Secret History of Silicon Valley - Master Slide Deck

Hidden in Plain Sight:
The Secret History of Silicon Valley
Steve Blank
www.steveblank.com
Rev May 4 2016 Master
• Multiple copies of each slide
• Select a subset for a specific presentation
• See: http://steveblank.com/secret-history/
for backstory and videos
Master slide set

The Genesis of Silicon Valley Entrepreneurship
1950 1960 1970 1980 20001990
Innovation Networks
Defense
Personal
Computers
Integrated
Circuits
Internet
Steve Jobs
Gordon Moore
Marc Andreessen
Hewlett & Packard

The Popular View of
Silicon Valley History
1910 1960 1970 1980 20001990
Innovation Networks
Fruit
Orchards
Personal
Computers
Integrated
Circuits
Internet
1930 1940 19501920
Fruit
Orchards
Fruit
Orchards
2010
Social
Media

1910 1960 1970 1980 20001990
Innovation Networks
Personal
Computers
Integrated
Circuits
Internet
1930 1940 19501920 2010
Social
Media
Microwaves
Test
Equipment
Vacuum
Tubes
The Real Story of Silicon Valley

1910 1960 1970 1980 20001990
Innovation Networks
Personal
Computers
Integrated
Circuits
Internet
1930 1940 19501920 2010
Social
Media
The Real Story of Silicon Valley
Test
Equipment
Vacuum
Tubes
Microwaves/
Defense

A few caveats
• Intent: fill in the gaps of Silicon Valley history
• Not a professional historian
• Some of this is probably wrong
• It follows just one of many threads
• All “secrets” are from open-source literature

Story 1: WWII The First Electronic War

Sept 1939: Europe in WWII
• Britain fighting since Sept ’39
• Chain Home Radar & the Battle of Britain

Dec 7th 1941: America Enters WWII
• Britain fighting since Sept ‘39
• Soviets fighting massive land/air
battles since June ‘41
• Allies incapable of landing in
Western Europe for 2+ years
• Decide that
– priority was to win in Europe vs Pacific
– destroy German war fighting capacity
from the air until they can invade

Strategic Bombing of Germany
The Combined Bomber Offensive
• British bombed at Night
– Area Bombing
• Lancaster's
• Halifax
• Flew at 7 - 17 thousand feet
• The American’s by Day
– Precision Bombing
• B-17’s
• B-24’s
• Flew at 15 - 25 thousand feet

Secret History of Silicon Valley - Master Slide Deck

Strategic Bombing of Germany
March 1943: The Combined Bomber
Offensive
“Your primary objective will be the progressive
destruction and dislocation of the German military,
industrial and economic system and the undermining
of the morale of the German people to a point where
their capacity for armed resistance is fatally
weakened."

The German Air Defense System
The Kammhuber Line
• Integrated Electronic air defense network
– Covered France, and into Germany
• Protection from British/US bomber raids
– Warn and Detect
– Target and Aim
– Destroy

The German Air Defense System
The Kammhuber Line
• Integrated Electronic air defense network
– Covered France, the Low Countries, and into
northern Germany
• Protection from British/US bomber raids
– Warn and Detect
– Target and Aim
– Destroy

British/American Air War in Western Europe
28,000 Active Combat Planes
40,000 Allied planes lost or damaged beyond repair:
(46 000 planes lost by the USSR in the East)
160,000 Americans and British killed,
wounded or captured

Early Warning Radars in Occupied France

Mammoth
Early Warning Radar
• 200 mile range
• 100’ wide, 33’ high
• 1st phased-array radar
• Operational 1942
• 20 built

Mammoth
Early Warning Radar
• 200 mile range
– 150 MHz, 200KW, PRF 500hz,
PW 3s, accuracy 0.5
• 100’ wide, 33’ high
• 1st phased-array radar
• 20 built

Wasserman
Early Warning Radar
• 150 mile range
• Backbone of the German
early warning network
• Steerable tower 190’
• 150 built

Wasserman
Early Warning Radar
• 150 mile range
– 150 MHz, 100KW, PRF 500hz,
PW 3s, accuracy 0.25
• Backbone of the German
early warning network
• Steerable tower 190’
• 150 built

Wasserman
Early Warning
Radar Sites
SCHLOSSHUND
LEOPARD
WALFISCH
KALB
KEMPERSTEIN
MOLCH
SULLAASSEL
VETERAN
MÖVE
ROBBE
AUSTER
HUMMER
WALJAGUAR
SCHLEI
TIGER (M & S)
SALZHERING
ZANDER
BIBER (M & S)
HAMSTER
BREMSE (S)
HAIFISCH
RHEINSALM
GROSSHAU
DACHS M
AAL
KORALLE
WELLENSITTICH
BÄR
EICHHÖRNCHEN
TIRSTEIN
BÜFFEL
LAMA
AUERHAHN (S)
HABICHT HYÄNE (M & S)
RINGELNATTER (M & S)
SCHAKAL (M & S)
SEEHUND
BOCK
BIRNE
DATTEL
KASTANIE (S)
STEINEICHE
FICHTE (S)
LINDE (M & S)
FLIEDER
HAINBUCHE
NUSSBAUM
GOLDBERG
TAUSENDFÜSSLER (S)
PONY
WELS (S)
DACKEL
BIENE
PFERD
RATTE
TRAPPE
BRACKVOGEL
KEILER
TATZELWURM
7a
MAX
Luftwaffe Wassermann Stellungen 1.
OPERATIONAL, where a type is not noted
the site was Was M equipped only.
Under construction 20 JUN 1944.
No doubt some of these sites were completed.
AUERHAHN (S)
DIESTELFINK
SKORPION (S)

Jagdschloss
Early Warning Radar
• Best early warning radar
• 180 mile range
• 360° rotation at 4 rpm,
• Remote radar display via
microwave link
• 80 built

Jagdschloss
Early Warning Radar
• 180 mile range
– 120-157 or 156-250 MHz, 300KW,
PW 1us, PRF 500hz
• Best early warning radar
• 360° rotation at 4 rpm,
• Remote PPI display via
microwave link
• 80 built

Himmelbelt
Local Air Defense
Network
• Box ~30 x 20 miles
• Integrated network
of radars, flak,
fighters,
searchlights

Himmelbelt
Radar Order of Battle
• Freya
– Early warning radar
– Used for local defense
– Detect allied bombers
– Cue other weapons

Himmelbelt
• Freya
– early warning radar
– detect allied bombers

Himmelbelt
• Freya
• Giant Wurzburg
– Ground Controlled Intercept radar
– direct fighters to bombers
– fighters could then intercept with their
on-board radar

Himmelbelt
• Freya
• Giant Wurzburg
– fighters could then intercept with their
on-board radar
• Lichtenstein BC & SN2
– Airborne radar on German
nightfighters

Freya
Early Warning Radar
• 60-120 mile range
• Steerable and mobile
• Over 1000 deployed

Freya
Early Warning Radar
• 60-120 mile range
– 120-144 MHz, 15KW, PRF 500hz,
PW 3 s, accuracy 1.5
• Steerable and mobile
• Over 1000 deployed

Luftwaffe Signals Intelligence Y-Service
• Network of passive intercept
stations
• Picked up allied radio and
bombing-radar signals
• Plotted location of
bomber streams

German Y-Service (ELINT)
• Passive signals intercept
operation, known as the "Y-
Dienst (Y-Service)”
• Used directional antennas
and triangulation to locate
Allied bomber formations
from their radio/bombing
radar/jammer emissions
• Y-Dienst impossible to jam,
integral part of the air-
defense system
• Directed night fighters into
bomber streams, where they
could use SN2 to hunt down
targets

By August 1941 only 10% of
British bombers got to
within 10 miles of their
target

Getting to the Target
Solution: Electronic Navigation
• GEE
– Used by Pathfinder Planes
– Got you to the area
• OBOE
– Used by Pathfinder Planes
– Beacon Bombing System
– Accurate enough for bombing
• GEE-H
– Transponder System
– Put on every bomber
– Accurate enough for bombing

GEE - Electronic Navigation
• 3 ground transmitters, including one "master" and two "slaves”
•"A" and "B", were sited about 50 to 100 miles apart
• Time for signal to reach the aircraft can be measured and
distance from that station can be calculated.

