First, institutions at the post-secondary level evolving from
former technicums but not oriented toward preparation for university entrance
(ISCED 1997 4B); and second, colleges offering university-level professional
programmes (ISCED 1997 5B) that are more clearly linked to universities and,
in some cases, are governed by universities. In part because the demand in
the labour market for specialists trained at the ISCED/4B and 5B levels is still
developing, many of the students attending these institutions still aspire
primarily to pursue a university education rather than enter the labour mar-
ket following training. The potential proliferation of new post-secondary or
higher education institutions raises fundamental policy questions about qual-
ity assurance and financing for all three countries.
• Engaging social partners. The development of stronger roles for social part-
ners in the reform of vocational education and training is a clear need in all
three countries. Participation of social partners is needed in the new national
qualification systems, advising in the design of training programmes, provid-

21
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ing apprenticeship and other work-site training and providing up-to-date
equipment and training materials.
• Training of vocational education teachers. The retraining of current teachers
and training of new teachers is a major need throughout the Baltic States.
Reforming tertiary education
All three Baltic States have made great strides in restructuring their higher
education system since the major changes began in 1988. Changes included:
• Instilling democratic principles and processes throughout the universities.
• Establishing a new legal framework providing for institutions of higher edu-
cation, university autonomy, a new research infrastructure, the framework
for quality assurance and a differentiated higher education system.
• Eliminating previous restrictions in content and pedagogy, especially in the
social sciences and humanities and eliminating required military retraining
as a compulsory part of the curriculum.
• Carrying out dramatic shifts in academic programmes in response to chang-
ing student demands and the economic reality of the need to generate
additional revenue from fee-paying students to offset limitations in state
funding.
• Moving from the narrow Soviet degree structure to an award structure that is
not only more flexible but also consistent with Western models and increas-
ing expectations (e.g. Bologna) for common structures across Europe and
the world.
• Abolishing the academies of science as research organisations, reconstitut-
ing the academies as honorary societies and integrating research into the uni-
versities, resulting in substantial gains in research and greatly strengthened
universities.
• Strengthening graduate education, especially through the integration of
research and teaching at the doctoral level in contrast to the location of
doctoral programmes outside the universities in Soviet times.
At the time of the OECD reviews, there was growing recognition that further
changes in higher education policies would be necessary. In Lithuania, for example,
a new Law on Institutions of Higher Education in Lithuania was under consideration.
Major issues remaining at the time of the reviews included:
• Accommodating the escalating demand for university-level education,
including alternatives such as non-university “colleges”.
• Tightening quality assurance requirements, including stronger requirements
for non-public institutions.

22
© OECD 2002
• Reforming the financing of higher education, including the highly sensitive
issue of student fees.
• Conforming degree structures to international expectations as defined by
the Bologna Joint Declaration.
• Developing new modes of delivery including open-distance learning and
greatly expanded use of information technology throughout the higher
education system.
• Seeking solutions, including strengthened doctoral programmes and inter-
national affiliations, to the problem of retraining current professors and
developing the next generation of faculty and researchers.
• Reforming university programmes for teacher education.
Having granted universities substantial autonomy at the time of re-establishing
independence, all three countries are now debating ways to increase the respon-
siveness of higher education institutions to public priorities and to ensure greater
public accountability. At the time of the OECD reviews, each country was debating
measures that would provide for a stronger role for the State in setting priorities
while enhancing the quality, responsiveness and international competitiveness of
the universities and other higher education institutions.
Strengthening adult education and lifelong learning
The Baltic states face a common need to prepare their adult populations to par-
ticipate in democratic society and a market economy and to continue to learn and
adjust to the dramatic changes occurring in the technology-intensive global econ-
omy. Nevertheless, the institutional network remains largely oriented to students
who have recently completed compulsory or upper secondary education and is not
effectively linked or co-ordinated with the labour market training network.
All three countries have expressed policy commitments to lifelong learning
and established new legal frameworks for adult education, but a major challenge
remains to translate these policies into concrete implementation. New develop-
ments in the use of information technology and open-distance learning (open uni-
versities) show promise as means to provide access for the adult population to
further education and training. As the economies develop, employers should play
an increasing role in the demand for accessible training opportunities. Other pro-
viders – primarily non-public institutions – are responding to the need, but these
programmes tend to be in areas where the demand and potential for economic
gain are greatest (business, law and foreign languages) and are available primarily
in the urban areas. State policies for regulating quality continue to be weak and
the cost of non-public programmes makes them inaccessible to large segments of
the adult population.

23
© OECD 2002
Crosscutting themes
As reflected in the summary of sector-specific themes, the OECD teams iden-
tified a number of crosscutting themes that are evident in all three Baltic States.
Strengthening and sustaining national policy leadership for education reform
Frequent changes in governments and ministers of education have created
serious problems for all three Baltic States in sustaining national policy leadership
for education reform. In face of this instability, the countries have benefited from a
general consensus within education networks and among major political parties
and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) about the conceptual foundations and
goals of education reform. External forces, such as the expectations established for
accession to the EU, have played a key role in sustaining reform. Within the con-
straints of leadership changes, limited resources and under-developed civil service
laws, all three countries have made progress in reforming the roles and functioning
of the ministries of education. Common goals of these reforms include:
• Shifting the oversight and quality assurance emphasis from controlling and
inspecting “inputs” (e.g. detailed curriculum and curriculum timetables),
toward overseeing the accomplishment of “outcomes” while allowing
schools and institutions greater independence in shaping the details of
implementation.
• Strengthening the professional qualifications of ministry personnel.
• Emphasising decentralisation and deregulation.
• Strengthening the ministry capacity for strategic planning and policy
leadership.
• Increasing the co-ordination between government initiatives and initiatives
supported by NGOs and foreign sponsors.
Despite these promising developments, the OECD teams observed that all
three countries face a challenge in broadening and deepening the commitment of
society – especially political leaders and social partners – to education reform as a
fundamental foundation for essentially all the countries’ major policy goals. The coun-
tries also all face the challenge of sustaining attention to education reform across the
inevitable changes in government. The specific mechanism for addressing these chal-
lenges will be different in each country, but the leadership must come from the high-
est levels of government and will likely require extensive use of non-governmental
organisations that can provide for continuity when government cannot do so.
As mentioned at several points in this overview, EC-Phare, the Soros Founda-
tion and other foreign sponsors have provided invaluable stimulus and support
for education reform in all three Baltic States. Foreign assistance is not a satisfac-
tory long-term substitute for permanent, sustained leadership within each country.

24
© OECD 2002
The OECD teams were concerned that, as foreign-supported pilot projects and NGOs
phase out their support in critical areas such as reform of vocational education and
training, the commitment and capacity to sustain reform may not exist.
Narrowing the gap between concepts/strategies and the realities of practice
and implementation
All three countries have developed essential legal and policy frameworks.
However, in large part because of the instability in national leadership, the coun-
tries face significant problems in moving to practical application. This is especially
evident in the general secondary and vocational education and training systems in
which a significant gap remains between the reform goals and the realities of
change at the level of the school and classroom. The national leaders expressed
concern about this gap in the course of the OECD reviews and all three countries
will be giving more attention to the basic infrastructure and support systems nec-
essary to deepen the impact of reform. Greater emphasis on alignment of teacher
pre-service and in-service education and training of school directors with reform
goals are examples of such efforts. As mentioned above, developing the commit-
ment and capacity to assume responsibility and sustain initiatives originated
through foreign sponsors will be especially important in bridging the gap between
strategy and practice.
Addressing concerns about equity and fairness
All three Baltic States have made strong commitments to civil liberties and to
narrowing the gaps in access and opportunity for all people within their countries.
They recognise that fulfilling these commitments is an essential condition for
modern democracies, for accession to the European Union and for full participa-
tion in the global economy. In the OECD education policy reviews, the teams
underscored the need for further progress on:
• Narrowing the disparities in quality and educational opportunity between
urban and rural areas (including the need for public administration reform
to address the problems of small municipalities that lack the capacity to
sustain strong schools).
• Ensuring that special needs students are served, including addressing the
health and economic needs of young children to ensure that they are ready
to learn.
• Continuing to make progress on addressing the needs of language and ethnic
minority populations to ensure that they can be full participants in the civic
and economic life of the countries.

25
© OECD 2002
• Countering the strong tendencies toward elite secondary schools and a
focus on university entrance with deliberate steps to ensure that all students
– not only the most academically gifted and those with social and economic
advantages – have access to quality education and the opportunity to gain
essential knowledge and skills.
Recognising the impact of government reform on education policy
In the course of the education policy reviews, the OECD teams were repeat-
edly reminded that the progress of education reform often depends on reform of
other areas of government. As examples:
• Resolution of questions of public administration reform will have a direct
impact on the progress of education reform. While the specific legal and
financial responsibilities of municipalities for education differ among the
three countries, each faces the problem of small rural municipalities that
lack the capacity to fulfil their education responsibilities. Each of the Baltic
States faces fundamental issues related to the structure, roles and financing
of municipal governments and about appropriate roles and responsibilities
of entities between municipalities and the national government (regions,
counties, or other entities).
• Reforming civil services policies. Civil service reform across all levels of
government is a critical prerequisite for strengthening the policy leader-
ship, analytic, oversight and support functions of ministries of education
and other governmental units responsible for education.
• Aligning state finance policies with education reform. In each of the Baltic
States, the ministry of finance plays a critical and often dominant role in
education policy, yet, from the observations of the OECD review teams,
these policies are not always consistent with or supportive of education
reform goals. The issues are not only on the level of state financing of edu-
cation, but also on the details of policy implementation. As emphasised
earlier, continued progress in education reform will require leadership and
co-ordination at the highest level of government and across all ministries
with responsibilities that have an impact on education.
Conclusion
The human resources of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are these countries’
most valuable assets. As small countries with comparatively limited natural
resources, the Baltic States’ future will depend on the knowledge and skills of
their people. Education of all the people, not only young children and youth but
also adults, should be each nation’s highest priority.

26
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The Baltic States have made extraordinary progress in education reform over
the past decade. The OECD teams were especially impressed by the dedication
of teachers, professors, school directors and university leaders who, despite
exceptionally difficult times, have persevered, maintained quality and led the way
in changes necessary to prepare students for participation in democracy and a
market economy. The OECD teams are confident that the leaders in each of the coun-
tries have the vision and commitment to ensure continued progress in education
reform into the XXIst century.
Notes
1. OECD, OECD Economic Surveys: The Baltic States, A Regional Economic Assessment. Paris, 2000.
2. Ibid.

