Software engineer

INTRODUCTION- HISTORY OF GROWTH
Global IT spending, which picked up in CY13, is expected to
maintain a decent growth in near future. Discretionary
spending on IT budgets by large global corporations has
ticked up compared to last year but is limited to the new
digital technologies.
India's IT industry can be divided into five main components,
viz. Software Products, IT services, Engineering and R&D
services, ITES/BPO (IT-enabled services/Business Process
Outsourcing) and Hardware.
The new Indian government is emphasizing on better
technology enabled delivery mechanisms for a multitude of
government projects.

SOFTWARE TESTERS WORKING
ENVIRONMENT
Hierarchy of a software development company
Important qualities of a
software tester:
• Analytical skills
• Communication skills
• Computer skills
• Creativity
• Customer-service skills
• Detail oriented
• Interpersonal skills
• Problem-solving skills

AUTOMATED SOFTWARE TESTING
Automated testing is process through which thorough and fast
testing can be done become. This quality of automated testing
has made it an essential part of software development.
Software testing is analyzing a system or a component by
providing defined inputs and comparing them with the desired
outputs to check the discrepancies between the desired and
actual outputs and correct them. Basically software testing can
be divided into two categories.
• Manual testing
• Automated software testing

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFECYCLE-
OVERVIEW
Software is more than just a program code. A program is an
executable code, which serves some computational purpose.
Software is considered to be collection of executable
programming code, associated libraries and documentations.
Software, when made for a specific requirement is called
software product.
Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with
development of software product using well-defined scientific
principles, methods and procedures. The outcome of software
engineering is an efficient and reliable software product.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFECYCLE-
OVERVIEW
Definitions
“Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound
engineering principles in order to obtain economically software
that is reliable and work efficiently on real machines.”
Software evolution:
The process of
developing a software
product using software
engineering principles
and methods is
referred to as Software
Evolution.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-
defined, structured sequence of stages in software
engineering to develop the intended software product.
Software Model:
A software development
paradigm has its own set of
tools, methods, and
procedures, which are
expressed clearly and
defines software
development life cycle.

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Software Model: A software development paradigm has its
own set of tools, methods, and procedures, which are
expressed clearly and defines software development life cycle.
A few of software development paradigms or process models
are defined as follows:
• Waterfall Model
• Iterative Model
• Spiral Model
• V – model
• Big Bang Model

SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT
The job pattern of an IT company engaged in software
development can be seen split in two parts:
• Software Creation
• Software Project Management
Software Project
A Software Project is the complete
procedure of software development from
requirement gathering to testing and
maintenance, carried out according to the
execution methodologies, in a specified
period of time to achieve intended
software product.

SOFTWARE PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Software Management Activities: Software project
management comprises of a number of activities, which
contains planning of project, deciding scope of software
product, estimation of cost in various terms, scheduling of
tasks and events, and resource management.
Project management activities may
include:
• Project Planning
• Scope Management
• Project Estimation

CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENNT
Configuration management is a process of tracking and
controlling the changes in software in terms of the
requirements, design, functions and development of the
product.
IEEE defines it as “the process of identifying and defining the
items in the system, controlling the change of these items
throughout their life cycle, recording and reporting the status
of items and change requests, and verifying the completeness
and correctness of items”.
Configuration management is a discipline of organization
administration, which takes care of occurrence of any changes
(process, requirement, technological, strategical etc.)

CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENNT
Project Management Tools: There are tools available, which
aid for effective project management. A few described are:-
Gantt Chart: Gantt chart was devised by Henry Gantt (1917).
It represents project schedule with respect to time periods.
strategical etc.)
PERT Chart: Program Evaluation & Review Technique) (PERT)
chart is a tool that depicts project as network diagram.
Resource Histogram: This is a graphical tool that contains bar
or chart representing number of resources (usually skilled
staff) required over time for a project event (or phase).

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT
The software requirements are description of features and
functionalities of the target system. Requirements convey the
expectations of users from the software product.
Requirement Engineering Process:
It is a four step process, which includes –
• Feasibility Study
• Requirement Gathering
• Software Requirement Specification
• Software Requirement Validation Let us see the process
briefly -

Software Requirement Specification (SRS): SRS is a document
created by system analyst after the requirements are collected
from various stakeholders.
SRS defines how the intended software will interact with
hardware, external interfaces, speed of operation, response
time of system, portability of software across various
platforms, maintainability, speed of recovery after crashing,
Security, Quality, Limitations etc.
Requirement Elicitation Process
Requirement elicitation process can be depicted using the
folloiwng diagram:

Software Metrics and Measures: Software Measures can be
understood as a process of quantifying and symbolizing various
attributes and aspects of software. Software Metrics provide
measures for various aspects of software process and software
product.
Let us see some software metrics:
• Size Metrics
• Complexity Metrics
• Quality Metrics
• Process Metrics
• Resource Metrics

SOFTWARE DESIGN BASICS
Software design is a process to transform user requirements
into some suitable form, which helps the programmer in
software coding and implementation.
Software Design Levels: Software design yields three levels of
results:
Architectural Design - The architectural design is the highest
abstract version of the system.
High-level Design - The high-level design breaks the ‘single
entity-multiple component’
Detailed Design- Detailed design deals with the
implementation part of what is seen as a system and its sub-
systems in the previous two designs.