Gee on a B-17 Navigators station

• Navigators need to measure comparative ratios from
each pair of signals
• Aircraft had to follow a hyperbolic track to the target.
Gee Map - Edinburgh to Hamburg

Henrich - Jamming Gee
• German transmitters to jam
Gee navigation signals
• 280 built

OBOE - Beacon Bombing System
• GEE used to direct the plane to within 10 minutes of the target.
• The OBOE aircraft carried a transponder two ground stations, the cat and the mouse
• Very precise; 50% of the bombs fell to within 45 yards of their target
• only one plane could be controlled at a time - fitted to the Pathfinder planes
• Operational December 1942

GEE H - spring 1944
• GEE H worked like OBOE in reverse
– The navigator of the aircraft became the operator, and the
CAT and MOUSE stations were merely transponders.
– The entire operation was conducted from the aircraft and
directed by the navigator
• 150 foot accuracy @ 100 miles
• 300 foot accuracy @ 200 miles
• No limitations on number of aircraft using it

Flak - Radar Controlled Anti Aircraft Guns
• 15,000 Flak Guns
– 400,000 soldiers in flak batteries
• Could reach to 30,000’
• Fused for time
• Radar-directed
105 mm flak
Flak: an abbreviation for Fliegerabwehrkanonen, german for anti-aircraft guns

Flak - Radar Controlled Anti Aircraft Guns
• 15,000 Flak Guns
– 400,000 soldiers in flak batteries
• Radar-directed flak to 30,000’
– 128mm: 10 shells/minute
– 105mm: 15 rounds/minute
– 88mm: 15-20 rounds/minute
• Fused for time
– Fragmentation rounds
– No Proximity Fuses
105 mm flak
Flak: an abbreviation for Fliegerabwehrkanonen, german for anti-aircraft guns

Flak - Radar Controlled
Anti Aircraft Guns
• 1,000,000 soldiers in flak batteries
• Radar-directed heavy flak
– 128mm: 10 shells/minute to 35,000”
– 105mm: 15 rounds/minute to a
maximum altitude of 31,000
– 88mm: 15-20 rounds/minute to a
maximum altitude of 35,000
• Fused for time
– Fragmentation rounds
– Germans did not have Proximity Fuses
...........105mm flak…..............................37mm..........…...................20mm.............

Wurzburg
Anti-Aircraft Radar
• Radar control of flak guns
• 15 mile range
• 10 feet wide
• Steerable and Mobile
• ~ 5,000 deployed

Wurzburg
Anti-Aircraft Radar
• Fire control of flak batteries
• 15 mile range
– 533-566 MHz frequency agile
– 10KW, PRF 3750hz, PW 2us,
Accuracy 25 meters
• 10 feet wide
• Steerable and Mobile
• ~ 5,000 deployed

Himmelbelt
• Freya
• Giant Wurzburg
– fighters could then intercept with
their on-board radar

Operation Biting - Raid on Bruneval
• Commando raid to
steal a Wurzburg
• 27 February 1942
• Captured all the
radar electronics
and technicians
• Used it to test countermeasures
What’s this?

Operation Biting - Raid on Bruneval
• Commando raid to
steal a Wurzburg
• 27 February 1942
• Captured all the radar electronics and technicians
• Used it to test countermeasures

Giant Wurzburg
Ground Control Intercept Radar
• 45 mile range
• Used to guide German
fighters to the bombers
• 25’ wide
• over 1,500 deployed

Giant Wurzburg
Ground Control Intercept Radar
• 45 mile range
– 533-566mhz frequency
agile, 10KW, PRF 1875hz,
PW 2 s
• GCI radar
• 25’ wide
• over 1,500 deployed

Himmelbett
Air Battle Air Traffic Control
• Radars fed Himmelbett centers
• Operators worked from rows of
seats in front of a huge screen
• Fighters would fly orbits around
a radio beacon
– fighter controller talked it to the
vicinity of the target
• Fighters would turn on its radar,
acquire the target, and attack

German Night-Fighters
• Directed to vicinity by ground radar
• Allowed the German fighters to
find the bombers at night
What’s this?
Airborne Intercept Radar

German Night-Fighters
On-board Radar
• Directed to vicinity by ground radar
• Dornier Do 17, Junkers Ju 88,
Messerschmitt Bf 110
• “Lichtenstein” B/C then SN2
Radar
– Range 2.5 miles, 400mhz then 90mhz

Monica - Tail Warning
• Warned bombers that fighter radar was looking at
them
• Deployed June 1943
• Prone to false alarms due to other bombers in the
stream that it was of little use

Flensberg - Fighter Homing on Monica
• Passive homing device
• On German Fighters
• Detect the emissions of Monica tail-warning radars of
the RAF bombers.
• 45 miles range
• Production Spring of 1944

Korfu - Bomber Early Warning
• A network of "Korfu" aircraft warning systems
to warn against Allied bomber squadrons
• It picked up the emissions of the British
bomber "H2S" radar sets.
• This was one of the German’s most reliable
early warning systems
– could detect bombers taking off from their bases

German Day Fighters
Vectored by Ground Radar
• Ground Control
Intercept radar talked
the fighters into visual
range of the bombers
• Messerschmitt BF-109,
Focke Wolf 190

End of Himmelbett -
Start of “Tame Boar/Wild Boar”
• “Window” meant German fighters couldn’t be vectored to
the bombers
• Germans reorganized fighter control
• Fighters were scrambled and directed from radio beacon
to radio beacon until they arrived to the greatest
concentration of Window
• At the target the fighters located the bombers with their
airborne Lichtenstein radar, or visually using the light of
the fireglow or flares
• “Wild Boar" tactics operated fighters over the targets
themselves

Not many clear days a month in winter
over Europe
How did they see the target?

Bombing Through Overcast
Solution: Air to Ground Bombing Radar
• Radar aimed at the ground
– Targets could be seen under
clouds and rain
– Outlines of major ground features
– map overlays
• 1943

Bombing Through Overcast
Solution: Air to Ground Bombing Radar
• Radar aimed at the ground
– Targets could be seen under
clouds and rain
– Outlines of major ground features
– map overlays
• British in Mid 1943
– H2S 300mhz
• Americans in late 1943
– H2X / APS-15 3ghz
– B-24 & P-38 Pathfinders
• Oops - Naxos

H2S – Bombing Radar
• A downward-facing rotating
spiral scanner
• mounted in a blister below the
bomber
• Image of towns 50 miles away
displayed on the screen.
• Target identified by major
landscape features, such as
river bends and confluences

H2S and GEE Bomber Electronics
• January 30th 1943: The first use of H2S ("Home Sweet Home")
fitted to a 'Pathfinder' Squadron over Hamburg
• Weather was poor but the results were successful.
• Now bombers could be flown to their targets using GEE and drop
their bombs using H2S

Naxos - Homing in on Bombing Radar
• German night fighters
were equipped with the
"NaxosZ"
• Homed in on the H2S
radar in Allied bombers
• Range 30 miles

H2X - American Bombing Radar
• Nov 1943, 12 B-17 Pathfinders
get H2X
• By Nov 1944, all Pathfinders
equipped with H2X
– including Lockheed P-38 fighters
with long "Mickey" noses.
• ”Offset bombing" was devised,
in which a target that didn't
have a good radar signature
was located relative to nearby
landmarks that did

B-17 Bombing Radar - H2X
• Installed on all bombers
• The H2X Radar made
bombing through overcast
(BTO) possible. The radar
dish replaced the ball turret of
the Pathfinder planes
• The "Mickey set" was installed
in the radio room and
navigational and bombing
information was given to the
Navigator and bombardier

Math Challenge
For every 100 bombers on a mission
4 - 20% would not return
Crews had to fly 25 mission to go home

Story 2: The Electronic Shield -
Electronic Warfare

Harvard Radio Research Lab (RRL)
Signals Intelligence and Electronic
Warfare
• Reduce losses to fighters and flak
• Find/understand German Air Defense
– Electronic and Signals Intelligence
• Jam/confuse German Air Defense
– Radar Order of Battle
– Chaff
– Jammers
• Top Secret 800 person lab

SIGINT – Signals Intelligence
The Line of Sight Problem
You got to get close!

SIGINT using Ferret’s
Find and understand German Air
Defense
• Ferret’s and Crows
• B-24J flights inside Germany to
intercept German radar signals
• Fitted with receivers & displays
• Wire and strip recorders
– Frequency, pulse rate, power, etc.
– 50 MHz to 3 GHz

8th Airforce Signals Intelligence
• Used British Y-Service intercepts of Luftwaffe
Communications
– Bomber route planning to miss fighter bases, assembly and
timing
– Measure effectiveness of diversions
– Measure effectiveness of escort fighters
– Near real-time bombing results
– Also intercepts of AAA communications

SIGINT Map of Japanese Radar Order of Battle

Window/Chaff
Jam Wurzburg AAA & GCI Radar
• Strips of aluminum foil
– 1/2 Wurzburg frequency
• 46,000 packets tossed out by hand
– Each packet contained 2,000 strips
– Automatic dispensers came later
• First used July 1943
– Raid on Hamburg
– Shut down German air defense
• Used 3/4’s of Aluminum Foil in the US

Shut down Flak and GCI
Jam Wurzburg’s

Electronically Blind German Radar
Jam the Radars with Noise
• Put Jammers on Airplanes
• Jam and shut down
– Early Warning Radars
– Anti-aircraft Radars
– Fighter Radars
– Ground Control Radars
• Built over 30,000 jammers
MANDREL
Jammer
DINA
Jammer

Blind German Early Warning Radar
Jam Wassermann, Mammoth and
Freya
• Put Jammers on Airplanes
• Mandrel/APT-3
• DINA/APT-1
– First on escort fighters
– Later on bombers
– 12 watts
MANDREL
Jammer
DINA
Jammer

Shut down Flak & Ground Control Radar
Jam the Wurzburg’s
• “Carpet” AN/APT-2 Jammer
– Confuse Wurzburg radar
– Shut down flak
– Shut down GCI
– 5 Watts
• 24,000 built
– On all bombers Carpet Jammer