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Chapter 1
Context
Geographic and historical context
Geography
Lithuania is the largest and the most populous of the Baltic Republics. With a
territory of 65 300 sq. km (25 206 sq. miles), Lithuania is approximately twice the
size of Belgium and only a little smaller than Ireland. It has inland borders with
Latvia, Belarus, Poland and Russia (the Kaliningrad Region) In the west, it borders
the Baltic Sea for 99 km.
Only 578 400 or 16% of Lithuania’s population live in Vilnius. This contrasts
with Estonia and Latvia in which nearly 50% live in the capitals. Lithuania has five
cities with a population of over 100 000 and it is divided into 10 counties and
44 regions. The urban to rural ratio is 68 to 32. The map below shows Lithuania’s
major towns and cities.
Topography
Lithuania is a relatively flat but fertile country with a high percentage of arable
land, many rivers, lakes and forests. Forest and woodlands make up 28%, arable
land 49%, meadows and pastureland 22%.
Lithuania does not have an abundance of natural resources. It has large quan-
tities of limestone, clay, quartz sand, gypsum sand and dolomite, which are suit-
able for making high-quality cement, glass and ceramics. Energy sources and
industrial materials are all in short supply. Oil was discovered in western Lithuania
in the 1950s and is estimated that the Baltic Sea shelf and the western region of
Lithuania hold commercially viable amounts of oil although inadequate amounts
for self-sufficiency.
History
The dominance and long-term ramifications of Soviet rule in Lithuania tend to
obscure its ancient and proud history. Its statehood dates back to the early Middle

28
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Ages and at the end of the fourteenth century Lithuania was a large empire extending
from the Baltic to the shores of the Black Sea. For the 120 years from 1795, Russia
occupied Lithuania. Under Tsarist rule, Lithuanian schools were not permitted to
operate, Lithuanian publications were forbidden and the Roman Catholic Church
was suppressed.
After World War 1 Lithuania declared its independence having fought off German
ambitions of annexation. The period between the two world wars was not a tranquil
time for Lithuania. It had to fight to defend its independence against Poland
(1918/1920) and in 1920 lost Vilnius to Poland, which held it until World War ll.
Nevertheless after 1920, independent Lithuania made good progress in rebuilding
the nation, it established a strong currency, sound fiscal management and under-
took a land reform programme. It was during this period that many secondary
schools were established and a number of higher education institutions were
Source: European Training Foundation (1999) National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country
Report, 1999. Vilnius, p. 17.
Mažeikiai
Akmene Joniskis
Šiauliai
Telšiai
Skuodas
Palanga
Kretinga
Plungé
Klaipeda Kelme
Šilute
Šilale
Taurage
Radviliškis Panevešys
Pakruojis
Pasvalys
Biržai
Rokiškis
Raseiniai
Jurbarkas
Šakiai
Kedainiai
Jonava
Ukmerge
Moletai Švenčionys
Zarasai
Kupiškis
Utena
Ignalina
Anykščiai
Širvintos
Vilnius
Prienai
Kaunas
Trakai
Kaišiadorys
Marijampolè
Vilkaviškis
Alytus
Salčininkai
Varena
Druskininkai
Lazdijai
Mažeikiai
Akmene Joniskis
Šiauliai
Telšiai
Skuodas
Palanga
Kretinga
Plungé
Klaipeda Kelme
Šilute
Šilale
Taurage
Radviliškis Panevešys
Pakruojis
Pasvalys
Biržai
Rokiškis
Raseiniai
Jurbarkas
Šakiai
Kedainiai
Jonava
Ukmerge
Moletai Švenčionys
Zarasai
Kupiškis
Utena
Ignalina
Anykščiai
Širvintos
Vilnius
Prienai
Kaunas
Trakai
Kaišiadorys
Marijampolè
Vilkaviškis
Alytus
Salčininkai
Varena
Druskininkai
Lazdijai

Context
29
© OECD 2002
established or re-established. (Under Russian rule no higher education institutions
were permitted to exist).
In 1940 Lithuania was again occupied. Under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
(1939), the Stalin regime of the Soviet Union illegally annexed Lithuania. The Pact
divided Poland, much of Central Europe and the Baltic States between Germany
and the Soviet Union. 20 000 Soviet troops were garrisoned in Lithuania and in
return Vilnius was regranted to Lithuania. During this period, it shared the fate of
its Baltic neighbours in having 30 000 of its population deported to Siberia. In the
next few years of conflict between Germany and the USSR, Lithuania’s people suf-
fered at the hands of both powers. Tens of thousands were recruited or captured
to work in Germany, many perished in prisons or concentration camps and around
185 000 Lithuanians of Jewish descent were massacred by the Nazis. The Russians,
back in power after the war, resumed deportation to Siberia, suppressed religion,
collectivised agriculture and deported clergy.
The Soviet occupation was to last 50 years. On 11 March 1990 Lithuania’s
newly elected parliament voted unanimously for independence. The USSR did
not recognise the legality of the vote and imposed an economic blockade. In
January 1991 it mounted an unsuccessful but bloody coup to remove the Lithuania
government in Vilnius. This event together with the unfolding demise of the USSR
eventually brought international recognition of Lithuania as an independent state
and Lithuania was admitted to the United Nations in September 1991.
By this stage, a Soviet style education system was firmly established in Lithuania,
a system designed to service the needs of a central command economy and
inappropriate for the needs of a country aspiring to operate as a market economy.
Demography
At 3.7 million, Lithuania’s population is similar to that of New Zealand and
Ireland. Like many of the countries undergoing transition to market economies,
Lithuania is experiencing negative population growth. Until 1990 the Lithuanian popu-
lation was growing at a rate of 1.2/1.3% annually, but in 1992 its population began
to decline as a result of out-migration and a falling birth rate, both of which have
intensified in a climate of severe economic conditions.
Lithuania experienced negative net migration until 1996 but since then positive
net migration has increased from 79 thousand in 1997 to 576 thousand in 1998 and
1 139 thousand in 1999.
In 1999 a decrease is particularly evident in the age group 0-4 and will impact
soon on numbers entering compulsory education. In the 1998/1999 school year,
the number of students in year 1 to year 4, declined from 223 458 to 223 271, a
small decrease of 187. This marks the first indication of a decline, which is likely to
increase for the next few years as the effects of falling birth rates move through.

30
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Figure 2. Birth and death rates and natural increase
in Lithuania’s population, 1995-1998
Source: Figures drawn from Statistics Lithuania, the central statistics office to the Government of the Republic of
Lithuania (www.std.lt/engl/default.htm last updated 24 Nov. 1999).
1995
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
-10 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
-10 000
1996 1997 1998
Natural increase
Death rate
Birth rate
1995
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
-10 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
-10 000
1996 1997 1998
Natural increase
Death rate
Birth rate
Figure 3. Population by sex and age, 1999
Source: National Observatory Country Report Draft 1, 1999: Vocational education and training as a tool to ensure
social and economic cohesion, page 12.
160 000 120 000 80 000 40 000 0 160 000
120 000
80 000
40 000
0
Age
Women Men
160 000 120 000 80 000 40 000 0 160 000
120 000
80 000
40 000
0
Age
Women Men

Context
31
© OECD 2002
Overall, however, the number of students in comprehensive schools has increased
over the period 1995/1999. See Figure 4.
Ethnic and language distribution
Lithuanians are neither Germanic nor Slavic although their history of occupation
and of conflict and co-operation with their neighbours has left a mixture of cultural
influences.
Lithuania differs from its Baltic neighbours in its comparatively lower percent-
age of Russian speaking population. In Latvia, for example, Russian speakers make
up close to 50% of the population. Although this situation has meant that Lithuania
has had fewer problems than its neighbours in preserving and fostering its cultural
identity, it does pose financial problems in providing education for its citizens in
their mother tongue. In 1991, with restoration of independence, all legal residents at
that time, including Russian speakers, obtained automatic citizenship.
Table 1. Migration, 1995-1999
Source: Department of Statistics of Lithuania, June 2000.
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Immigration 2 020 3 025 2 536 2 706 2 508
Emigration 3 773 3 940 2 457 2 130 1 369
Net migration –1 753 –915 79 576 1 139
Figure 4. Number of students in comprehensive day schools, 1995-1999
Source: Data from Education, Statistics Lithuania, Vilnius 1999.
1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
0
100 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
0
100 000
Total students in comprehensive day schools Grades 1-4
1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
0
100 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000
0
100 000
Total students in comprehensive day schools Grades 1-4

32
© OECD 2002
In September 1999 the estimated ethnic mix in Lithuania was Lithuanians 81.3%,
Russians 8.4%, Poles 7%, Belarus 1.5%, Ukrainians 1%.1
(The next census was scheduled
for April 2001).
The official state language is Lithuanian, which is closely related to Sanskrit and
belongs to the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family. In the 1998-99
school year, 87% of students received their education in the Lithuanian language,
8.3% in Russian and 3.8% in Polish.2
Governmental structure
Lithuania is an independent democratic republic, with a president who is elected
for a term of five years as the head of state. Its highest legislative body is the Seimas, a
unicameral parliament, 71 seats of which are elected by popular vote and 70 by pro-
portional representation. Members are elected for four years. The last election was in
October 2000. A Council of Ministers fulfils the role of the cabinet and is headed by
the Prime Minister who is appointed by the President on approval by the Seimas.
The administrative division of Lithuania is territorially based on 10 counties
or provinces with forty-four regions (rajonai; singular rajonas – rural districts) and
eleven municipalities, divided into twenty-two urban districts and ninety-two
towns. Local government councils are popularly elected for three-year periods.
Municipal governments are responsible for administration of local issues including
compulsory education. They do not have the power to raise taxes and are, therefore,
very dependent on the central government.
Figure 5. Language of instruction
By percentage
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1998-99
1990-91 1994-95
Lithuanian Russian Polish
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1998-99
1990-91 1994-95
Lithuanian Russian Polish

Context
33
© OECD 2002
Economy3
During the last decade Lithuania’s economy has undergone essential changes
in all its sectors. There were two distinct stages in the economic development of
the country: the period from 1991 to 1994 was a period of a dramatic decline typi-
cal of post-communist states. In Soviet times, 40% of all industrial enterprises in
Lithuania (compared to 13% in Estonia and 35% in Latvia) were linked directly to
centralised decision-making body controlled by all-Union ministries based in
Moscow. As shown in Table 3, the share of GDP contributed by different sectors of
the economy shifted dramatically over the 1990s.4
The second period from 1995 to 1998 was a period of recovery marked not
only by the stabilisation of the economy but also by its growth. A summary of
selected economic indicators is shown in Table 2.
In spite of unfavourable macroeconomic conditions, great efforts were made
to lay the foundations for a market economy in order to transform the country’s
centrally planned economy into a functioning market economy. The privatisation
of small and medium companies, housing and agricultural land was sufficiently
fast. The prices of almost all products and trade conditions were liberalised, new
laws were enacted to promote the establishment of private companies and to cre-
ate favourable conditions for investment. The exchange rate of the domestic cur-
rency was fixed. An important factor contributing to economic growth was the
political stability of the country and 1995 saw the beginning of economic recovery.
Table 2. Selected indicators of Lithuanian economy
Notes: * Preliminary data. ** September 1999, compared with September 1998, *** December 1999, compared with
December 1998, August 1999, compared with August 1998. Data from National Labour Exchange.
Source: Ministry of Economy, Medium Term Economic Strategy Of Lithuania In The Context Of Its Accession To The
European Union, www.ekm.lt/muitai/EKMIN/str_a.HTM#a3, Department of Statistics.
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
1999
(preliminary)
Annual change of GDP, %
at comparative prices –16.2 –9.8 3.3 4.7 7.3 5.1 –4.1
Deficit of the national budget, % of GDP 0.8 –1.8 –1.8 –2.5 –1.0 –1.3 –2.08
Annual inflation rate, % 410.2 72.2 39.6 24.6 8.9 5.1 1.4
Inflation during the year, % December) 189.0 45.1 35.7 13.1 8.4 2.4 0.3
Annual growth of real wages, % –39.0 14.2 3.2 4.1 13.9 14.7 7.2
Employed, thousands 1 675.0 1 643.6 1 659.0 1 669.2 1 656.1 1 647.5
Unemployed, thousands 65.7 109.0 124.5 104.5 113.7 148.7
Unemployment rate, % 4.4 3.8 6.1 7.1 5.9 6.4 8.4
Number of employed having received
unemployment benefit, thousands 18.2 34.1 35.6 21.9 19.4 24.7