Software analysis and design tools: Software analysis and
design includes all activities, which help the transformation of
requirement specification into implementation.
Let us see few analysis and design tools used by software
designers:
Data Flow Diagram
Structure Charts
HIPO Diagram
Decision Tables
Entity-Relationship Model
Data Store

Software design strategies: Software design is a process to
conceptualize the software requirements into software
implementation. Software design takes the user requirements
as challenges and tries to find optimum solution.
There are multiple variants of software design. Let us study
them briefly:
• Structured Design
• Function Oriented Design
• Object Oriented Design
• Design Process

SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION
Software documentation is an important part of software
process. A well written document provides a great tool and
means of information repository necessary to know about
software process. Software documentation also provides
information about how to use the product.
A well-maintained documentation should
involve the following documents:
• Requirement documentation
• Software Design documentation
• Technical documentation
• User documentation

SOFTWARE DOCUMENTATION
Software Implementation Challenges
There are some challenges faced by the development team
while implementing the software. Some of them are
mentioned below:
Code-reuse - Programming interfaces of present-day languages
are very sophisticated and are equipped huge library functions.
Version Management - Every time a new software is issued to
the customer, developers have to maintain version and
configuration related documentation.
Target-Host - The software program, which is being developed
in the organization, needs to be designed for host machines at
the customers end.

SOFTWARE TESTING OVERVIEW
Software Testing is evaluation of the software against
requirements gathered from users and system specifications.
Testing is conducted at the phase level in software development
life cycle or at module level in program code. Software testing
comprises of Validation and Verification.
Software Validation: Validation is process of examining whether
or not the software satisfies the user requirements. It is carried
out at the end of the SDLC.
Software Verification: Verification is the process of confirming if
the software is meeting the business requirements, and is
developed adhering to the proper specifications and
methodologies.

SOFTWARE TESTING OVERVIEW
Manual Vs Automated Testing : Testing can either be done
manually or using an automated testing tool:
Manual - This testing is performed without taking help of
automated testing tools.
Automated This testing is a testing procedure done with aid of
automated testing tools.
Testing Approaches:
Tests can be conducted based on
two approaches –
Functionality testing
Implementation testing

SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE OVERVIEW
Software maintenance is widely accepted part of SDLC now a
days. It stands for all the modifications and updations done after
the delivery of software product. There are number of reasons,
why modifications are required, some of them are briefly
mentioned below:
1. Market Conditions 2. Client Requirements
3. Host Modifications 4. Organization Changes
Types of maintenance: In a software lifetime, type of
maintenance may vary based on its nature. It may be just a
routine maintenance tasks as some bug discovered by some user
or it may be a large event in itself based on maintenance size or
nature.

SOFTWARE MAINTENANCE OVERVIEW
Software Re-engineering : When we need to update the
software to keep it to the current market, without impacting its
functionality, it is called software re-engineering. It is a thorough
process where the design of software is changed and programs
are re-written.
Re-Engineering Process
Decide what to re-engineer. Is it whole software or a part of it?
Perform Reverse Engineering, in order to obtain specifications of
existing software.
Restructure Program if required.
Re-structure data as required. Apply Forward engineering
concepts in order to get re-engineered software.

SOFTWARE CASE TOOLS OVERVIEW
CASE stands for Computer Aided Software Engineering. It means,
development and maintenance of software projects with help of
various automated software tools.
CASE Tools : CASE tools are set of software application programs,
which are used to automate SDLC activities. CASE tools are used
by software project managers, analysts and engineers to develop
software system.
Use of CASE tools accelerates the development of project to
produce desired result and helps to uncover flaws before moving
ahead with next stage in software development.