Shut down and Spoof Fighter Ground Control
Jam Fighter/Ground VHF Radio Links
• "Tinsel”
– Microphones in the engine nacelles of a bomber broadcast noise
• "Corona"
– German-speaking RAF personnel, broadcast fake controller instructions
• “Airborne Cigar”
– Jammed VHF Nightfighter Ground Control Intercept comm
– Flew in special ops Lancasters
• “Jostle IV”
– Jammed VHF Ground Control Intercept comm
– Took up the entire bomb bay of a B-17

British Jam German Night Fighter Radar
• Airborne Grocer
– Jam Lichtenstein
Night Fighter radar
• On all British bombers
• Monica
– Tail warning system
– Oops, German
Flensburg
MANDREL jamming equipment

Electronic Warfare 1944/45
chaff
ELINT
GCI Jamming
Flak Jamming

Airborne Radar In the
Pacific War

B29A - H2X in the Pacific- AN/APQ-13
• H2X bombing radar also
went to war in the
Pacific, combined with a
Bell airborne search
system in a package
• Japanese cities were
generally on coastlines,
which made them
excellent radar targets

Eagle Bombing Radar AN/APQ-7
• X-band at 3 cm / 10 GHz
• Wing-like antenna that was
carried below the B-29
• Designed radar beam to focus
into a tall and narrow swath,
ideal for targeting 60 degrees in
front of the aircraft
• linked up to the Norden
bombsight,.
• Deployed May 1945

Who Ran this Secret Lab and became
the Father of Electronic Warfare?
• Harvard Radio Research Lab
– Ran all electronic warfare in WWII
– 800 people
• Director: Fredrick Terman - Stanford

Who Ran this Secret Lab and became
the Father of Electronic Warfare?
• Harvard Radio Research Lab
– Separate from MIT's Radiation Laboratory
– Ran all electronic warfare in WWII
– 800 people
– 1941-1944
• Director: Fredrick Terman - Stanford

Fredrick Terman
“the Father of Silicon Valley”
• Stanford Professor of engineering 1926
– encouraged his students, William Hewlett and David
Packard to start a company
• Dean of Engineering 1946
• Provost 1955

Story 3:
Berkeley Applies Physics

WWII Berkeley Experimental Physics
• Radiation Laboratory
– Lawrence and the
Cyclotron
– Particle accelerator
– 11” 1931 to 184” 1942
– Beginnings of Federal
Funding of “Big Science”

WWII Berkeley Theoretical Physics
• Robert Oppenheimer
• Glenn Seaborg
• Edwin McMillan
• Robert Serber
• Luis Alvarez
• Emile Segre
• Herbert York
• Wolfgang Panofsky
• Bomb feasibility study summer 1942, LeConte Hall
– Hans Bethe, Edward Teller, John Van Vleck, Robert Serber,
Felix Bloch, Stanley Frankel, Emil Konopski, Richard Tolman
and John H. Van Vleck
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize

Berkeley Nobel Prizes
• 1931 Cyclotron
– Ernest O. Lawrence (1939 Nobel Prize in Physics)
• 1941 Plutonium and Transuranic elements:
– Glenn Seaborg and Ed McMillian (1951 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry)
• 1952 Anti-Proton
– Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè (1959 Nobel Prize in Physics)
• 1952 Bubble Chamber
– Donald Glaser (1960 Nobel Prize in Physics)
• 1961 Carbon 14
– Melvin Calvin (Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
• 1957 Laser
– Charles Townes (1964 Nobel Prize in Physics)
• 1964 Hydrogen Bubble Chamber
– Luis Alvarez (1968 Nobel Prize in Physics)

Berkeley Theory and Experimental Physics

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
• 2nd Nuclear Weapons Lab
– Competitor to Los Alamos
– Run by Berkeley
• founded in 1952
– By Edward Teller / Ernest Lawrence,
– Originally a branch of the
Berkeley Radiation Lab
• At Berkeley Innovation was
focused inward

Story 4:
Stanford And The Cold War

WWII Office of Scientific Research and
Development (OSRD)
• $450 million spent on weapons R&D
– MIT $117 million
– Caltech $83 million
– Harvard and Columbia ~ $30 million
• Stanford ~ $50K

Story 3: Spook Entrepreneurship

Office of
Scientific
Research
(OSRD)
19 divisions
5 committees
2 panels
1941-1947
WWII - Office of Scientific Research and
Development (OSRD)

© 2012 Steve Blank
Office of
Scientific
Research
(OSRD)
Division 1
Ballistic Research
Division 2
Impact and
Explosion Effects
Division 3
Rocket
Ordnance
Division 4
Ordnance
Accessories
Division 5
New Missiles
Division 6
Sub-surface
Warfare (Sonar)
Division 7
Fire Control
Division 8
Explosives
Division 9
Chemistry
Division 10
Absorbents and
Aerosols
Division 11
Chemical
Engineering
Division 12
Transportation
Division 13
Electrical
Communication
Division 14
Radar
Division 15
Radio Coordination
Electronic Warfare
Division 16
Optics/Camouflage
Division 17
Physics
Division 18
War Metallurgy
Division 19
Misc
Applied Math
Panel
Applied
Psychology
Panel
Vacuum Tube
Committee
Administrative
Committee
Tropical
Deterioration
Committee
Committee on
Medical Research
Division 1
Medicine
Division 2
Surgery
Division 3
Aviation Medicine
Division 4
Physiology
Division 5
Chemistry
Division 6
Malaria
19 divisions
5 committees
2 panels
1941-1947
WWII - Office of Scientific Research and
Development (OSRD)

© 2012 Steve Blank
Division 1 Ballistic
Research
Division 2
Impact and
Explosion Effects
Division 3
Rocket
Ordnance
Division 4 Ordnance
Accessories
Division 5
New Missiles
Division 6
Sub-surface
Warfare
Division 7
Fire Control
Division 8
Explosives
Division 9 Chemistry Division 10
Absorbents /Aerosols
Division 11
Chemical
Engineering
Division 12
Transportation
Division 13
Communication
Division 14
Radar
Division 15
Electronic Warfare
Division 16 Optics
and Camouflage
Division 17 Physics Division 18
War Metallurgy
Division 19
Misc
Applied Math
Panel
Applied Psych
Panel
Propagation
Committee
Vacuum Tube
Committee
Administrative
Committee
Tropical
Committee
Committee on
Medical
Research
Division 1
Medicine
Division 2
Surgery
Division 3
Aviation Medicine
Division 4
Physiology
Division 5
Chemistry
Division 6
Malaria
Research
Universities
$5.5 billion
MIT $1.4 billion
Caltech $1 billion
Harvard $370 million
Columbia $370 million
Stanford $6 million
All in adjusted 2011 dollars
Source: Scientists Against Time: 456
Office of
Scientific
Research
(OSRD)

© 2012 Steve Blank
Research
Division 2
Impact and
Explosion Effects
Division 3
Rocket
Ordnance
Division 4 Ordnance
Accessories
Division 5
New Missiles
Division 6
Sub-surface
Warfare
Division 7
Fire Control
Division 8
Explosives
Absorbents /Aerosols
Division 11
Chemical
Engineering
Division 12
Transportation
Division 13
Communication
Division 14
Radar
Division 15
Electronic Warfare
Division 16 Optics
and Camouflage
War Metallurgy
Division 19
Misc
Applied Math
Panel
Applied Psych
Panel
Propagation
Committee
Vacuum Tube
Committee
Administrative
Committee
Tropical
Committee
Committee on
Medical
Research
Division 1
Medicine
Division 2
Surgery
Division 3
Aviation Medicine
Division 4
Physiology
Division 5
Chemistry
Division 6
Malaria
Research
Universities
$450 million
Source: Scientists Against Time: 456
Office of
Scientific
Research
(OSRD)
$450 million spent on weapons R&D
• MIT $117 million
• Caltech $83 million
• Harvard and Columbia ~ $30 million
• Stanford ~ $50K

© 2012 Steve Blank
Research
Division 2
Impact and
Explosion Effects
Division 3
Rocket
Ordnance
Division 4 Ordnance
Accessories
Division 5
New Missiles
Division 6
Sub-surface
Warfare (Sonar)
Division 7
Fire Control
Division 8
Explosives
Absorbents and
Aerosols
Division 11
Chemical
Engineering
Division 12
Transportation
Division 13
Electrical
Communication
Division 14
Radar
Division 15
Radio Coordination
Electronic Warfare
Division 16 Optics
and Camouflage
War Metallurgy
Division 19
Misc
Applied Math
Panel
Applied
Psychology
Panel
Vacuum Tube
Committee
Administrative
Committee
Tropical
Deterioration
Committee
Committee on
Medical
Research
Division 1
Medicine
Division 2
Surgery
Division 3
Aviation Medicine
Division 4
Physiology
Division 5
Chemistry
Division 6
Malaria
National Institute
of Health (NIH)
National Science
Foundation (NSF)
Atomic Energy
Commission
(AEC)
Department of
Defense (DOD)
1950
Office of
Scientific
Research
(OSRD)

© 2012 Steve Blank
Office of
Scientific
Research (OSRD)
Research
Division 2
Impact and
Explosion Effects
Division 3
Rocket
Ordnance
Division 4 Ordnance
Accessories
Division 5
New Missiles
Division 6
Sub-surface
Warfare (Sonar)
Division 7
Fire Control
Division 8
Explosives
Absorbents and
Aerosols
Division 11
Chemical
Engineering
Division 12
Transportation
Division 13
Electrical
Communication
Division 14
Radar
Division 15
Radio Coordination
Electronic Warfare
Division 16 Optics
and Camouflage
War Metallurgy
Division 19
Misc
Applied Math
Panel
Applied
Psychology
Panel
Vacuum Tube
Committee
Administrative
Committee
Tropical
Deterioration
Committee
Committee on
Medical
Research
Division 1
Medicine
Division 2
Surgery
Division 3
Aviation Medicine
Division 4
Physiology
Division 5
Chemistry
Division 6
Malaria
National Institute
of Health (NIH)
National Science
Foundation (NSF)
Atomic Energy
Commission (AEC)
to DOE in 1977
Department of
Defense (DOD)
1958
National Aeronautics
& Space Admin
(NASA)
Defense Advanced
Research Projects
Agency (DARPA)

Terman’s Postwar Strategy
• Focus on microwaves and electronics
– Not going to be left out of gov’t $’s this time
• Recruits 11 members of war lab as faculty
• By 1950 Stanford was the MIT of the West
• Students came from all over the U.S.