34
© OECD 2002
Macroeconomic stability was achieved in 1997-98, the inflation rate went down
and the deficit of the national budget was considerably reduced.
The Russian crisis in August 1998 affected the Lithuanian economy at the end
of 1998 and through 1999, but early indications pointed to recovery in 2000.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) reflects tendencies of rapid growth: in 1995
the growth rate was 3.3%, in 1996, 4.7% and in 1997, 7.3%. However in 1998 it stood at
only 5.1%. The growth rate of the economy slowed down due to the financial crisis in
Russia, which started at the end of 1998. The stagnation of Lithuania’s economy also
continued through 1999: preliminary estimates for 1999 indicate that GDP decreased
by 4.1% compared to 1998.
With the restructuring of industry and the expansion of service industries, the
share of the services sector in value added structure was rapidly increasing:
Table 3. Activity as share of GDP
Per cent
Source: OECD, Baltic States: A Regional Economic Assessment, Paris: OECD: 2000, p. 142.
1991 1994 1998
Total 100 100 100
Agriculture 17 11 10
Industry and construction 51 32 31
Services 32 53 59
Figure 6. Inflation in Lithuania, 1994 – September 1999
Per cent
Source: Department of Statistics of Lithuania.
45.1
35.7
13.1
8.4
2.4 1.4
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
45.1
35.7
13.1
8.4
2.4 1.4
50
40
30
20
10
0
50
40
30
20
10
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Context
35
© OECD 2002
in 1997 it accounted for 55.4% whereas in 1998, service industries accounted for
58.5%. Thus the development of the service sector has been the main driving force
in the development of Lithuania’s economy.
The largest portion of value added was created by industry (combined with the
supply of electricity, gas and water): in 1997 – 25.2%, in 1998 – 23.6%; trade was second:
Figure 7. Unemployment rate, 1994 – August 1999
As a percentage of total labour force
Source: Department of Statistics of Lithuania.
3.8
6.1
7.1
5.9 6.1
8.1
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
8
6
4
2
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
3.8
6.1
7.1
5.9 6.1
8.1
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
8
6
4
2
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Figure 8. Unemployment rate
As a percentage of the labour force (age 25-59)
Source: Markedsprofiler Litauen, Udenrigsministeriet 1998, page 11 as quoted in the EC-Phare ODL report.
0 5 10 15
Primary, lower level
(ISCED level 0)
Secondary levels
(level 3)
Higher education
(levels 4-6)
0 5 10 15
Primary, lower level
(ISCED level 0)
Secondary levels
(level 3)
Higher education
(levels 4-6)

36
© OECD 2002
in 1997 – 16.5%, in 1998 16.1%; agriculture and forestry created respectively 11.7 and
10.1% of value added; transport and communications – 9.6 and 9.6%; construction – 7.7
and 7.9% of value added.
Since 1992, the year of hyperinflation (1 020.8%), the annual inflation rate has
been decreasing steadily in Lithuania. In 1998, it was 5.1%. The inflation rate during
the year (on the basis of comparison of data for the month of December) was even
lower – in 1998 it was 2.4%. The preliminary estimate is that inflation during 1999 was
0.3% and the inflation rate was 1.4% compared to 5.1% in 1998. In September 1999,
the annual rate (compared with September of 1998 and 1999) was 1.4%.
In 1993-98, the average monthly gross wages increased 5 times and in 1998
they reached LTL 955 (€ 265) (including the private sector). Since 1994, wages
have been increasing more than prices, although their purchasing power, com-
pared to that in 1990, has remained low. In 1999, the planned average monthly
gross wages was LTL 980.
The growth rate of real wages was comparatively great – in 1997, real wages
grew by 13.9%, in 1998 by 14.7%, although from 1999, it was expected that the
growth rate of real wages would slow down. In August 1999, real wages in national
economy increased by 7.2% compared with August 1998.
The unemployment rate increased from 4.4% in 1993 to 6.4% in 1998. Reflecting
the impact of the Russian crisis, in the 2nd quarter of 1999 the average unemployment
rate was 7.8 and as of 1 October 1999, it reached 8.4%.
The figures show the usual relationship between education levels and
employability.

Context
37
© OECD 2002
Notes
1. Lithuania in Figures 1999, Statistics Lithuania, Vilnius, 1999.
2. Education, Statistics Lithuania 1999, Vilnius, p 29.
3. Ministry of Economy, Medium Term Economics Strategy of Lithuania In The Context Of Its
Accession To The European Union, Vilnius, 1999 www.ekm.lt/muitai/EKMIN/str a.HTM#a3
4. OECD, Baltic States: A Regional Economic Assessment, Paris, 2000, p. 27.

39
© OECD 2002
Chapter 2
Lithuanian Education System: an Overview
Reform process
The Lithuanian education system began to emerge from the highly centralised,
tightly controlled Soviet system in the mid-1980s in the climate of perestroika, glasnost,
the new openness and democracy movements and the deterioration of the Soviet
economy and governmental institutions. These developments were accompanied
by a new desire to decentralise and bring schooling closer to Lithuanian values. The
year 1988, when the first concept of “national school” was created,1
is considered to
be the starting point of Lithuanian educational reform.2
Reform of Lithuanian higher
education also began at this point with the initiation of discussions about the reform
in the content and structure of studies and improvement of institutional manage-
ment. In 1989, many Lithuanian higher education institutions had already prepared
new draft statutes (see Chapter 7 for more detailed history of Lithuanian higher
education). The draft of a new Law on Education was presented in Parliament in
January 1990; two months later – in March 1990 – Lithuania proclaimed its indepen-
dence and systemic education reform became a focus for public debate. Laws
enacted immediately included the Law of the Republic of Lithuania Concerning the
Approval of the Status of Vilnius University (1990), provisions in the overall educa-
tion framework law, the Law on Education (1991) and the Law on Research and
Higher Education (science and studies) (1991).
By far the most important and influential document from the early stages of
reform to today, has been the General Concept of Education in Lithuania. Begun
in 1989 although not formally adopted until 1992, Concept sets forth the fundamental
challenge of education reform:
The restoration of statehood in Lithuania has created new possibilities for social,
cultural, economic and political development which corresponds with national
aspirations. Like other post-communist countries, Lithuanian society is experi-
encing a fundamental historic shift. This provides a unique opportunity for
Lithuania to join the community of democratic European nations, fully liberate
the creative energies which were repressed during the years of occupation and
form a modern, open, pluralistic and harmonious society of free citizens.

40
© OECD 2002
This historic shift in national development demands a change in the mental
climate of society: a basic comprehension of the democratic values, a new
political and economic literacy, the maturation of a moral culture. These
changes are possible only if Lithuanian education is radically reformed and
given new objectives…3
The Concept has proved remarkably robust and remains the foundation of
education reform and legislation. It sets out four phases: phase I from the end
of 1988 to 11 March 1990; phase II leading to the framing of the Concept in 1992;
and phases III and IV (1992 to 2005) during which “a uniform, permanent Lithuanian
educational system is created covering formal and informal education and an
expanded network of public and private educational institutions”. By 1999, half-way
through the reform outlined by the Concept, the OECD review team found that
Lithuania is indeed creating a system that is “uniform” in its principles (humanism,
democracy and universal access, a commitment to Lithuanian culture while protecting
pluralism and renewal) yet diverse in its “network” of institutional provision.
In large measure because of the strong conceptual base, Lithuania has bene-
fited from a broad consensus among political parties and the education commu-
nity about basic principles and reform objectives. This consensus has contributed
to continuity in reform despite changes in government of the decade of the 1990s.
Continuity in reform has also be greatly assisted by a network of Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) – especially the Open Society Fund-Lithuania, the EC-Phare
Program and a number of foreign assistance projects.
By the time of the OECD review, Lithuania had put in place most of the ele-
ments of a new legal framework for reform. Major laws had been passed including a
new version of the 1991 Law on Education (amended in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997
and 1999), a Law on Vocational Education (1997), Law on Adult/Non-Formal Educa-
tion (1998) and Law on Special Education (1999). A new Law on Higher Education
was in final stages of consideration at time of the review and was subsequently
enacted in March 2000.
With the legal framework in place, the major challenges facing Lithuania
remained to gain broader commitment of society and the education system to
reform and to implement changes to improve the quality of teaching and learning
for all students, in all schools, institutions and regions of the Republic. At the time
of the OECD review, the major priorities for the next stage reform, as outlined by
the Minister of Education and Science, were:
• Ensuring the quality of education, including issues such as the disparities
between urban and rural schools, strengthening the responsiveness of
vocational education to the labour market and significant improvements in
the rigour and transparency of quality assurance in higher education.

41
© OECD 2002
• Accessibility, including issues related to disparities among regions and
different populations within the Republic as well as the financing of student
access and opportunity in higher education.
• Social conditions for access.
• Harmonisation of the education system for lifelong learning.
• Harmonisation (internal/external), including improving the ability of students
to move from one level to another in a system of lifelong learning as well as
harmonisation of policies across the government and between levels of
government.
• Renovation of the infrastructure of the whole system inherited from Soviet
times. Optimisation of the school network and meeting the challenges of
information technology (ICT) were major priorities.
• Financing reforms, including moving to financing based on “funding follows
the student”.
Structure of Lithuanian education system
The structure of the present education system in Lithuania is displayed in
Figure 9.
Major types of schools and institutions
The following is a brief description of the types of educational institutions in
Lithuania. Subsequent chapters of this review contain more detailed descrip-
tions.4
The listing of types of schools and periods of study will be affected by the
change to 10-year basic school now being implemented. Following the plan out-
lined in the General Concept of Education in Lithuania, beginning in 1999/2000
previous structure of the general education school (4+5+3) is replaced by the
structure 4+(4+2)+2.5
During the academic year 1998/99, the students did not take
the final examinations of the basic education after the 9th grade as under the pre-
vious scheme. Instead, the graduates from the 9th grade were offered to either
stay in the general education school for one more year, or complete the 10-year
general education at vocational schools. The transfer to the compulsory 10 years
education was completed in the year 2000. Also, the intent is that most students
will start compulsory education at age 6. The Law on Education provides that com-
pulsory education begins at either age 6 or 7, but traditionally most children begin
at age 7. Other reforms in general secondary education are described in Chapter 3
of this review.
Beginning in 1999/2000 general education is provided by the following institu-
tions. From the organisational point of view, primary, basic and secondary education
are often carried out at the same school.