SOFTWARE CASE TOOLS OVERVIEW
Scope of Case Tools : The scope of CASE tools goes throughout
the SDLC. Now we briefly go through various CASE tools.
• Diagram tools
• Process Modeling Tools
• Documentation Tools
• Analysis Tools
• Design Tools , Change Control
Tools, Programming Tools
• Prototyping Tools
• Web Development Tools
• Quality Assurance Tools
• Maintenance Tools

INTRODUCTION TO TESTING - OVERVIEW
What is Testing? : According to ANSI/IEEE 1059 standard, Testing
can be defined as - A process of analyzing a software item to
detect the differences between existing and required conditions
(that is defects/errors/bugs) and to evaluate the features of the
software item.
When to Start Testing?
An early start to testing reduces the cost and time to rework and
produce error-free software that is delivered to the client.
However in Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), testing can
be started from the Requirements Gathering phase and
continued till the deployment of the software.

INTRODUCTION TO TESTING - OVERVIEW
When to Stop Testing?
It is difficult to determine when to stop testing, as testing is a
never-ending process and no one can claim that a software is
100% tested. The following aspects are to be considered for
stopping the testing process:
• Testing Deadlines
• Completion of test case execution
• Completion of functional and code coverage to a certain point
• Bug rate falls below a certain level and no high-priority bugs
are identified
• Management decision

INTRODUCTION TO TESTING - MYTHS
Myth 1: Testing is Too Expensive
Reality: There is a saying, pay less for testing during software
development or pay more for maintenance or correction later.
Myth 2: Testing is Time-Consuming
Reality: During the SDLC phases, testing is never a time-
consuming process.
Myth 3: Only Fully Developed Products are Tested
Myth 4: Complete Testing is Possible
Myth 5: A Tested Software is Bug-Free
Myth 6: Missed Defects are due to Testers
Myth 7: Testers are Responsible for Quality of Product

QA, QC & TESTING
Testing, Quality Assurance, and Quality Control:
Most people get confused when it comes to pin down the
differences among Quality Assurance, Quality Control, and
Testing. Although they are interrelated and to some extent, they
can be considered as same activities, but there exist
distinguishing points that set them apart.
Audit and Inspection: Audit: It is a systematic process to
determine how the actual testing process is conducted within an
organization or a team. Product.
Inspection: It is a formal technique that involves formal or
informal technical reviews of any artifact by identifying any error
or gap.

QA, QC & TESTING
Testing and Debugging:
Testing: It involves identifying bug/error/defect in a software
without correcting it. Normally professionals with a quality
assurance background are involved in bugs identification. Testing
is performed in the testing phase.
Debugging: It involves identifying, isolating, and fixing the
problems/bugs. Developers who code the software conduct
debugging upon encountering an error in the code. Debugging is
a part of White Box Testing or Unit Testing. Debugging can be
performed in the development phase while conducting Unit
Testing or in phases while fixing the reported bugs.

TYPES OF TESTING
This section describes the different types of testing that may be
used to test a software during SDLC.
Manual Testing
Manual testing includes testing a software manually, i.e., without
using any automated tool or any script.
Automation Testing
Automation testing, which is also
known as Test Automation, is
when the tester writes scripts and
uses another software to test the
product. This process involves
automation of a manual process. .

TYPES OF TESTING
How to Automate?: Automation is done by using a supportive
computer language like VB scripting and an automated software
application. There are many tools available that can be used to
write automation scripts.
Software Testing Tools
The following tools can be used for automation testing:
HP Quick Test Professional , Selenium, IBM Rational Functional
Tester, SilkTest, TestComplete, Testing Anywhere, WinRunner
LaodRunner, Visual Studio Test Professional, WATIR
. .

TESTING METHODS
There are different methods that can be used for software
testing. These are as following:
Black-Box Testing
The technique of testing without having any knowledge of the
interior workings of the application is called black-box testing.
White-Box Testing
White-box testing is the detailed investigation of internal
logic and structure of the code. White-box testing is also
called glass testing or open-box testing. . In order to perform
white-box testing on an application, a tester needs to know
the internal workings of the code.

TESTING LEVELS
Levels of testing include different methodologies that can be
used while conducting software testing. The main levels of
software testing are:
• Functional Testing
• Non-functional Testing
Functional Testing : This is a type of black-box testing that is
based on the specifications of the software that is to be tested.
Non-Functional Testing : This section is based upon testing an
application from its non-functional attributes. Nonfunctional
testing involves testing a software from the requirements which
are nonfunctional in nature but important such as performance,
security, user interface, etc.

DOCUMENTATION
Testing documentation involves the documentation of artifacts
that should be developed before or during the testing of
Software. Documentation for software testing helps in estimating
the testing effort required, test coverage, requirement
tracking/tracing, etc.
This section describes some of the commonly used documented
artifacts related to software testing such as:
• Test Plan
• Test Scenario
• Test Case
• Traceability Matrix

TESTING A SOFTWARE- OVERVIEW
The Big Picture : All software problems can be termed as bugs. A
software bug usually occurs when the software does not do what
it is intended to do or does something that it is not intended to
do. Flaws in specifications, design, code or other reasons can
cause these bugs.
In the life cycle of the conventional software
product, testing begins at the stage when the
specifications are written, i.e. from testing
the product specifications or product spec.
Bugs originate when the test cases are
executed.