Terman’s Postwar Strategy
• Focus on microwaves and electronics
– Not going to be left out of gov’t $’s this time
• Recruits 11 former members of RRL as faculty
• Set up the Electronics Research Laboratory (ERL)
– “Basic” and Unclassified Research
• First Office of Naval Research (ONR) contract 1946

Terman Reassembles RRL at Stanford
• Recruits 11 former members of RRL as faculty
• Set up the Electronics Research Laboratory (ERL)
– part of the Engineering Department
• First Office of Naval Research (ONR) contract 1946

Microwave Valley - Stanford Spinouts
Microwave Components
• Microwave Tube Startups:
Klystrons, BWO’s, & TWT’s
– Eitel-McCullough (1934)
– Varian Associates (1948)
– Litton Industries (1946)
– Huggins Laboratories (1948)
– Stewart Engineering (1952)
– Watkins-Johnson (1957)
– Microwave Electronics Co. (1959)

Microwave Valley - Components
Klystrons, Carcinotrons, & Traveling Wave Tubes
• Eitel-McCullough (1934)
• Varian Associates (1948)
• Litton Industries (1946)
• Huggins Laboratories (1948)
• Stewart Engineering (1952)
• Watkins-Johnson (1957)
• Microwave Electronics Co. (1959)

Problem: Jammers Need:
More Power and Frequency Agility
• More Power
– WWII: low power jammers X 100’s of planes
– Now each bomber needed to protect itself
• Frequency Agility
– WWII radars xmitted on a single frequency
– Jammers needed to be manual tuned
– Soviet radars used multiple frequencies

Solution: Electronically Tunable
Microwave Power Tubes
• Magnetron - limited scale, fixed/unstable freq
• Klystron - scale to extremely high power
– Drawback: narrow frequency range
• Backward wave oscillator (BWO)/Carcinotron
– Electronically tunable
– Can sweep 1000/mhz per second
– High Power ~1,000 watts

Problem: ELINT Receivers Need:
Higher Bandwidth & Frequency Agility
• High Bandwidth
– Need to cover 300mhz to 40ghz w/one receiver
• Frequency Agility
– Soviet radars used multiple frequencies
– Manual tuning would miss signals
– Needed high probability of intercept single pulses

Solution: Electronically Tunable
Wideband Amplifiers
• Traveling Wave Tubes
– High gain >40db,
– low noise,
– high bandwidth >1 octave
– 300mhz - 50ghz
– Tune at 1000mhz/sec

Korean War Changes the Game
Spook Work Comes to Stanford
• Applied Electronics Laboratory (AEL)
– “Applied” and Classified Military programs
– Doubles the size of the electronics program
– Separate from the unclassified Electronics Research
Laboratory
– Made the university, for the first time, a full partner in the
military-industrial complex

The Cold War and Stanford
• The Cold War battlefield
moves 500 miles east
• Countermeasures, ELINT
become critical
• Stanford becomes a center
of excellence for the CIA,
NSA, Navy, Air Force
• 400-person weapons lab
in engineering department

The Cold War and the Black Valley
• The Cold War battlefield
moves 500 miles east
• Fear of a “nuclear Pearl
Harbor”
• Countermeasures, Elint
and Sigint, become critical
• Stanford becomes a center
of excellence for the NSA,
CIA, Navy, Air Force

The Cold War is an Electronic War
• Russian air defense modeled after Germans
– add surface to air missiles, fighter radar, IFF
– Understand and defeat (ELINT)
• Soviet strategic missile and bomber threat
– Monitor telemetry (SIGINT) to understand performance
– Photo reconnaissance to find silo’s and bombers
• Soviet Naval threat
– Monitor and track soviet submarines
• Soviet Nuclear threat
– Identify and understand production facilities

Stanford Technical Advisory Meetings
• Air Force, Navy, Army, CIA and
NSA
• Sylvania, and other contractors
• Review of projects and new
concepts

Stanford Joins the “Black” World
• Electronics Research Laboratory
• Applied Electronics Laboratory (AEL)
– “Applied” and Classified Military programs
• Merge and become the Systems Engineering
Lab (SEL) in 1955
– Same year Terman becomes Provost

Stanford Systems Engineering Lab
• Immediate, practical application of real world
intelligence problems for CIA, NSA, NRO, Air Force
• Combined ERL components with advanced theory
into complete SIGINT and Jamming systems
– Usually prototypes turned over to contractors
– At times, built one-off systems
– Digital filtering, OTH, etc.
• Use PhD students and staff
– classified thesis!
• Ultimately 800 person lab

Stanford Helps Understand the
Electronic Order of Battle (EOB)
• Where are the Soviet radars?
– Consumers; SAC, CIA.
• Technical details of the radars
– NSA/CIA to contractors
• Periphery of Soviet Union
known
• Interior terra incognito

Problem: Understand the Soviet
• Where are the Soviet radars?
– Consumers; SAC, CIA.
• Details of the radars
– NSA/CIA to contractors
• Periphery of Soviet Union
known
• Interior terra incognito

Terman Changes the Startup/University Rules
• Graduate students encouraged to start
companies
• Professors encouraged to consult for these
companies
• Terman and other professors take board seats
• Technology transfer/IP licensing easy
• Getting out in the real world was good for your
academic career

B-52 Bomber Strike on Severodvinsk
B-52G: 2 AGM-28 Cruise Missiles 1.1 MT
1 B-53 9 MT gravity bomb
Sean O’Connor http://geimint.blogspot.com/

B-52G
TALL KING Early Warning Radar:
Range ~300 miles

B-52G
TALL KING
SA-5 Surface to Air Missile:
Range 10-100 miles
Altitude 1,000 - 60,000 feet

B-52G
TALL KING
SA-5
AGM-28: Nuclear Cruise Missile
1.1 MT weapon, Mach 2

AGM-28 Hound Dog – Cruise Missile
• Carried under the wing of a B-52, two per bomber
• Launched at 45,000, climb to more than 56,000 feet,
Mach 2 cruise to the target and then dive to the target
• 1.1 MT nuclear weapon
• Range ~ 700 miles

B-52G
AGM-28
Severodvinsk

B-52G
AGM-28
Severodvinsk
Range 5 – 25 miles
Altitude 1,250 - 90,000 feet

Surface to Air Missile Defense of
Severodvinsk

B-52G
AGM-28
Severodvinsk
SA-2
Range 2.5 – 15 miles
Altitude 60 - 54,000 feet

B-52G
AGM-28
Severodvinsk
SA-2
SA-3
Range 10 – 100 miles
Altitude 1,000 – 60,000 feet

SIGINT Collection Goes 24/7
• NSA gets SIGINT mission
• Service Cryptologic Elements
– Air Force Security Service
– Naval Security Group
– Army Security Agency
– Eventually the Central Security Service
• Targets were the Soviet Block
• Most data was from denied areas – outside
the U.S.

1950’s Solution: Fleet of SIGINT Planes
• Flew periphery of Soviet bloc 24/7
– PB4Y2, P2V, C-97, RB-47, EC-121,
C-130, EA-3B, RC-135
• Measured Soviet Air Defense
– Revealed low-altitude coverage was
good
• Continuous COMINT and targeted
SIGINT

SIGINT– The Line of Sight Problem
You got to get close!
You got to get them turned on!!