Reviews
of
National
Policies
for
Education
–
Lithuania
42
©
OECD
2002 Figure 9. National education system of Lithuania
6
5
4
3
2
1
XXII
XXI
XX
XIX
XVIII
XVII
XVI
XV
XIV
XIII
XII
XI
X
IX
VIII
VI
V
IV
III
II
I
VII
27/28
26/27
25/26
23/24
24/25
22/23
21/22
20/21
19/20
18/19
18/19
17/18
16/17
16/17
15/16
14/15
13/14
12/13
11/12
10/11
9/10
8/9
6/7
7/8
Doctorate
Universities
Gymnasium
Colleges
(upper) Secondary school
Vocational
Schools Stage 4 Secondary
vocational
schools
Stage 3
Secondary
vocational
schools
Stage 2
Compulsory
Education
Primary school
Basic school
Basic voc. schools
Stage 1
Youth
School
Pre-school education
Age
Grades
ISCED
Level
Certficate/Diploma (exit to labour market)
Vertical
passing
Horizontal
passing
Semi
qualified
worker
Qualified
worker
Maturity Qualified
worker
and maturity
Associated
specialist
Specialist
Bachelor
Master/
Doctor
Master
6
5
4
3
2
1
XXII
XXI
XX
XIX
XVIII
XVII
XVI
XV
XIV
XIII
XII
XI
X
IX
VIII
VI
V
IV
III
II
I
VII
27/28
26/27
25/26
23/24
24/25
22/23
21/22
20/21
19/20
18/19
18/19
17/18
16/17
16/17
15/16
14/15
13/14
12/13
11/12
10/11
9/10
8/9
6/7
7/8
Doctorate
Universities
Gymnasium
Colleges
(upper) Secondary school
Vocational
Schools Stage 4 Secondary
vocational
schools
Stage 3
Secondary
vocational
schools
Stage 2
Compulsory
Education
Primary school
Basic school
Basic voc. schools
Stage 1
Youth
School
Pre-school education
Age
Grades
ISCED
Level
Certficate/Diploma (exit to labour market)
Vertical
passing
Horizontal
passing
Semi
qualified
worker
Qualified
worker
Maturity Qualified
worker
and maturity
Associated
specialist
Specialist
Bachelor
Master/
Doctor
Master

43
© OECD 2002
• Primary general education schools grades 1-4 (6/7-10/11 years old), over a
4-year period.
• Basic general education schools grades 5-10 (10/11-16/17 years old), over a
6-year period.
• Upper secondary general education schools grades 11-12 (16/17-18/19 years
old), over a 2-year period. The Maturity Certificate is issued after finishing
upper secondary school.
• Gymnasium grades 9-12 (14/15-18/19 years old), over a four-year period. In
the art gymnasium, students start when they are 6-9 years old. In May 1999,
the MoES adopted a Concept of the Gymnasium, specifying the tasks, struc-
ture, as well as requirements to the contents of education and management
of gymnasia. This Concept envisions that, among other points, gymnasia will
move from elite institutions to institutions accessible to a wider spectrum of
the secondary school-age population.
• Youth schools. These schools are designed for young people who have
failed to adapt at school and who lack motivation for learning; the age of
students is between 12-16 years. Such schools provide pre-vocational educa-
tion; therefore, together with general education knowledge, the students also
gain vocational work skills. However, students are not granted a certificate of
qualification after completing youth schools.
• Adult general education schools (training centres).
• Specialised schools of different types.
Vocational education and training, including:
• Stage I: Initial (basic) vocational education. These programmes provide basic
vocational education for students who are at least 14 years old, have not com-
pleted the general basic school programme and want to acquire an elementary
speciality. Such programmes usually take two or three years. Successful com-
pletion of the programme confers a qualification, which corresponds to the sec-
ond vocational attainment level of the CEDEFOP classification.6
According to
the ISCED/97 classification, the programmes qualify as level 2 programmes.
• Secondary vocational education at stages II and III (ISCED/3B and leading to a
qualification at the third level of the CEDEFOP classification). After the
change to 10-year basic education, it will be necessary to modify these pro-
grammes to reflect the higher level of general education of entering students.
The two stages are:
– Stage II programmes providing secondary vocational education, designed
for those who have graduated form basic schools. Such programmes take
3 years, after which only a vocational qualification is granted and the age of
students is 15/16-17/18 years old.

44
© OECD 2002
– Stage III programmes designed for those who have graduated from basic
school and want to acquire vocational qualification alongside with maturity
(secondary school) certificate. Such programmes last for 4 years and the
age of students is 15/16-19/20 years old.
• Post-secondary vocational education.
– Vocational education at Stage IV for those who have graduated from sec-
ondary schools (18/19 year olds), but want to acquire professional qualifi-
cations. Depending upon the complexity of the profession, the education
lasts for 1 or 2 years and students graduate with a qualification and are
ordinarily 20 to 21 years old. Specialties acquired are equal to those
acquired at stages II and III.
– Colleges at the post-secondary but non-higher education level.7
These
institutions, which evolved from former technicums, are for persons who
have secondary education (possessing the Maturity Certificate) and want
to acquire the qualification of an associated specialist. Duration of studies
is mostly 3 years, although in some cases (teacher training, nursing, etc.)
the studies may take up to four years.
• Higher education institutions (see Chapter 7 for definitions), including:
– Colleges at the higher education level. The Law on Higher Education
adopted in March 2000 provides the legal framework for colleges within
higher education. Through a rigorous process described in Chapter 7, a
number of the “vocational” colleges will be consolidated to form higher
education colleges as defined by the new Law.
– Universities and academies.
Trends in numbers of schools and enrolments
Number of schools
The numbers of schools and educational institutions in Lithuania have remained
relatively stable in recent years. The most significant change has been in the
increase in the number of secondary schools including gymnasia – a trend that
reflects both government policy and student and parent demand.
Non-state institutions
The laws in Lithuania provide that non-state education institutions may be estab-
lished, reorganised and liquidated by the legal persons registered in the Republic of
Lithuania, or individual citizens of the Republic of Lithuania upon receipt of the writ-
ten consent of the Ministry of Education and Science. Legal and natural persons of
other countries may establish educational institutions or be the founders of joint

45
© OECD 2002
educational institutions upon receipt of the written consent of the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Science. If education at private institutions leads to an education certificate
recognised by the State, then teaching at such institutions is allowed only after the
written consent of the Ministry of Education and Science (i.e. licence) is obtained.
Data in Table 5 show that non-state institutions have developed slowly in
Lithuania, except at the level of college-type schools. As described in Chapter 7,
the number of non-public institutions at the higher education level (colleges and
universities) is increasing.
Table 4. Educational Institutions in Lithuania
1. As reported in Chapter 7, three additional higher education institutions were recognised in the 1999/2000 period and
several colleges at the higher education level will be recognised in accordance with the Law on Higher Education.
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report, 1999. Vilnius,
1999, p. 26.
1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999
Total Private Total Private Total Private Total Private
Secondary education
(total) 2 361 20 2 373 20 2 386 24 2 375 23
Nursery schools
(Pre-schools) 141 1 151 2 149 2 150 2
Primary schools 836 12 828 8 834 10 830 9
Youth schools 19 – 21 – 22 – 23 –
Compulsory schools 592 5 597 8 594 7 583 6
Secondary schools 695 1 698 1 707 4 712 6
Of which: gymnasiums 14 – 25 – 42 – 59 –
Special schools 51 1 53 1 56 1 55 –
Adult schools 27 – 25 24 – 22 –
Post-secondary
vocational schools 106 1 105 1 107 1 104 1
College type schools 67 15 68 15 70 17 70 18
Higher education
institutions1
15 – 15 – 15 – 15 –
Table 5. Share of private schools in total number of schools
Percent
Sources: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report, 1999. Vilnius,
1999, p. 27. Statistics Lithuania, Education, A 360, Vilnius, 1999, p. 17.
Type of school 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999
General education 0.85 0.84 1.01 0.97
Vocational 0.94 0.95 0.93 0.96
College type 22.39 22.06 24.29 25.71
Higher education 0 0 0 0

46
© OECD 2002
Enrolments
Enrolment increases have occurred in all sectors after an initial drop immedi-
ately following re-establishment of independence (Table 6). The most significant
increases are occurring in the college sector (post-secondary institutions at the
non-higher education level) and at higher education institutions. From 1994/95
to 1998/99, college enrolments increased 41% and higher education enrolments
increased 45%. These trends reflect growing recognition of the labour market’s
demand for higher levels of knowledge and skill and a perception that higher edu-
cation is the best means to ensure preparation for – and a degree of economic
security in – a rapidly changing environment. As discussed in subsequent chap-
ters of this review (especially Chapter 7 on higher education), these trends have
significant implications for quality and financing.
Movement of students through the system
Compulsory education attendance and completion
The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania requires persons under 16 years
old to attend compulsory education. However, analysis of the statistical data
shows that during the economic disturbances from 1988 through to 1993 a group of
people did not complete even the compulsory school. The number of people
attending basic school as a percentage of the total population of the same age
group declined until 1993/94 at a low point of 85.7%, but the percentage has been
increasing steadily since then. Nevertheless, as emphasised in Chapter 6 on Social
Inclusion, the situation remains a matter of concern. In 1998, 6.6% of children
Table 6. Number of students in educational institutions
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report, 1999. Vilnius,
1999, p. 28. Statistics Lithuania, Education, A 360, Vilnius, 1999.
At the beginning
of academic year
Total students
Student enrolments by sector
Secondary school
students
Vocational
school
students
College
students
Higher
education
students
1990-1991 673 905 513 806 46 382 – 67 312
1993-1994 625 400 502 724 45 392 24 444 52 840
1994-1995 644 207 523 541 45 150 24 034 51 482
1995-1996 664 572 537 200 49 190 24 214 53 988
1996-1997 688 100 551 181 51 651 26 492 58 776
1997-1998 717 477 566 410 53 670 30 329 67 068
1998-1999 745 695 580 840 56 442 33 881 74 532

47
© OECD 2002
(some 20 000) aged from 11-15 were not attending grades 5-9 of comprehensive
school.
The significant number of people who failed to complete compulsory education
in earlier years, as well as number who still do not complete this level of education,
present serious challenges for adult education in Lithuania (see Chapter 5 and 6).8
Continuation of schooling after basic school
A steady increase is taking place in the percentage of the students who complete
basic (compulsory) school and then continue education at the upper secondary level
(general or vocational) (Figure 10).
Further education after basic school
An analysis9
of the flows of graduates from different levels of education
(Figure 11) indicates that:
• In 1998, 70% of basic school graduates entered general secondary schools
and 29.4% entered vocational schools, proportions that remained stable
from 1996 to 1998.
• There is a steadily increasing tendency of students who complete general
secondary education to continue on to post-secondary education, but the
Figure 10. Share of students continuing studies at secondary school
after graduating from basic school
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report,
1999. Vilnius, 1999, p. 29. Statistics Lithuania, Education, A 360, Vilnius, 1999, p. 22-23.
% %
1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998
40 40
55.6
61.6
63.4
64.8
68.2 68.3
70.0
1995
Years
% %
1992 1993 1994 1996 1997 1998
40 40
55.6
61.6
63.4
64.8
68.2 68.3
70.0
1995
Years