The Cost: 23 SIGINT Planes
Date Victim Service Aircraft Pilot Weapon
8Apr50 PB4Y - 2 U S N La-11 B.Dokin 23/37mm
24Apr50 F-82 USA F MiG-15 Keleinikov 23/37mm
Apr50 F-51D USA F MiG-15 N.Guzhov 23/37mm
May50 F-51D USA F La-11 Yefremov 20mm
11May50 B-24 USA F MiG-15 I.Shinkarenko 23/37mm
26Dec50 RB-29 USA F MiG-15 S.Bhakae v 23/37mm
6Nov51 P2V - 2 U S N MiG-15 M.Schukin 23/37mm
13Jun52 RB-29 USA F MiG-15 O.Fedot o v 23/37mm
7Oct52 RB-29 USA F MiG-15 Zheryakov 23/37mm
7Oct52 RB-29 USA F MiG-15 Lesnov 23/37mm
29Jul53 RB-50 USA F MiG-15 A.Rybakov 23/37mm
4Sep54 P2V - 5 U S N MiG-15 ? 23/37mm
7Nov54 RB-29 USA F MiG-15 Kosti n 23/37mm
17Apr55 RB-47H USA F MiG-15 Korotkov 23/37mm
22Jun55 P2V - 5 U S N MiG-15 ? 23/37mm
10Sep5 6 RB-50 USA F MiG-15 ? 23/37mm
27Jun58 C-118 USA F MiG-17 P Sevetlichnikov 23/37mm
2Sep58 C-130A USA F MiG-17 H.Gavrilo v 23/37mm
1Jul60 RB-47 USA F MiG-17 F V.Polyakov 23/37mm
1963 RB-47 USA F MiG-19 S ? 30mm
1963 T-39 USA F MiG-19 S ? 30mm
10Mar64 RB-66C USA F MiG-21F-13 Zinowlj e v 30mm
14Dec65 RB-57F USA F MiG-17 F ? 23/37mm

Elint - Is There a Better Way?
The U-2

Stanford/Military/Industry Ecosystem
• Stanford did basic research in electronics
• Stanford and SRI do applied research
• Microwave and systems companies in Silicon Valley
produce equipment for the military

Terman’s Strategy (1)
1. Sit on every possible Military Advisory board
– Build Network and relationships
2. Reach out to military customers to understand their
needs. Then craft a prototype in Stanford’s labs
– generate revenue for the university and strengthen its military
relationship
3. If the customer liked the prototype, encourage a
student to found a company and manufacture at scale
– inspired entrepreneurship (and hard work) in the students in
the university’s labs

Terman’s Strategy (2)
4. Put a Stanford faculty (or Terman) on the board or as
a consultant with the new company
– This trained Stanford faculty in business and turned them
into better teachers and researchers
5. Provide office space in the Stanford Industrial Park
– this ensured that the startup stayed close and helped the
entrepreneurial ecosystem reach a higher density

Consequences For Stanford
1. Stanford became the preferred contractor for ELINT
and Electronic Warfare (EW) prototypes
– Frederick Terman was a ELINT and EW gatekeeper
2. Stanford attracted talented students, military
customers, and later, private investor ecosystem
3. Academic research in ELINT and EW was driven by
customers’ needs rather than being pushed by labd
or the agendas of national research agencies
– Terman as the first advocate for Customer Development

Example: U-2 as an Sigint Platform (1956)
Courtesy of Stanford and Silicon Valley
• System IV
– 150 - 40,000 MHz
– Stanford Electronics Laboratories
– Ramo Woolridge
• E/F Band ELINT recorder (1956)
• A Band ELINT recorder (1959)
• E/F Band Jammer (1959)
– Granger Associates
• Watkins Johnson
– QRC -192 Elint receiver
– 50 -14,000 MHz
• Communications receiver
– 100-150 MHz/3 channel tape recorder

Example: A-12 ELINT/EWS Suite (1965)
• System VI ELINT analog recorder
– C, L, X & P Band 50 - 8,000 MHz
• Bluedog SA-2 L-band guidance
jammer
• Pinpeg SA-2 warning receiver
– 2.8-3.2 & 4.8 -5.2 ghz -40 dbm
• Big Blast SA-2 Noise and deception Jammer
• Mad Moth SA-2 range gate Jammer

Microwave Valley - Stanford Spinouts
Military Systems
• Sylvania Electronics Defense Laboratory (1953)
• GE Microwave Laboratory (1956)
• Granger Associates (1956)
• Applied Technology (1959)
• Electronic Systems Laboratories (ESL) (1964)
• Argo Systems (1969)
• Advent Systems (1972)

Microwave Valley - Systems
Some Stanford Alum’s
• Sylvania Electronics Defense Laboratory (1953)
– Countermeasures, search receivers, converters
– Hired faculty as consultants, including Terman
• GE Microwave Laboratory (1956)
• Granger Associates (1956) Bill Granger
• Applied Technology (1959) Bill Granger
• Electronic Systems Laboratories (ESL) (1964)
– William Perry + 6 other’s from Sylvania EDL
• Argo Systems (1969) James de Broekert
• Advent Systems (1972) James de Broekert

Silicon Valley as We Know it Starts Here
• Graduate students encouraged to start companies
• Professors encouraged to consult for companies
academic career
• Failure was accepted as part of the culture

Silicon Valley as We Know it Starts Here
• Graduate students encouraged to start companies
• Professors encouraged to consult for companies
academic career

SAMs- Radar Guided Surface-to-Air-Missiles
Protect the Soviet Union From U.S. Bombers
• SA-1 Protect Moscow
– 1955 IOC
– 56 sites each w/50 missile
• SA-2 Widely deployed
– 1957 IOC
– 1965- 1000 sites each w/6 missiles
• SA-3 Low Altitude coverage
• SA-5 Long Range

Project ASHCAN/GENTRIX – Spy Balloons
• ASHCAN
– Air sampling output of
Soviet Plutonium reactors
– Brazil, Panama, U.S.
• GENETRIX
– 516 balloons launched
over the Soviet Union
– 600 lbs of reconnaissance
cameras
– 44 are recovered
• UFO’s?

Stanford and the Cold War
Silicon Valley’s 1st Wave
Entrepreneurs
Weapons
Finance
Crisis ProfitMotivation
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Infrastructure Stable
Legal System
Research
Universities
Risk Taking
Culture Entrepreneurial
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Free flow of
People/Info
Customer
Development
Mgmt Tools Agile
Development
Business Model
Design
Design
Thinking

Terman and the Cold War
Silicon Valley’s 1st Engine of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurs
Military
Finance
Cooperative
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Risk Capital
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Legal System
Technical
Labs/Universities
Steve Blank 23 Sept 2008
Free flow of
People/Information

Project: Melody ~1960
• First noticed in Project Genetrix
– Soviet P-20 Token radar bounced
off our high altitude spy balloons
– Was received by our radars
– Hmm…
• Bistatic intercept receiver
Irony Alert: In WWII Germans used their Klein-Heidelberg Bistatic radar using the British “Chain Home” radar to track allied bombers

Project: Melody ~1960
• Pick up Soviet radars bounced off their own ICBM’s
during test flights
– Used CIA “Tacksman” intercept sites in Beshahr/Kabkan Iran
– Use the missiles’ telemetry beacon to steer our radars
• Produced intercepts of all ground-based Soviet missile
tracking radars
– Including all ABM radars
– At a 1000 mile range
• Later used ionized cloud of Soviets nuclear tests

CIA: Directorate of Science & Technology
• Concerned about OXCART* vulnerability
– First aircraft designed for Stealth (tail was plastic)
– High speed (Mach 3.3), high altitude (90K feet)
• Facing evolved Soviet air defense system
• ELINT Staff Office (ESO) asked:
– What’s the radar environment like inside the Soviet Union?
* A-12/OXCART was the CIA version of the plane which was kept secret (15 built). SR-71 was the 2 seat Air Force
reconnaissance version which was made public (31 built.) The YF-12 was an Air Force fighter interceptor (3 built.)

Problem: Find All the “Tall Kings”
• Primary Soviet Air Defense Radar
– Long Range, 375 miles
• 150mhz, PRF 100/200hz, 800Kw
– 100’ wide, 30’ high
• Where were they located?
• How many are there?
– B52 bombers needed to know
– OXCART needed to know

Solution: Project “Flower Garden”
Shoot the Moon
• Point dishes at the moon
• Use the moon as a bistatic
reflector
• Listen for TALL KING signals
– As earth and moon revolved and
rotated all TALL KING’s came into
view, one at a time
– Plot their precise location

HENHOUSE Radar
• Soviet HENHOUSE phased-array radar
– 850’ long, 25MW
– Missile Warning/ABM system
– Space surveillance
• Identified via satellite photos
and ELINT
• But what were its capabilities?

Radio Dishes Get Funded
• Attach ELINT receivers to Bell Labs
60’ antenna in New Jersey
• NSA uses antennas at Sugar Grove,
Chesapeake Bay, Aricebo, Jordell Bank
• Pay for and build Stanford “Dish”
– Hide relationships via “cover agencies”
– Discovers “Hen House” radar

Radio Dishes Get Funded
• Attach ELINT receivers to Bell Labs
60’ antenna in New Jersey
– Use Stanford“matched filter” techniques
• Use antennas at Sugar Grove,
Chesapeake Bay, Aricebo, Jordell Bank
• Pay for and build Stanford “Dish”
– Hide relationships via “cover agencies”
– Air Force Cambridge Research Center and
Office of Naval Research
– Discovers “Hen House” radar

PPMS: Power & Pattern
Measurement Systems ~1962
• Now we know where Tall King & Spoon Rest radars are but
• Now we need to know:
– Spatial Coverage
– Radiated Power
– RF Coherence
– Polarization
• For Jamming and Stealth

Project: Palladium
• Ok, now we know spatial coverage, etc. we need to
know:
– Sensitivity of Soviet radar receivers
– How good were their operators
• Hence, Project Palladium
• Build a system that electronically generated and
injected false targets into Soviet radars
– They saw ghost aircraft
– We could simulate any aircraft, any speed
– Trick was to know what they were seeing

Project: PALLADIUM
• Teamed with NSA and used SIGINT intercepts
– Listened to their communication channels and could decrypt
them in real time
– Watch when they turned on their SA-2 target tracking radar
• We used ground bases, naval ships, submarines

Project Echo 1960
ELINT Balloons in Space
• 100’ aluminized mylar balloon
• Cover was “radio relay” tests
• Originally to be launched from
Vandenberg
• Launched in Aug 1960
• By this time something else
was in space

Story 5:
1956 – Lockheed Comes to Town &
We Become Silicon Valley

Story 5: 1956 - The Year It All Changes

Lockheed Comes to Town - 1956
• Polaris missile SLBM
• Built by Lockheed Missiles
Division in Sunnyvale
• 20,000 employees by 1960
– From 0 in 4 years
– HP: 3,000 employees 1960

Lockheed Comes to Town
• Polaris missile SLBM
• Built in by Lockheed Missiles Division in
Sunnyvale
– Westinghouse Electric
launch tube subcontractor
• 20,000 employees by 1960
– From 0 in 4 years
– HP: 3,000 employees 1960

Move Reconnaissance to Space
• Photo – take pictures
– Corona, Gambit, Hexagon, KH-11
• COMINT – listen to communications
• ELINT – find radars and listen to missile
telemetry
• IR – Missile launch detection via infrared
• Nuclear – detect nuclear explosions

Lockheed and WS-117L
NRO - Move Reconnaissance to Space
Program A: Air Force - imaging and sigint
Program B: CIA - Imaging electroopitcal and sigint
Program C: Navy signit
Program D: U-2, A-12/Oxcart, D-21/Tagboard
SAMOS/SENTRY
MIDAS - Program 461
IR - Launch Detection
CORONA
Imaging
VELA
Nuclear Detection
Program P-11/ 989
SAMOS F-1/2/3
ELINT/SIGINT

Lockheed: Corona
First Photo Satellites – built in East Palo
Alto

Lockheed: Hexagon
Photo Satellites the Size of School Bus

Lockheed
Gambit KH-8 and Hexagon KH-9

Horse Trailer or Hexagon on 101?

Lockheed - Agena
Space Bus for Spy Satellites
• First restartable second stage
– Boost and maneuvering
– 3-axis stabilized
• Used on Thor, Atlas and Titan
• Controlled all 1960’s spy satellites
• 365 built on an assembly line in secret in Sunnyvale
• Had a special rack for ELINT/COMINT payloads

SIGINT Collection
• ELINT and COMINT in Orbit
• First as a series of sub-satellites on Corona missions
– Called AFTRACK
• Then as dedicated ELINT and COMINT Satellites

AFTRACK ELINT and COMINT Payloads
• Put ELINT and COMINT sub-satellites on the Agena of the
Corona and Gambit imaging satellites
– launched between Aug 1960-Oct 1967

AFTRACK ELINT Payloads
• SEL, Sylvania SDL, ATI & Lockheed built
AFTRACK ELINT Ferret sub-satellites
• Carried on Samos E-6 & Agena of the
Corona/Gambit photo satellites – called Bit
Boxes
– SOCTOP/STOPPER – Spoofing/Vulnerability
– TOPSOC – 400mhz-1.6ghz search, no df
– TAKI – find Tall King early warning radars
– WILDBILL – find HENHOUSE ABM radar
– LONGJOHN – find HENHOUSE center frequency
– PLYMOUTH ROCK/HAYLOFT–Radar Order of
Battle 2-4ghz
– launched between Aug 1960-Oct 1965

AFTRACK COMINT Payloads
• AFTRACK COMINT Ferret sub-satellites
– Built by AIL, Sanders, HRB Singer
– Carried on Agena of the Corona satellites
• TEXASPINT– Air to Ground Communications
• NEWJERSEY - Air to Ground Communications
• NEWHAMPSHIRE – never flew
• VINO – Comint copy
• GRAPEJUICE – radio teletype (RTTY)
• OPPORKNOCKITY – radio teletype (RTTY)
• SQUARE TWENTY – 1.55-2Ghz comm link
• DONKEY – sidelobes of 3.45-3.9Ghz comm link
• All of the data were analyzed by the contractor

Stanford SEL/Lockheed & AFTRACK
• SEL & Lockheed built AFTRACK Ferret
sub-satellites
• Carried on Agena of the Corona and
Gambit photo satellites
– AFTRACK – TAKI payload to track Tall Kings
– WILDBILL –find HENHOUSE ABM radar
• Don Grace, SEL manager for AFTRACK
payloads, set up a small lab in the
basement of their building on the
Stanford campus
• Don Eslinger single-handedly built all
the 10 SEL payloads

BIT-Boxes: ELINT with on-board recorders
• Follow-on to STOPPER, Built by Sylvania – EDL
• Series of payloads, tailored frequency to known radars
– HENHOUSE, DOGHOUSE, TRYADD Search
• First flown on Samos E-6, then Agena/Corona & Gambit
AFTRACK and Hexagon
• BIT-1: fixed 153-163 Mhz
• BIT-2 sweep 150-300 Mhz
• BIT-4 1967 fixed 152-164 Mhz + sweep 700-1000 MHz
• BIT-4A added 1880-2020 and 2108-2245 MHz coverage
• BIT - 9 Gambit/Hexagon – three receivers

SIGINT Satellite Collection 1960 – 1963
• 50 SIGINT Vehicles in Orbit
– AFTRACK plus dedicated satellites
– 50% met their intelligence objectives
• General Search
• Continuous 60mhz – 10 Ghz search
• Radar Order of Battle
– For B-52s SIOP
• Directed Search
– High priority: ABM, ICBM & COMINT systems

SIGINT Collection – General Search
 DYNO 1 – S-band
• Continuous 60mhz – 10 Ghz search
• 4 vehicles in orbit
• DYNO 1 – S-band
 Poppy

SEL/Lockheed and de Broekert
• James de Broekert of Stanford STL
• SEL & Lockheed built AFTRACK
Ferret sub-satellites
• Carried on Agena of the Corona
photo satellites
– AFTRACK – TAKI payload to track Tall
Kings
– WILDBILL – to find HENHOUSE ABM
radar
– launched between Mar 1963-Oct 1965
• Founded Argo, Signal Science,
Advent Systems

Stanford AEL/STL and Rambo
• William Rambo
– Designed “Carpet” Jammer at RRL
– Went to AIL after WWII, Stanford - 1951
– Headed AEL then STL - 1958
– NSA/CIA consultant
• Stanford STL leads the space ELINT effort
– Works with Lockheed on ferret subsatellites

Project West Ford 1963
A Ring of Chaff in Space
• 400 million copper dipoles
• 3/4’s of an inch long
• 2000 mile altitude, 5 miles wide,
25 miles thick
• Cover was “radio relay” tests
• Launched as part of MIDAS

Project Canes/Grab/DYNO 1 1960-1962
ELINT in Space
• No more overflights or balloons
• Collect radar emissions from
Soviet air defense radars
• Record, Store and Dump
• Built by the Naval Research
Laboratory
• Used by SAC for EOB then
given to the NRO
• Cover was an unclassified
payload Transit/SolRad

Project POPPY 1962-1971
Navy ELINT in Space
• Started as ELINT general search
• Expanded to ABM search, telemetry,
then Ocean Surveillance
– Ships can no longer hide
– Collect radar emissions from Soviet
naval vessels
• Two-ball in 1962 then triplet system
in 1963 and then four.

Villard and Over the Horizon Radar
• Meteor trails
– burst comm and ELINT receiver
• Nuclear tests
• OTH - Over The Horizon Radar
– Monitor missile launches
EARTHLING in Pakistan in 1961
CHECKROTE in Taiwan in 1966
– Aircraft tracking
• Stealth - 1969 at SRI

The End of Classified Work at Stanford
• In 1968, 35 percent of Stanford
research funding in electronics
was for classified work
• 50% of SRI’s work was from
DOD
• April 9, 1969 400 students
occupy AEL

Story 7: 1966 Vietnam and Electronic
Warfare

1966 Vietnam and Electronic Warfare
• 25 July 1965 an RB-66C ELINT aircraft monitoring
the EOB (Electronic Order of Battle) of North
Vietnam, located
• Fire Control Radars
– 1 SCR-5841
– 1 SON-4
– 21 SON-9
– 1 Fan Song
– And the Electronic Warfare battle started
Source: hpasp simhq.com

SON-4 (Whiff) SON-9 (Fire Can)
AAA Control Radars
• During WW-II, US supplied SCR-584
(10cm wavelength, E band) Conical
Scanning AAA Fire Control radars to the
Soviet Union
• The Soviet Union copied it as the SON-4
and updated it as the SON-9

Surface to Air Missiles – Radar
SA-75MK Dvina (SA-2B/F) Fan Song
• Target acquisition radar
– P-12 (Spoon Rest-A) the A band (VHF, metric wavelength)