48
© OECD 2002
preference appears to be for higher education rather than vocational col-
leges (these data do not reflect the change in status of some colleges to
higher education in 2000). In 1998, 46.3% of general secondary school stu-
dents continued to higher education, compared to 44.7% in 1997, continuing
a trend in the late 1990s. The proportion of general secondary students
going to colleges decreased slightly from 1997 to 1998.
• The proportion of college students continuing on to higher education also
continues to increase, moving from 9.7% in 1997 to 10.9% in 1998.
• The proportion of students who enter vocational schools after basic school
and then continue either to colleges or to higher education remains small.
Only 1% continued to higher education in 1997 and 1998 and 2.3% continued
to colleges in 1997 and 3.2% in 1998.
While the OECD team recognises and supports the mission vocational educa-
tion and colleges to prepare students to enter the labour market immediately
upon completion of training, the team is concerned about the small proportion of
Figure 11. Flows of further education of graduates
from different educational institutions, 1998
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report,
1999. Vilnius, 1999, p. 30.
0.9%
8.5%
3.2%
0.6%
70.0%
46.3%
0.1%
30.6 %
10.9%
29.4%
Higher schools
Vocational
schools
Colleges
Basic education schools
Secondary schools
Graduates
admitted to other
educational
institutions, %
%
0.9%
8.5%
3.2%
0.6%
70.0%
46.3%
0.1%
30.6 %
10.9%
29.4%
Higher schools
Vocational
schools
Colleges
Secondary schools
Graduates
admitted to other
educational
institutions, %
%
0.9%
8.5%
3.2%
0.6%
70.0%
46.3%
0.1%
30.6 %
10.9%
29.4%
Higher schools
Vocational
schools
Colleges
Secondary schools
Graduates
admitted to other
educational
institutions, %
%
0.9%
8.5%
3.2%
0.6%
70.0%
46.3%
0.1%
30.6 %
10.9%
29.4%
Higher schools
Vocational
schools
Colleges
Secondary schools
Graduates
admitted to other
educational
institutions, %
%
0.9%
8.5%
3.2%
0.6%
70.0%
46.3%
0.1%
30.6 %
10.9%
29.4%
Higher schools
Vocational
schools
Colleges
Secondary schools
Graduates
admitted to other
educational
institutions, %
%

49
© OECD 2002
students who continue to higher education after either of these kinds of institu-
tions – most especially vocational schools. The OECD team is also concerned
about the limited student mobility between the different schools (e.g. between
vocational schools and colleges). From an international comparative perspective,
students should increasingly have the option to continue their education – either
immediately or perhaps later when they seek further education after a period in
the labour market. This problem underscores the importance of the Ministry of
Education and Science’s priorities to strengthen the general education curriculum
within secondary vocational education and to harmonise the different levels and
types of educational opportunity in Lithuania.
The increasing demand for post-secondary education – and especially for higher
education – reinforces the importance of colleges within higher education and the
development of a binary higher education system, as authorised by the new Law on
Higher Education. The new colleges should provide an alternative to a university-
level education for students who seek a more applied or practical higher education to
prepare them for skilled professions in the labour market (see Chapter 7).
Schools for ethnic minorities
There are pre-school education institutions and general education schools of
all stages for ethnic minorities in Lithuania. These schools provide children and
youth with the opportunity to obtain a general education based on their own cul-
ture. Most of the teaching in these schools is in the students’ mother tongue, but
Lithuanian must be one of the languages taught. Upon graduation, a student must
be sufficiently fluent in Lithuanian to be able to continue education, including
higher education, in the official language of Lithuania.
Statistics of the recent years below (Table 7) illustrates the dynamics of
distribution of general education schools:
Table 7. Distribution of schools and students by teaching languages
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report, 1999.
Vilnius, 1999, p. 34.
Schools where the main
teaching language is:
1995-1996 1997-1998 1998-1999
Number
of schools
Students
(thous.)
Number
of schools
Students
(thous.)
Number
of schools
Students
(thous.)
Lithuanian 2 038 437.9 2 068 467.6 2 066 481.7
Russian 89 42.5 82 39.5 76 38.2
Polish 55 8.9 63 11.3 71 12.4
Belarus 1 0.1 1 0.1 1 0.1

50
© OECD 2002
The number of Russian schools and the proportion of students attending
these schools are decreasing. The trend is for parents of Russian nationality to
have their children attend Lithuanian schools. In contrast, within the period
of 1994 to 1998, the number of students at Polish schools increased by 1.4 times
and several new Polish schools were established.
In vocational and college type schools there are groups where teaching is con-
ducted in Russian or Polish, although Table 8 suggests that increasingly more people
of nationalities other than Lithuanian choose to study in Lithuanian groups.
Distribution of responsibilities
The Ministry of Education and Science (MoES) is the principal state entity
responsible for education policy in Lithuania. However, the Government and the
Ministry of Finance play significant roles in education policy, especially in estab-
lishing priorities and through the state budget and financing policies. The MoES
and the Ministry of Internal Affairs have direct responsibility for certain institu-
tions (essentially vocational schools and colleges and certain institutions for
children with special needs).10
These central authorities have the responsibility to
establish, reorganise or close institutions under their direct authority. The Ministry
of Social Security and Labour has a number of direct responsibilities related to
education and training. Other Ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture,
through the Regional Development Department and the Ministry of National
Economy play important roles.
The ten counties (apskritis) are regional administrations of the central govern-
ment. The governors are appointed by and accountable to the Government. Pub-
lic administration reforms were enacted in 1994 to strengthen government
Table 8. Number of students of nationalities other than Lithuanian
at vocational and college type schools
Source: European Training Foundation, National Observatory in Lithuania, National Observatory Country Report, 1999.
Vilnius, 1999, p. 35.
Number of students Percentage
1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1995 1996 1997 1998
Vocational schools:
Non-Lithuanians 6 100 6 395 6 589 7 578 12.4 12.4 12.3 13.4
Study in Russian or Polish 5 024 4 752 4 756 4 769 10.2 9.2 8.9 8.4
Colleges:
Non-Lithuanians 3 100 3 477 4 028 5 718 12.8 13.1 13.3 16.9
Study in Russian or Polish 1 038 872 775 449 4.3 3.3 2.6 1.3

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

—The real name of this shrew does not appear to have reached
posterity, but she gave rise to the sign of Mother Red-cap on the
Hampstead Road, a.d. 1676, and was probably the person
represented on that sign; to her portrait, which may be found in a
book published by "Arnett, Westminster, 1819," entitled Portraits and
Lives of Remarkable and Eccentric Characters, are annexed the
following lines:
"You've often seen (from Oxford tipling house)
Th' effigies of Shipton fac'd Mother Louse,
Whose pretty pranks (tho' some they might excel)
With this old trot's ne'er gallop'd parallel—
'Tis Mother Damnable! that monstrous thing,
Unmatch'd by Macbeth's wayward women's ring,
For cursing, scolding, fuming, flinging fire
I' th' face of madam, lord, knight, gent, cit, squire;
Who (when but ruffled into the least pet)
With cellar door-key into pocket get—
Then no more ale; and now the fray begins!
'Ware heads, wigs, hoods, scarfs, shoulders, sides,
and shins!
While these dry'd bones, in a Westphalian bag,
(Through the wrinkled weasan of her shapeless
crag)
Send forth such dismal shrieks and uncouth noise,
As fills the town with din, the streets with boys;
Which makes some think, this fierce she-dragon fell
Can scarce be match'd by any this side hell.
So fam'd both far and near, is the renown
Of Mother Damnable of Kentish Town.
Wherefore this symbol of the cat's we'll give her,
Because, so curst, a dog, would not dwell with her."
James Cornish.

Miniature of Cromwell (Vol. v., p. 189.).
—At the last meeting of the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, a
curious jewel, belonging to the Earl of Leven, and entailed in his
lordship's family, was exhibited by the Hon. Leslie Melville. It is
believed to have been transmitted by the Speaker of the House of
Commons to the Earl of Leven on the occasion of the surrender of
Charles I., when the earl was in command of the army at Newark.
The jewel encloses a beautiful little miniature of Oliver Cromwell.
E. N.
Etymology of Church (Vol. v., p. 79.).
—Gieseler, in his Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, vol. i., p. 1. ed.
4., says that the word kirche (and consequently church) is most
probably derived from τὸ κυριακόν. In support of this opinion, he
quotes Walafrid Strabo, who wrote about a.d. 840:
"Si autem quæritur qua occasione ad vos vestigia hæc
Græcitatis advenerint, dicendum—præcipue a Gothis, cum eo
tempore quo ad fidem Christianam, licet non recto itinere [i.e.
by means of Arianism], perducti sunt, in Græcorum provinciis
commorantes, nostrum, i.e. theotiscum, sermonem
habuerint."
He adds that Ulphilas is evidence for the general adoption of
Greek ecclesiastical terms by the Goths; and he confirms the idea of
a Greek derivation by the remark that derivatives of κυριακόν occur,
not only in the Teutonic languages, but in those of the Sclavonic
nations, whose conversion proceeded from Greece. Thus, the
Bohemian word is cyrkew, the Russian zerkow, the Polish cerkiew.
The use of derivatives of ecclesia (which I would remind Mr. Stephens
is also originally Greek) in the Roman languages, no doubt arises
from the circumstance that that word had been adopted into Latin,
whereas the other had not.
J. C. R.

The Königsmarks (Vol. v., pp. 78. 115. 183.).
—It is certain from the State Trials, ix. 31., that Count Charles
John Königsmark, the murderer of Mr. Thynn, was the elder of the
two brothers; for it appeared on the trial that the younger, Philip
Christopher (a dozen years later the gallant of the young Princess of
Hanover), was at that time a youth still under the care of a travelling
tutor, who was examined on the trial. This is stated in the Quarterly
Review, art. "Lexington Papers," to which inquirers had been already
referred (Vol. v., p. 115.). I am a little at a loss to account for J. R.
J.'s distribution of his epithets; he calls the case of the elder brother
"mysterious," and that of the second "well-known," when in truth
the former case is, and has been well-known these hundred and fifty
years. Whereas the second case was so long a mystery that it was
nowhere told but in a corner of Horace Walpole's Reminiscences,
and he was mistaken as to the identity of the victim,—a mistake but
recently cleared up. I believe, too, that until the discovery of the
Lexington Papers, no one altogether believed the story; and the
minuter details of the case, such as by whose order, and how, and
when and where the deed was done, and how and where the body
was disposed of, are still so far mysterious that Walpole's
Reminiscences and the Princess's own notes differ essentially on all
those points.
C.
L'Homme de 1400 Ans (Vol. v., p 175.).
—I have not immediate means of access to the French work
referred to in No. 121. of "N. & Q.," and therefore do not know how
far the personage there alluded to is described as "imaginary;" but it
appears to me that Cagliostro may have intended reference to his
great friend and predecessor in Rosicrucian philosophy, the Count de
St. Germain. This arch-impostor, who attained no small celebrity at
the court of Louis XV., pretended to be possessed of the elixir of life,
by means of which he had prolonged his existence from a period

which he varied according to the supposed credulity of his audience;
at one time carrying back the date of his birth to the
commencement of the Christian Era, at others being content to
assume an antiquity of a few centuries, being assisted in his
imposture by a most accurate memory of the history of the times,
the events of which he related, and also by an able accomplice who
attended him as a servant. On one occasion, when describing at a
dinner table a circumstance which had occurred at the court of "his
friend Richard I. of England," he appealed to his attendant valet for
the confirmation of his story, who, with the greatest coolness
replied: "You forget, Sir, I have only been 500 years in your service."
"True," said his master, "it was a little before your time." The origin
of this able charlatan, of whom many other amusing stories are
related, is not known. He was sometimes thought, from the Jewish
cast of his features, to be the "wandering Jew;" while others
reported that he was the son of an Arabian princess, and that his
father was a Salamander.
E. H. Y.
Close of the Wady Mokatteb Question (Vol. iv., p. 481.; Vol. v.,
pp. 31. 87. 159., &c.).
—I should not have said another word on the above question, had
not Dr. Todd seen fit to give a somewhat different turn to the
criticism on Num. xi. 26. As it is, I must beg space to say, that it is
the learned whose attention I solicit to examine the value of our
respective criticisms, and not that of the unlearned, as Dr. Todd
intimates. I do not think that there are many regular readers of the
"N. & Q." who can be classed amongst the unlearned. To the
judgment of the learned, therefore, I now resign this protracted
disquisition.
Moses Margoliouth.
Was Queen Elizabeth dark or fair? (Vol. v., p. 201.).