Surface to Air Missiles – Radar
SA-75MK Dvina (SA-2B/F) Fan Song
• SAM control radar RSNA-75M (Fan Song F)
– E band (10cm wavelength) with a TWS (Track While Scan)
target tracking method
– used two separate antennas, with two separate frequency.
– needed to jam both at the same time

Jamming the SA-75MK Dvina (SA-2B/F)
Air Force QRC-160-1 ALQ-71
• jamming pod on the F-4, side mounted on F-105
• E band: 4 voltage tuned magnetrons 100W each
– FM modulated continuous wave noise jamming
– jamming frequency range was preset on the ground
– RAM air turbine
– Pilot had only an On/Off switch

Air Force QRC-160-1A ALQ-71
• Added modulated AM Noise Jamming
– 6th~8th (96~128Hz) harmonic of the fire control radar's scanning
frequency (16Hz)
• At the operator scope, this resulted 6~8 vertical noise
strobe, per plane
– In a 4-ship formation, 24~32 vertical noise strobes could
completely confuse the operators

Air Force
• Noise jamming created a vertical band on the SAM
operator screens, however, a single plane was trackable
– Missiles could be guided against it with T/T method, using 11sec
(arm after launch) radio proxy fuse setting
• F-105, F-4’s used “jamming pod formations to merge
the vertical bands on the operator screen, to create one
wide band, thus making precise angle tracking
impossible

Beacon Jammer
• The SA-2 Guideline missile beacon, was in a narrow
20MHz band
• Planes launched w/two QRC-160-1/1A pods, where
one pod was solely dedicated for the missile beacon
noise jamming
• For several months, all missiles were lost right after
launch

Jamming the SON-4 (Whiff) SON-9 (Fire Can)
AAA fire control radars
Air Force QRC-160-1
• Barrage Noise Jamming denied the aircraft distance
(range) from the radar
– angles (elevation, azimuth) were still trackable
• Without range information, they were unable to
calculate the required firing lead

Navy ALQ-51 Angle Deception Jamming system
• on the A-4/A-6, F-4/ F-8
• Amplitude Modulation radiated into the
side-lobes of the radar, main-lobe
untouched
• At the operator screen, resulted in a
"mustache" shaped target
• The automatic angle tracking would track
the side of the "mustache" (where the target
shape is widest) instead of the middle of the
target - causing a miss
– so the target had to be tracked manually

Jamming the AAA SON-4 (Whiff)
SON-9 (Fire Can) AAA control radar
Navy
• ALQ-51 Inverse Gain Jamming system on the A-4/6, F-
4/8
• During target tracking, the pencil beam of the antenna is
conically scanned around the tracked target,
mechanically
• The target tracking system seeks to equalize the received
signal strength during the rotation, thus centering the
target.
• The stronger jammer signal will lure the radar boresight
away the target, eventually breaking its angle lock

Jamming the SA-2B/F Dvina, S-75 Desna (SA-
2C), S-75M Volhov (SA-2E) & SON-9 Fire Can
Air Force QRC-160-8, AN/ALQ-87 jamming pod
• Denied range and azimuth data to SON-9 Fire Can
• Denied Fan Song of range, altitude and azimuth
• Jammed the position beacon (downlink) in the SA-2 missile
• sweep modulator, pulse modulated and barrage noise
Magnetron
– E & F band - 2550Mc to 3650Mc - bandwidth 80 to 275Mc
– G & H band - 4910Mc to 5110Mc - bandwidth 25 to 210Mc
– 5350Mc to 5550Mc - bandwidth 25 to 210Mc
– A band (153-157Mhz) noise jammer whenever a Track-While-Scan
radar is seen

Air Force QRC-160-8, AN/ALQ-87 jamming pod
• Mode A - 100W pulse noise 25-100Mhz bandwidth
• Mode B - 300W pulse noise 25-100Mhz bandwidth
• Mode C - 300W pulse noise 80-210Mhz bandwidth
• Mode D - 300W pulse noise 80-210Mhz bandwidth - or
barrage noise 80-240mhz/hz

Jamming the S-75 Desna (SA-2C)
S-75M Volhov (SA-2E)
Navy AN/ALQ-49
• G/H band Angle Deception Jamming System
• Complemented the already fielded AN/ALQ-51
• BTW, the S-75M Volhov (SA-2E) never appeared in North
Vietnam

Jamming the SA-2B/F Dvina, S-75
Desna (SA-2C), S-75M Volhov (SA-2E)
Air Force ALQ-101/ 105
• First TWT (Traveling Wave Tube) jammer
• 2.6 to 5.2GHz frequency range
• installed inside of the F-105G Wild Weasel, it was
called the AN/ALQ-105

Russian Anti-Jam Mods to the SA-
75MK Dvina (SA-2B/F)
• H<1 switch reduced the min altitude to 500m
• RAB.po.K3 switch, in case of radio proxy fuse jamming
• PA-00 cabin "doghouse" at the top of the cabin for visual
target tracking, in dense jamming environment
• APP-75M instrument, to make launch calculations automatic
• V-750VK missile beacon output increased from 20W to 80W

Jamming the SA-125 Neva (SA-3)
Air Force QRC-160-2 ALQ-72
• I-band Barrage Noise Jamming pod
• Brought into the the Vietnam War theater, but never flown

Standoff Jamming
Air Force EB-66
• ALT-6B E band Spot Noise Jammer
– hydraulically tuned magnetron to aim its frequency during
flight against a specific SAM site
– Limitations were, that against one SAM fire control radar,
needed to aim two ALT-6B (epsilon/azimuth), and provided
protection only if the attacker plane was between the jammer
and the site.T
– AC used the EB-66E aircraft that carried 34pcs.

List of
jammers on
B-52/EB-66

Jammers on Linebacker II B-52’s
• By Dec ’72 B52’s had:
– 4 ALT-28’s reinforce the ALT-22 or in downIink jamming
– ALT-22 Jammer used against the Fan Song track-while-scan
beacon
– 41 of 98 B52-G models on Guam carried older, less powerful
ALT-6’s instead of the ALT-22’s and ALT-28
• EWO’s directed two ALT-28’s and two ALT-22’s or
ALT-6’s against Fan Song and used the
other pair of ALT-28’ s to jam the SAM guidance
beacon
• The remaining ALT-22 or ALT-6, usually attacked
height-finder radars
• ALT-28 backward wave oscillator

List of jammers on B-52D
• AN/ALR-18 automatic receiver
• AN/ALR-20 panoramic receiver
• AN/APR-25 display
• 4 AN/ALT-6B or AN/ALT-22 CW jammers
• 2 AN/ALT-16 barrage-jammers.
• 2 AN/ALT-32H high-band jammers.
• 1 AN/ALT-32L low-band jammers
• 6 AN/ALE-20 flare dispensers, with a total of 96
flares.
• 8 AN/ALE-24 chaff dispensers, with a total of 1,125
bundles

Standoff Jamming
Air Force EB-66
• High power barrage and tuneable jamming
– 21 ALT-6B - Spot Noise Jammers, in the E band to counter SAMs
– Limitations were, that against one Dvina fire control radar, you
needed to aim exactly two ALT-6B (epsilon/azimuth), and
provided protection only if the attacker plane was between the
jammer and the site
• In 1967 after the F-105 had their own jammer QRC-160
pod EB-66s were used against early warning and ground
controlled intercept radars
– Flights of three aircraft were used two EB-66Bs and one EB-66C.
– Up to three of these flights were used to cover a strike mission
during target ingress and egress as well as during the actual strike

Standoff Jamming
Air Force EB-66
• EB-66 C-Model ELINT
– "see" enemy electronic transmissions and then jam
– Could identify MiG IFF and Fan Song (SAM search and tracking
radar) signals, and provide MiG and SAM warnings

Story 6: 1956 Why It’s Silicon Valley

Meanwhile, on the Other
Side of Town…
The Head of Radar Bombing training for Air Force
starts a Company

The Real Story of Silicon Valley History
1910 1960 1970 1980 20001990
Innovation Networks
Microwaves/
Defense
Personal
Computers
Integrated
Circuits
Internet
1930 1940 19501920
Test
Equipment
Vacuum
Tubes
Venture Capital

William Shockley
“The Other Father of Silicon Valley”
• Director of Navy anti-submarine warfare
• Head of Radar Bombing training for Air Force
• Co-inventor of the transistor
– Nobel Prize in 1956
• Founded Shockley Transistor 1955

William Shockley
Shockley Transistor Corporation

William Shockley
“The Other Father of Silicon Valley”
• Director of Navy anti-submarine warfare operations
group at Columbia (1942-1943)
• Head of Radar Bombing training for Air Force (1943-1945)
• Deputy Director and Research Director of the Weapons
System Evaluation Group in the Defense Department
(1954-1955)
• Co-inventor of the transistor
– Nobel Prize in 1956
• Founded Shockley Transistor 1955
– First semiconductor company in California

William Shockley
“Great Researcher, Awesome Talent
Spotter, Horrible Manager”
• Unintended consequences:
“The traitorous 8” leave Shockley
– found Fairchild Semiconductor
– 1st VC-backed startup
– Noyce & Moore leave Fairchild to start Intel
– 65 other chip companies in the next 20 years
• Eugenics beliefs end his career 1963