—Paul Hentzner, who was presented to Queen Elizabeth at the
palace of Greenwich, describes her majesty, who was then in her
sixty-fifth year, as "very majestic; her face oblong, fair, but wrinkled;
her eyes small, yet black and pleasant. She wore false hair, and that
red." Delaroche, however, in his well-known picture at the
Luxembourg, has given her a very swarthy complexion.
Query: What was the celebrated Lunebourg table, of some of the
gold of which, according to Hentzner, a small crown which she wore
was reported to be made?
H. C.
Workington.
Meaning of Knarres (Vol. v., p. 200.).
—A knare is a knot or lump, "knarry, stubby, knotty" (Coles's
Dictionary, 1717). It was, no doubt, as J. Br. says, sometimes
written gnare; and in that form is the root of Shakspeare's "gnarled
(or knotty) oak." In Norfolk and Suffolk, small plantations—not
"scrubby woods"—are called carrs, as J. Br. states, but certainly not
from knare, but, as I rather think, from their square shape, carré.
Those that I am acquainted with in those counties are generally of
that form, and look like plantations made on purpose for game.
When you hear a carr mentioned in those counties, you always think
of a pheasants' preserve. I know not whether the same word and
meaning extend inland. Nor do I think that knare has any affinity
with snare.
C.
In reply to your correspondent's Query, I beg to submit the
following, which may prove of utility in tracing out the meaning of
the word, viz.:—Forby's Glossary by Turner, vol. i. p. 56., thus has it:
"Car, s. a wood or grove on a moist soil, generally of alders."
We have them in this country; also the term "osier-cars."
In Kersey's English Dictionary, 1708, we have thus:

"GNAR or Gnur, a hard knot in wood."
In Bailey's Dictionary, 1753, we have it thus:
"Gnarr [Knorre, Teutonic], a hard knot in a tree.—Chaucer."
May it not thus mean a knot or clump of trees?
It is also allied to quarry, from the French carré, which signifies a
bed, not only for digging stones for building purposes, but also as
they are sometimes called, osier-beds, alder-beds.
The towns "Narborough" and "Narford" in Norfolk are so called
from their being situated on the river "Nar;" the one a city or town
on the river; and the other being, by means of a ford, originally over
it. Both were originally written Nere as the prefix.
J. N. C.
Cheap Maps (Vol. v., p. 174.).
—Paterfamiliæ is informed that a good and not expensive map of
Borneo has been recently published by Augustus Petermann; and a
section of the Isthmus of Panama, showing the railway from
Chargres to Panama, may be had of the Admiralty agent for a few
pence.
Northman.
English Free Towns (Vol. v., pp. 150. 206.).
—A short ride from Oxford will take your correspondent J. H.
Parker to one or two market towns in Berks, answering to the
description given of the French Villes Anglaises. Wokingham will
afford an illustration somewhat resembling Winchelsea; the town is
of triangular form, the streets meeting in a central area, which
contains a quaint old market-house: it is within the prescribed limits
of Windsor Forest, and the Forest Courts were formerly held there—
the charter of incorporation has existed from time immemorial.
Kt.

Sir Alexander Cumming and the Cherokees.
—There is a Query by S. S. (Vol. iii., p. 39.) about Sir Alexander
Cumming and the Cherokees, which I do not think has yet had any
reply. Vol. iii., p. 152., a replyist refers to a work in which is an
autobiography of the baronet. I have not had an opportunity to refer
to that, but I suspect it would not meet the question, as Sir
Alexander Cumming of Coulter, who was created a Nova Scotia
baronet 1695, and Alexander Cumming, the King of the Cherokees,
were diverse persons. The last died in 1775, and according to Lysons
was buried at East Barnet. At vol. iv. p. 20., under Barnet, Lysons
gives the following account bearing on the Cherokees:
"In 1729 he (Cumming) was induced, by a dream of Lady
Cumming's, to undertake a voyage to America, for the
purpose of visiting the Cherokee nations. He left England on
the 13th of September, and arrived at Charlestown on the 5th
of December. On the 11th of March following he set out for
the Indians' country; on the 3rd of April, 1730, he was
crowned commander and chief ruler of the Cherokee nations,
in a general meeting of chiefs at Nequisee among the
mountains; he returned to Charlestown the 13th of April with
six Indian chiefs, and on the 5th of June arrived at Dover; on
the 18th he presented the chiefs to George II. at Windsor,
where he laid his crown at his Majesty's feet; the chiefs also
did homage, laying four scalps at the king's feet, to show that
they were an overmatch for their enemies, and five eagles'
tails as emblems of victory. These circumstances are
confirmed by the newspapers of that time, which are full of
the proceedings of the Cherokees whilst in England, and
speak of them as brought over by Sir Alexander Cumming.
Their portraits were engraved on a single sheet. In 1766
Archbishop Secker appointed him one of the pensioners in the
Charter-House, where he died at a very advanced age."
His son, who succeeded him in the title, became deranged in his
intellects, and died about three years ago, in a state of indigence, in

the neighbourhood of Red Lion Street, Whitechapel. He had been a
captain in the army: the title became extinct at his death.
C. G.
Junius (Vol. iii., p. 411.; Vol. v., p. 159.).
—As in No. 120. J. R. assumes the acrimonious bearing of M. J. in
No. 82., I am induced to refer to the stale, flat, and unprofitable
question of the authenticity of the Letters of Junius. If those
gentlemen will refer to No. 82., p. 412., fifth line from the bottom,
and read "who once" for "and once," they will find any acrimony
unnecessary; and that the use of the word "and" was an accidental
error. This useless riddle has occupied too much of the time of able
and of idle men, on what is, moreover, a worthless subject. Dr.
Johnson, in his paper on the "Falkland Islands," has given a severe
but just criticism on Junius, and truly says, that most readers
mistake the "venom of the shaft for the vigour of the bow." Junius
has laid down no great principle, illustrated no political truth, nor
given any clear and irrefutable proof of contemporaneous history. To
attribute reprehensible motives always shows lowness and vulgarity
of mind. Junius gives one the idea of a democratic ruff mounted on
stilts going, from natural predilection, through the mud and dirt, and
splashing it wantonly, so as to bespatter and annoy a few, and to
excite the attention and surprise of many; but never to produce a
conviction of being just and true on any one.—Requiescat in pace.
Ægrotus.
Hell-Rake (Vol. v., p. 162.).
—The explanation given by J. Sansom of the Devonian use of the
term helling or heleing, signifying the roof or covering of a church,
corresponds to the Midland meaning of the word hilling, s. bed-
clothes or coverlet: "She has got no hilling at all." Ger. Hüllen, to
wrap one's self up; Saxon, hilan. In Warwickshire used for the covers
of a book: "It is the hilling which makes it so expensive." Hilled, p.

hilled up, i.e. covered with bed-clothes. Leicestershire is particularly
rich in quaint phrases and proverbs.
In Leicestershire it is common for the wives of farmers to style
their husbands "the Master," and husbands to call their wives
"Mamy;" and a labourer will often distinguish his wife by the title of
"the O'man." There are people now living who remember the time
when Goody and Dame, "Gaffer" and "Gammer," were in vogue
among the peasantry.
Kt.
Ambassadors addressed as Peers (Vol. v., p. 213.).
—I must leave you to judge whether a reference to Howell's
Familiar Letters is likely to be new to your correspondent MR. J. G.
Nichols, or of any service to him in his inquiry on this subject. His
note reminded me that Howell had respectfully used the words "My
Lord," and "Your Lordship," apparently in the modern sense of "Your
Excellency," in his letters to the Right Hon. Sir Peter Wichts, and to
the Right Hon. Sir Sackvill Crow, ambassadors at Constantinople.
See Howell's Familiar Letters, Part I. Letters 115. 130.; Part II.
Letters 18. 27.
C. Forbes.
Temple.
Red Book of the Irish Exchequer (Vol. iii., p. 6.).
—J. F. F. may find some information in Mr. Mason's description of
the sketch in the 13th vol. of the Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy.
R. H.
Yankee, Derivation of (Vol. iii., pp. 260. 437. 461.).
—I send you a Note on the etymology of this word, which I do not
see noticed by any of your correspondents:

"When the New England Colonies were first settled, the
inhabitants were obliged to fight their way against many
nations of Indians. They found but little difficulty in subduing
them all except one tribe, who were known by the name of
Yankoos, which signifies invincible. After the waste of much
blood and treasure, the Yankoos were at last subdued by the
New Englandmen. The remains of this nation (agreeable to
the Indian custom) transferred their name to their
conquerors. For a while they were called Yankoos; but from a
corruption, common to names in all languages, they got
through time the name of Yankee."—New York Gazetteer,
June 1, 1775.
R. H.
Indian Jugglers; Ballad of Ashwell Thorp (Vol. iv., p. 472.).
—The correspondent who inquires about the Indian jugglers' trick
of "growing a mango," is referred to Blomfield's History of Norfork,
vol. v. p. 155. (8vo edition), where he will find a curious song, called
the "Ballad of Ashwell Thorp," (said to be made in Sir Thomas
Knevet's time, who was Sheriff of Norfolk in 1579, and died about
1616), showing that a similar trick was known in England at that
time. An account is here given of an acorn being sown in the middle
of a hall, growing up in a few minutes to a prodigious tree, bearing
acorns, which ripened and fell; and how, after the tree had been
with much difficulty cut down by two woodcutters, the trunk and
fragments were finally carried away by two goslings. The feat is said
to have been performed by a Londoner. The ballad-monger has
perhaps improved a little upon the simple facts of the case. He
concludes by saying:
"This story is very true
Which I have told to you,
'Tis a wonder you didn't heare it.
I'll lay a pint of wine,

If Parker and old Hinde
Were alive, that they would swear it."
C. W. G.
Meaning of Crabis (Vol. v., p. 165.).
—In quoting the note to Lord Lindsay's Christian Art, extracted
from MS. Collectanea of Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, and
illustrating a story of the Pelican, your correspondent F. W. I. wishes
for a translation of the word crabis, which Sir David makes use of in
describing the undutiful behaviour of the young pelicans towards
their paternal parent.
The old Scotch verb, crab, signified to tease, vex, annoy. As an
active verb it is now obsolete, but it is still in use, at least its
participles are in a passive sense. I have frequently heard crabbing
used to describe the state of mind of one out of humour or sulking.
Crabbed has long been an English word, and as such has its place in
Johnson's Dictionary. It is not in such common use to the south as it
is to the north of the Tweed; but from the Land's End to John-o'-
Groat's, it is used to designate a chronic form of the same failing,
which, in its temporary form, is described above as "crabbing." It is,
moreover, applied to man's works as well as to his temper. A crabbed
hand and a crabbed style of writing are expressions of every-day use
in Scotland, and are eminently descriptive of the effect of such
writing upon the temper of the reader.
W. A. C.
Ormsary.
"'Twas whisper'd in Heaven" (Vol. v., p. 214.).
—In Number 122. you answer an inquiry of Diabolus Gander, by
stating your belief that the enigma, "'Twas whisper'd in Heaven,"
&c., is by Lord Byron.

Although it was for some time attributed to this author, it became
subsequently well known to be the work of Miss Catherine
Fanshawe, in whose handwriting I have seen it, together with
another unpublished enigma of hers, in the album of a lady of my
acquaintance.
E. H. Y.
"Troilus and Cressida," Act I. Sc. 3. (Vol. v., pp. 178. 235.).
—The meaning which your correspondent wishes to give the word
dividable seems exactly the one wanted in this passage; but need
we go so far from its apparent derivation as to derive it from divitias,
dare?—One of the meanings of divido is to distribute,—why then
should not dividable mean distributive, distributing their riches, &c.?
C. T. A.
Lyndon Rectory, Uppingham.
Stone-pillar Worship (Vol. v., p. 121.).
—The article "Hermae," in Smith's Antiquities, throws some light
on this subject. The pillar set up as a witness (see Genesis there
quoted, and the Classics passim)[5]
is of course closely connected
with the idea of sanctity attached to it. The Laplanders in selecting
the unhewn stone "in the form in which it was shaped by the hand
of the Creator Himself," seem, to a certain extent, unwittingly to
have obeyed a command of the Creator: see Exodus, xx. 25.
[5]
Is it not as the witness and keeper of Holy
Writ that St. Paul calls the church Στύλος καὶ
ἑδραίωμα τῆς ἀληθείας?
A. A. D.
John of Padua (Vol. v., pp. 79. 161.).
—I am afraid we are not likely to obtain much additional
information about John of Padua. The only account of him which I

have ever met with is contained in the Earl of Orford's Works (vol. iii.
p. 100. et seqq., edit. 1798). The warrant, dated 1544, is there
copied from Rymer's Fœdera?; and from an expression which it
contains, the inference is drawn that "John of Padua was not only an
architect, but musician." I am not aware whether or no there is any
other authority for such inference, but, if there is not, I submit that
the evidence is far from conclusive. The words in the warrant run
thus: A fee of two shillings per diem is granted to John, "in
consideratione boni et fidelis servitii quod dilectus serviens noster
Johannes de Padua nobis in architecture, ac aliis in re musica
inventis impendit ac impendere intendit."
Now, Sir, I submit that res musica, in this passage, is used in the
same sense as the Greek ἡ μουσικὴ for "the fine arts;" and that the
passage can have no reference to the art of the musician.
If John of Padua had been a musician, we should most probably
meet with his name in some of the accounts of plays and pageants
during this reign; and the silence of your correspondents seems to
imply that no information concerning him is to be obtained from
those sources.
In the absence of further proof, then, I have no hesitation in
proposing to the critical readers of "N. & Q.," a resolution that, It is
the opinion of this council that there is no sufficient evidence that
John of Padua was a musician.
Erica.
Modern Greek Names of Places (Vol. iv., p. 470.; Vol. v., pp. 14.
209.).
—Your correspondent L. H. J. T. says, at p. 209.:—
"That with the utmost deference to SIR J. Emerson Tennent, he
must deny that Cos, Athens, or Constantinople have been
called by the Greeks Stanco, Satines, or Stamboul. These
corruptions have been made by Turks, Venetians, and
Englishmen."

This mode of expression would imply that the opinion which he
corrects was held by me, whereas I have stated (Vol. v., p. 14.),
even more explicitly than he, that—
"The barbarism in question is to be charged less upon the
modern Greeks themselves, than upon the European nations,
Sclavonians, Normans, and Venetians, and, later still, the
Turks; who seized upon their country on the dismemberment
of the Roman empire. The Greeks themselves, no doubt,
continued to spell their proper names correctly; but their
invaders, ignorant of their orthography, and even of their
letters, were forced to write the names of places in characters
of their own, guided solely by the sound."
J. Emerson Tennent.
Beocherie, alias Parva Hibernia (Vol. v., p. 201.).
—Beocera-ig, i.e. the bee-keeper's island, was one of the small
islets adjacent to the larger one, Avallon, whereon the Abbey of
Glastonbury stood. Glastonbury was early resorted to by Irish
devotees; St. Patrick and St. Bridget necessarily resided there.
Concerning Beocherie or Bekery, we are told that there "olim sancta
Brigida perhendinavit" (MS. Ashmol. 790, quoted in the Monasticon,
vol. i. p. 22.). This accounts for the name Parva Hibernia. Beocera-
gent, in charter 652, is the name of some landmark or boundary.
There can be little doubt that we should read beocera-geat, i.e. bee-
keeper's gate, as suggested by Mr. Kemble in the preface to the third
vol. of Codex Dipl. p. xxvi. The duties and rights of the beocere,
beo-ceorl, or bocherus, are described in the "Rectitudines
singularum personarum," Thorpe's Anc. Laws, vol. i. p. 434.
C. W. G.
Ruffles, when worn (Vol. v., pp. 12. 139.).

—Planché, in his History of British Costume, says that during the
reign of Henry VIII., "the sleeves were ruffed, or ruffled at the hand,
as we perceive in the portrait of Henry. They were not added to the
shirt till the next century."
R. S. F.
Perth.
Long Meg of Westminster (Vol. ii., pp. 131. 172.; Vol. v., p.
133.).
—As an instance of this title being applied (as Fuller has it) "to
persons very tall," I subjoin the following notice of a death, which
appeared in a newspaper of September, 1769:
"At London, Peter Branan, aged 104. He was six feet six
inches high, and was commonly called Long Meg of
Westminster. He had been a soldier from eighteen years of
age."
This notice is extracted in the Edinburgh Antiquarian Magazine,
but without mentioning the quarter from which it was taken.
R. S. F.
Perth.
Family Likenesses (Vol. v., p. 7.).
—To trace a family likeness for a century is not at all uncommon.
Any one who knows the face of the present Duke of Manchester will
see a strong likeness to his great ancestor, through six generations,
the Earl of Manchester of the Commonwealth, as engraved in
Lodge's Portraits. The following instance is more remarkable.
Elizabeth Hervey was Abbess of Elstow in 1501. From her brother
Thomas is descended, in a direct line, the present Marquis of Bristol.
If any one will lay the portrait of Lord Bristol, in Mr. Gage
Rokewode's Thingoe Hundred, by the side of the sepulchral brass of
the Abbess of Elstow, figured in Fisher's Bedfordshire Antiquities,

they cannot but be struck by the strong likeness between the two
faces.
This is valuable evidence on the disputed point, whether portraits
were attempted in sepulchral brasses.
Vokaros.
"A Roaring Meg" (Vol. v., p. 105.).
—In Ghent, in Flanders, there is still to be seen a wrought-iron
gun, a sister of Mons Meg, the famous piece of artillery in Edinburgh
Castle. She is named Dulle Griete, Mad Margery, or Margaret, and
may possible be the elder sister after whom the rest of the family
have been named.
Northman.
Lyte Family (Vol. v., p. 78).
—A painted window representing the arms of the Lytes, and the
families with whom they intermarried for many generations, is in the
little church of Angersleigh, near Taunton.
E. M.
Nuremberg Token (Vol. v., p. 201).
—The legend of H. C. K.'s medal seems to me to be the following:
—
"Hans Kravwinkle in Nuremberg"
(the name of the issuer of the token).
"Gottes Reich bleibt ewig [und understood] ewig?"
"The kingdom of God endures for ever and ever."
Possibly a tradesman's token.
G. H. K.
The Old Countess of Desmond (Vol. iv., passim.).

—Your several correspondents whose able remarks have excited
much interest with regard to this very extraordinary individual,
appear to have overlooked the fact that a cabinet portrait by
Rembrandt is to be seen in the collection of the Marquess of Exeter
at Burleigh; the age, costume, &c., corresponding exactly with the
description given by Pennant, as quoted by A. B. R.
Kt.
Pimlico (Vol. i., pp. 388. 474; Vol. ii., p. 13.)
—I find the two following mentions of Pimlico as a public place of
entertainment:
1. In A Joviall Crew, or the Merry Beggars, by R. Brome: first
acted, 1641, at Drury Lane, edit. 1708:
"To Pimblicoe we'll go,
Where merry we shall be,
With every man a can in 's hand
And a wench upon his knee.
And a begging," &c.
2. Massinger's City Madam:
"Or exchange wenches,
Coming from eating pudding pies on a Sunday
At Pimlico or Islington."
G. H. K.
"Wise above that which is written" (Vol. v., p. 228.).
—This phrase is evidently a quotation of 1 Cor. iv. 6., though not
according to the authorised translation, the words in the original
being μὴ ὑπὲρ ὃ γέγραπται φρονεῖν. Here, however, the verb cannot
mean "to be wise," which is the meaning given to it in the phrase in
question; for the context requires it to be taken (as in our version) in
the sense of "elation of mind, to the despising of others."

The Query of R. C. C. reminds me of another phrase, which in a
somewhat similar way one hears continually quoted in sermons, &c.,
as a text: viz. "that he that runs may read." I should like to know
whether this strange perversion of Hab. ii. 2., which seems to be the
source whence it is derived, can be accounted for in any way.
F. A.
Sir John Cheke (Vol. v., p. 200.).
—C. B. T. will find an account of Sir John Cheke in Harwood's
Alumni Etonenses, under the head of "Provosts of King's College." I
send also from an old MS. the following account; not being
responsible for its accuracy, nor for the correctness of the
references:
"Sir John Cheke put into the Provostship by Edward VI., April
1, 1548, though not qualified, as not of the Society, nor in
orders. See his Life by Strype; Fuller, Hist. Camb., 119.;
Burnet, ii. 115., who says that in consequence of the
controversy with Gardiner about the Gr. Pronuntiation he was
either put from the chair, or willingly left it. This was not the
case. He did not quit it till sent for by the King, as appears
from the Life of his successor, Nic. Carr, p. 59.; see, too,
Wood Hist. and Antiq., lib. i. p. 26. His mother stood
godmother to the child of a poor woman in Cambridge Gaol
on suspicion of murder. (See Latimer's First Serm. p. 125.,
edit. 1635; Burnet, ii. 213.; Wood, Hist. and Antiq., I. ii. 251.;
Burnet, ii. 51., and App. 150.; Fuller, 29. 127.; and Fox, Mart.;
Burnet, ii. 155.; Burnet, ii. 8. 203.; Benefices conferred on
Laymen, Walker's Attempt, ii. 68.; Wood, Athen., i. 111.)
Burnet and Fuller's account of his retiring on the King's death
do not agree. For his works see Bale, and his Life, by Dr.
Gerard Langbaine, before a work of Cheke's, The True
Subject to the Rebel, or the Hurt of Sedition: Oxon, 1641,
4to. Haddon wrote his epitaph. See Ascham's Letters: Oxon,
1703, p. 436., about his recantation. See Leland's Cygnea

Cantio, 1558, p. 21.; and Preface to Hickes's Thesaurus, 1.
2."
J. H. L.
Richard Earl of Chepstow (Vol. v., p. 204.).
—H. C. K. will find in the Conquest of Ireland, by Giraldus
Cambrensis, my authority for styling Richard Strongbow Earl of
Chepstow: e.g. Dermod MacMurrough addresses a letter to him as
follows: "Dermon MacMorogh, prince of Leinster, to Richard earle of
Chepstoue, and son of Gilbert the Earle, greeting," &c. I quote from
Hooker's translation, ed. 1587, p. 11. Hooker, in a note, p. 4., says
that Chepstow in times past was named Strigulia, "whereof Richard
Strangbow being earle, he took his name, being called Comes
Strigulensis."
H. C. K.'s second conjecture, as to the parentage given to Earl
Richard in the Ormonde charter, seems to be the correct one. I
cannot call to mind an instance of a second Christian name used at
so early a date.
The first coat given to the De Clares, in Berry's Encycl., viz. ar. on
a chief az. three crosses pattée fichée of the field, occurs on the
shield of the effigy in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, popularly said
to be that of Richard Earl of Pembroke. Query, does Berry's
statement rest on the authority of that tradition? if so, it has a very
sandy foundation. I have very little doubt that the bearing visible on
the shield, as represented on the earl's seal attached to the charter
in possession of the Earl of Ormonde, is intended to represent three
chevrons.
H. C. K. has my best thanks for his communication. I shall be still
more obliged by an extract from the pedigree in his possession.
James Graves.
Kilkenny.
Maps of Africa (Vol. v., p. 236.).