Semiconductor Genealogy: 1955 - 1976

Shockley’s Legacy
• It’s Silicon Valley

Story 7: Why We All Don’t Work for the
Government
The Rise of Private Capital

Venture Capital
Silicon Valley’s 2nd Wave
Entrepreneurs
Venture
Finance
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Legal System
Research
Universities
Risk Taking
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Free flow of
People/Info
Customer
Development
Mgmt Tools Agile
Development
Business Model
Design
Design
Thinking

Venture Capital
Silicon Valley’s 2nd Engine of Entrepreneurship
Cooperative
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Risk Capital
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Legal System
Technical
Labs/Universities
Steve Blank 23 Sept 2008
Free flow of
People/Information
Entrepreneurs
Venture
Finance

The Valley Attracts Financial Attention
The 1st West Coast IPO’s
• 1956 Varian
• 1957 Hewlett Packard
• 1958 Ampex

The Rise of Risk Capital
Family Money 1940’s - 1960’s
• J.H. Whitney
– 1st family office 1946
• Laurance Rockefeller
– Draper Gaither & Anderson (1st limited Partnership) 1958
– Spun out as Venrock in 1969
• Bessemer
• East Coast focus
• Wide variety of industries

East Coast VC Experiments
• 1946 American Research & Development
– George Doriot
– Right idea, wrong model
(public VC firm)
• 1963 Boston Capital

“The Group” 1950’s
• First Bay Area “Angels”
– Reid Dennis
– William Bryan
– William Edwards
– William K. Bowes
– Daniel McGanney
~ 10 deals $75 -$300K

Reid Dennis Remembers
• “The first 25 electronics companies required total
capital of $300k each and private individuals formed
the basis of the early syndicates”
• “….in 1975, prior to the relaxation of ERISA laws, the
entire VC industry raised $10m”

SBIC Act of 1958
• 700 SBIC funds by 1965
– 75% of all VC funding in 1968, 7% in 1988
• Corporate
– Bank of America - George Quist, Tom Clauson
– Firemans Fund/American Express - Reid Dennis
• Private
– 1959 Continental Capital - Frank Chambers
– The Group; Bryan Edwards, McGanney
– 1962 Pitch Johnson & Bill Draper
– 1962 Sutter Hill

Defense R&D Budget
Sources: United States National Science Foundation Science and Engineering Indicators 2006, 2006, http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind06/append/c4/at04-03.pdf; United States
Governemnt, Budgetfor FY 05, Historical Tables, 2004, Table 9.7, http://www.gpoaccess.gov/-usbudget/fy05/hist.html
$ Billions
Defense R&D

Defense R&D Budget
California
$ Billions
Defense R&D
California
Defense R&D

Defense R&D Budget
Silicon Valley
$ Billions
Defense R&D
California
Defense R&D
Silicon Valley
Defense R&D

Defense R&D Budget
Versus Venture Capital
$ Billions
Defense R&D
California
Defense R&D
Silicon Valley
Defense R&D
Silicon Valley
Venture

The Rise of Venture Capital
The Limited Partnership
• Raise money from pension funds, private universities,
wealthy individuals – the limited partners
• Investment professionals manage the fund – the general
partners i.e. the VC’s
– Compensate the general partners via the “2 and 20”
– 2% management fee, 20% carried interest (i.e. of the profits)
• Draper Gaither & Anderson 1958
• Rock and Davis 1961
• Sutter Hill 1964
• Patricof & Co. 1969
• Kleiner Perkins 1972
• Sequoia Capital 1972

The Limited Partnership
• DGA (Draper Gaither & Anderson) 1958
• Rock and Davis 1961
• Sutter Hill 1964
• TA Associates 1968
• Mayfield Fund 1969
• Patricof & Co. 1969
• Kleiner Perkins 1972
• Capital Mgmt Services (Sequoia) 1972

1978/1979 - A Watershed
• Capital gains slashed (1978)
– 49.5% to 28%
• Employee Retirement Income Security Act (1979)
– Pension funds can invest

Venture Capital
Silicon Valley’s 2nd Wave
Entrepreneurs
Venture
Finance
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Legal System
Research
Universities
Risk Taking
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Free flow of
People/Info
Customer
Development
Mgmt Tools Agile
Development
Business Model
Design

Entrepreneurs
Venture
Finance
24/7 Utilities
Predictable
Economic System
Legal System
Research
Universities
Culture Creaitve
Outward-Facing
Tech Universities
Free flow of
People/Info
Customer
Development
Mgmt Tools Agile
Development
Business Model
Design
Freedom to
Dissent
Liquidity
Risk Taking

Summary
• Terman/Stanford/Government responsible for
entrepreneurial culture of Silicon Valley
• Military primed the pump as a customer for key Valley
technologies
– Semiconductors, computers, Internet
– But very little technical cross pollination
• Venture Capital turned the valley to volume corporate
and consumer applications
• Berkeley continued its focus on Big Science and
National Labs

Summary
• Terman/Stanford/Government responsible for
entrepreneurial culture of Silicon Valley
• Military primed the pump as a customer for key
technologies
– Semiconductors, computers, Internet
– But very little technical cross pollination
• Venture Capital turned the valley to volume corporate
and consumer applications
Is there another “crisis” that will restart the
valley’s cycle of innovation?
Or will we continue to be profit driven?

WWII Sources - Books
• WWII
– A Radar History of WWII - Louis Brown
– Confound and Destroy - Martin Streetly
– Echoes of War, the Story of H2S Radar - Sir Bernard Lovell
– The Invention that Changed the World - Robert Buderi
– Wizard War, British Scientific Intelligence - R.V. Jones
– History of Air Intercept Radar and British Nightfighter - Ian White
– The Luftwaffe Over Germany: Defense of the Reich - Donald Caldwell
– Instruments of Darkness: The History of Electronic Warfare - Alfred Price
– Volume I: The History of US. Electronic Warfare to 1946 - Alfred Price

Cold War Sources - Books
• Cold War
– Volume II: The History of US. Electronic Warfare: Renaissance Years- Alfred Price
– The Wizards of Langley - Jeffrey T. Richelson
– Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency - James Bamford
– The Puzzle Palace: Inside the NSA, - James Bamford
– Secrets of Signals Intelligence During the Cold War and Beyond - Matthew M. Aid, Cees Wiebes
– Eternal Vigilance? - Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, Christopher M. Andrew
– High-Cold-War-Strategic Air Reconnaissance and the Electronic Intelligence War - Robert Jackson
– By Any Means Necessary: America's Secret Air War in the Cold War - William E. Burrows
– Shadow Flights: America's Secret Airwar Against the Soviet Union: A Cold War History - C. Peebles
– Spyplane - Norman Polmar
– Radar Handbook, - Merrill I. Skolnik
– Out From Behind the Eight Ball: A History of Project Echo by Doanld C. Elder

Silicon Valley Sources - Books
• Terman/Shockley/Intel
– Fred Terman at Stanford - Stewart Gilmore
– Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley- Joel Shurkin
– The Man Behind the Microchip: Robert Noyce - Leslie Berlin
• Silicon Valley History
– Electronics in the West: the First Fifty Years - Jane Morgan
– The Origins of the Electronics Industry on the Pacific Coast- Arthur Norberg
– Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford - Rebecca S. Lowen
– The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford
- Stuart W. Leslie
– Making Silicon Valley: Innovation & the Growth of High Tech - C. Lecuyer
– Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128 - Annalee Saxenian
• Venture Capital
– Creative Capital: Georges Doriot and the Birth of Venture Capital - Spencer E. Ante
• Semiconductor Timeline to 1976: Semi and Don C. Hoefler

ELINT Sources - Web
• Engineering/ELINT in the CIA/NSA
– http://www.tbp.org/pages/Publications/Bent/Features/F99Poteat.pdf
– http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/
• http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/st06.pdf
• http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB54/st08.pdf
• http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB60/abm022.pdf
– https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-
csi/pdf/v11i2a05p.pdf
– https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-
csi/pdf/v12i2a02p.pdf
– https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-
publications/books-and-monographs/a-12/hiding-oxcart-in-plain-sight.html
– http://jya.com/nsa-elint.htm
– http://fas.org/irp/program/list.htm
• ELINT Aircraft Losses
– http://www.rb-29.net/HTML/77ColdWarStory/08.01apndxC.htm
– http://www.history.navy.mil/avh-1910/APP34.PDF

Photo and Movie Sources - Web
• B-24 Ferret ELINT equipment photos
– http://aafradio.org/
• WWII Radar History/Photos/Radar Order of Battle
– www.gyges.dk
– http://www.luftarchiv.de/
– http://www.vectorsite.net/ttwiz.html The Wizard War
– http://www.museumwaalsdorp.nl/en/german_radar.html
– http://www.baermann.biz/pauke/index.php?catid=9&blogid=1
• Movie Clips
– 12 O’Clock High
– Memphis Belle
– Dr. Strangelove

This Presentation is on YouTube
Watch This Talk Online
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTC_RxWN_xo

Secret History of Silicon Valley - Master Slide Deck

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