—If your correspondent, who inquires about maps of Africa, will
consult the twenty-first map in Spruner's Atlas Antiquus, published
at Gotha in 1850, I think he will find what he desires.
E. C. H.
Lady Diana Beauclerk.
—I have to thank you for inserting my memorandum respecting
my miniature of Oliver Cromwell. I must further trespass on your
kindness to correct an error (and a very inexcusable one) in my last
statement, to which the kindness of a friend has called my attention.
Lady Diana Beauclerk was not, as I stated, a daughter of the Duke
of St. Alban's, but of the Duke of Marlborough (Charles, second
duke), and married the Hon. Topham Beauclerk, who was the friend
of Dr. Johnson, and a well-known personage in his day.
The miniature therefore may have been "long" either in her own
family, or in that of her husband; but I presume she meant in her
own. The Churchills were as much connected with the "Stuarts" as
afterwards with their successors. I regret this inattention on my part.
C. Fox.
"Litera scripta manet" (Vol. v., pp. 200. 237.).
—I was intimate some time since with a gentleman who had been
a student in Maynooth College, and who frequently used to quote
the words "Litera scripta manet," with the addition, "Verbum imbelle
perit." This may give a clue to the source of the phrase, which may
be found probably in some ecclesiastical or theological work of days
gone by.
A. L.
"Qui vult plene," &c. (Vol. v., p. 228.).
—The first passage respecting which W. Dn. inquires ("Qui vult
plenè," &c.) will be found in the first chapter of the first book of

Thomas à Kempis, De Imitatione Christi.
L. M. M.
Engraved Portraits (Vol. v., p. 176.).
—In reply to S. S., the best Catalogue of Engraved Portraits is one
published by the late Mr. Edward Evans, of Great Queen Street,
Lincoln's Inn Fields, many years since; and although the last number
is 11,756, yet, as two and three portraits are mentioned under the
same figures, the total number noticed greatly exceeds the above.
I believe a new edition is, or shortly will be, in the press.
J. B. Whitborne.

Miscellaneous.
NOTES ON BOOKS, ETC.
So long as the people of this country are animated by that deep-
rooted love of true liberty and national independence, which have
proved at so many momentous periods of our history to be at once
their ruling principle and the country's safeguard, so long will the
memory of Gustavus Vasa, the patriotic king of Sweden, be to all
Englishmen an object of the deepest interest. The publication
therefore of a History of Gustavus Vasa, with Extracts from his
Correspondence,—which, although based upon the narrative of his
startling adventures, his gallant exploits, and the picture of his manly
sincere character, and his quaint but telling eloquence, given by
Geijer in his History of Sweden, has been carefully elaborated by
references to original authorities, and rendered more picturesque by
the introduction of copious extracts from his correspondence,—is
good service rendered to the cause of historic truth. The writer is
obviously an earnest, able, and painstaking man; and we think that
his work will be received (as it deserves) with such favour as to
induce him to furnish us with other illustrations of the history of the
North.
If ever mortal man was a hero to his valet de chambre, such was
the "Great Cardinal" to his gentleman usher Master George
Cavendish; and to this fact and the reverent spirit which pervades
his narration, may the great popularity of Cavendish's Life of Wolsey
be in a great measure ascribed. Few biographies have been perused
with greater interest; few have exercised the editorial skill of better
scholars. Dr. Wordsworth, Mr. Singer, and Mr. Hunter, have all

displayed their learning and ingenuity in its illustration; and we have
been led into these remarks by the receipt of a new and very
handsomely printed edition, which has just been published by
Messrs. Rivington, and which has been edited by Mr. Holmes of the
British Museum. Mr. Holmes' name is a sufficient guarantee for the
manner in which that duty has been executed.
We learn from The Athenæum of Saturday last that the Royal
Society of Antiquaries of Copenhagen, whose works illustrative of
the early history both of Greenland and America are known to many
of our readers, are about to publish a new edition of the Orkneyinga
Saga, and sundry old Northern fragments relative to Great Britain
and Ireland; and in the prosecution of this important and useful
object they are desirous of having the assistance and co-operation of
the scholars and antiquaries of this country. Antiquaries find favour
in the North, for The Times reports that the general yearly meeting
of this Society was held on the 25th of February at the
Christiansborg Palace, Copenhagen, his Majesty the King of Denmark
in the chair. The secretary, Professor C. Rafn, read the report of
transactions for the last year, and gave a précis of the articles in the
forthcoming archæological works of the Society. The printing and
engravings of the second volume of the great work, Antiquités
Russes et Orientales, are now nearly completed. The learned
professor exhibited four Icelandic planispheres and maps of the
world, from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and made some
observations on the geographical and astronomical knowledge of the
ancient Scandinavians. The second volume of the Arna-Magnean
Committee's edition of Snorro Sturleson's, or the Younger Edda, was
also nearly finished, and preparations were being made for the
publication of an Icelandic Diplomaticum. His Majesty the King
exhibited a remarkable collection of antiquities of the bronze period
discovered at Smorumorre, evidently belonging to a workshop for
the fabrication of such implements, and clearly proving that bronze
weapons, &c. had been made in Denmark. On the characteristics of
this collection His Majesty was graciously pleased to deliver some
very interesting observations. Professor Wegener, Vice-President,

read an able memoir on the history of the old castles of Soborg and
Adserbo, in the north of Iceland. The Archæological Committee
exhibited a collection of articles discovered at Anhalt (in the
Cattegat) which belonged to a workshop for the manufacture of
stone implements, on which Mr. Thomsen made some useful
remarks. The museum was in a flourishing state. There had been
148 donations received and 761 presentations of antiquities. The
proceedings were closed by the election of Victor Emanuel, King of
Sardinia, and his Royal Highness Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg Gotha,
as fellows of the Society.
Books Received.—The French in England, or Both Sides of the
Question on Both Sides of the Channel, being the Story of the
Emperor Napoleon's projected Invasion. A brilliant, we might say
eloquent, description of the feeling which ran through the whole
length and breadth of the land when Napoleon's threats of invasion
drew from the united nation, as with the voice of one man, the
declaration that "England never did, and never shall lie at the proud
foot of a conqueror!" In this picture of the past we have a prophecy
of the future, if the peace of Europe should be again disturbed, and
any attempt be made to renew the project of 1803. We do not think
this likely; but to secure Peace we must be prepared for War: and he
who, in the present aspect of affairs, would bid us disarm, must be
or fool, or traitor, or both.—Memoirs of the late Thomas Holcroft,
written by himself, and continued to the time of his Death, from his
Diary, Notes, and Correspondence, forms the new parts of The
Traveller's Library, and gives an interesting variety to this valuable
series.
BOOKS AND ODD VOLUMES
WANTED TO PURCHASE.
Halleri (A.) Elementa Physiologiæ Corporis Humani. 8 Vols. 4to.
Lausannæ and Lugd. Batav. 1757-66. Vol III.

Raccolta di Opusculi Scientifici, &c., dal Padre Calogera. Venezia,
1728-57.
Pownall's Treatise on the Study of Antiquities. London, 1782. 8vo.
The Whole Duty of a Christian, by Way of Question and Answer:
designed for the Use of Charity Schools. By Robert Nelson,
1718.
Quarterly Review. Nos. 153. to 166., both inclusive.
Bell's Fugitive Poetry Collection. Vols. X. and XVI. 12mo. 1790.
The Critic, London Literary Journal. First 6 Nos. for 1851.
Voltaire, Œuvres Completes de. Aux Deux-Ponts. Chez Sanson et
Compagnie. Vols. I. & II. 1791-2.
Scott's Continuation of Milner's Church History. Part II. of Vol. II. 8vo.
Spectator. No. 1223. Dec. 6, 1851.
Edwin and Emma. Taylor, 1776.
Annual Register, from 1816 inclusive to the present time.
Medico-Chirurgical Transactions. From Part II. of Vol. XI. March, 1819;
and also from Vol. XXX.
The Code Matrimonial. Paris, 1770.
Pro Matrimonio Principis cum defunctæ uxoris sorore contracto responsum
Juris, Collegii Jurisconsultorum in Academiâ Rintelensi. Published
about 1655.
Gregory's (Dr.) Second Memorial to the Managers of the Royal Infirmary,
Edinburgh.
Heron's (Sir Robert) Notes. First Edition. Privately printed.
Cobbett's State Trials. 8vo. Vol. VIII. 1810.
Isr. Clauderi Disputatio de Sale sub Præsidio Sagittarii. Jenæ, 1650.
Crescent and the Cross. Vol. I. Third Edition.
Mackinnon's History of Civilisation. Vol. II. 1846.
Lite's Dodoens' Herbal. First Edition. (An imperfect copy to complete
another.)

Turner's a Booke of the Natures of the Bathes in England. 1568. (An
imperfect copy to complete another.)
A Most Excellent and Perfecte Cornish Apothecary. 1561. (An imperfect
copy to complete another.)
*
*
*
Letters, stating particulars and lowest price, carriage
free, to be sent to Mr. Bell, Publisher of
"NOTES AND QUERIES," 186. Fleet
Street.
Notices to Correspondents.
Suffolk Biblical and Theological Library, Ipswich. Will any of our
Ipswich correspondents favour us with a copy of the prospectus of
this institution, and the Names of any of the clergy or gentry of
Ipswich who take any part in its management, or are trustees or
directors of it; as numerous applications for contributions of books to
such library have recently been received by theological writers from
Mr. "John Glyde, Jun.," a barber and hairdresser in Ipswich.
E. M. S., who asks for information respecting Queen Brunhilda or
Brunéhaut, is referred to our 4th Vol. pp. 86. 136. 193., and our 5th
Vol. p. 206.
Replies Received.—Black Book of Paisley—Traditions from Remote
Periods—Archaic and Provincial Words—Madrigal—Bull the Barrel—
Friday at Sea—The Verb "To commit"—Provincial Names—Arborei
fœtus—Engraved Portraits—Young's "Narcissa"—Meaning of Knarres
—Last of the Palæologi—Nuremberg Token—Martinique—Parish
Registers—Collar of SS., &c.—Wise above that which is written—
Dying Swan—Sir B. Howard—Conquest of China—Litera Scripta
manet—Gospel Oaks—Qui vult plene, &c.—Old Scots March—Stone
Pillar Worship—Plague Stones—Carmen perpetuum—Reeve and
Muggleton—Broad Arrow—Hyrne—Essay on Catholic Communion—
The Whole Duty of Man—Crooked Billet—Quotations wanted—

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