TESTING A SOFTWARE- OVERVIEW
What is software? Why should it be tested?
Software is a series of instructions for the computer that perform
a particular task, called a program; the two major categories of
software are system software and application software.
A software product should only be released after it has gone
through a proper process of development, testing and bug
fixing. Testing looks at areas such as performance, stability and
error handling by setting up test scenarios under controlled
conditions and assessing the results. This is why exactly any
software has to be tested.

INTRODUCTION- SOFRTWARE LIFE CYCLE
The software life cycle typically includes the following:
requirements analysis, design, coding, testing, installation and
maintenance. In between, there can be a requirement to provide
Operations and support activities for the product.
• Design and Specifications.
• Coding.
• Testing.
• Installation.
• Operation and Support.
• Maintenance.
• Planning.
• Analysis.
• Design.
• Construction
• Test Cycle(s) / Bug Fixes
• Final Testing and
Implementation
• Post Implementation.

INTRODUCTION- SOFRTWARE LIFE CYCLE
What is a bug? Why do bugs occur?
A software bug may be defined as a coding error that causes an
unexpected defect, fault, flaw, or imperfection in a computer
program.
There are bugs in software due to unclear or constantly changing
requirements, software complexity, programming errors,
timelines, errors in bug tracking, communication gap,
documentation errors, deviation from standards etc.
Bug Life Cycle : Bug Life Cycle starts with an unintentional software
bug/behavior and ends when the assigned developer fixes the
bug. A bug when found should be communicated and assigned to
a developer that can fix it.

SOFTWARE TESTING LEVEL, TYPES, AND
DEFINITIONS
Testing Levels and Types: There are basically three levels of
testing i.e. Unit Testing, Integration Testing and System Testing.
Various types of testing come under these levels. Following is a
list of various types of software testing:
Unit Testing : To verify a single program or a section of a single
program
Integration Testing : To verify interaction between system
components Prerequisite: unit testing completed on all
components that compose a system.
System Testing : To verify and validate behaviors of the entire
system against the original system objectives.

SOFTWARE TESTING LEVEL, TYPES, AND
DEFINITIONS
Testing Terms:
Bug: A software bug may be defined as a coding error that
causes an unexpected defect, fault or flaw.
Error: A mismatch between the program and its specification is
an error in the program.
Defect: Defect is the variance from a desired product attribute.
Failure: A defect that causes an error in operation or negatively
impacts a user/customer.
Quality Assurance: Is oriented towards preventing defects.
Quality Control
Verification
Validation

THE TEST PLANNING PROCESS
Test Policy - A document characterizing the organization’s
philosophy towards software testing.
Test Strategy - A high-level document defining the test phases to
be performed and the testing within those phases for a
program.
Project Test Plan - a document defining the test phases to be
performed and the testing within those phases for a particular
project.
Test Planning – Sample Structure : Once the approach is
understood, a detailed test plan can be written. Usually, this test
plan can be written in different styles. Test plans can completely
differ from project to project in the same organization.

IEEE SOFTWARE TEST DOCUMENTATION
Std 829-1998 TEST PLAN
Purpose
To describe the scope, approach, resources, and schedule of the
testing activities. To identify the items being tested, the features
to be tested, the testing tasks to be performed, the personnel
responsible for each task, and the risks associated with this plan.
Major Test Planning Tasks : Like any other process in software
testing, the major tasks in test planning are to – Develop Test
Strategy, Critical Success Factors, Define Test Objectives, Identify
Needed Test Resources, Plan Test Environment, Define Test
Procedures, Identify Functions To Be Tested, Identify Interfaces
With Other Systems or Components, Write Test Scripts, Define
Test Cases, Design Test Data, Build Test Matrix, Finalize the Plan.

IEEE SOFTWARE TEST DOCUMENTATION
Std 829-1998 TEST PLAN
Test Case Development
A test case is a detailed procedure that fully tests a feature or an
aspect of a feature. While the test plan describes what to test, a
test case describes how to perform a particular test.
What is a Use Case?
A use case describes the system’s behavior under various
conditions as it responds to a request from one of the users.
The user initiates an interaction with the system to accomplish
some goal.

DEFECT TRACKING
Defect is the variance from a desired product attribute (it can be
a wrong, missing or extra data). It can be of two types – Defect
from the product or a variance from customer/user
expectations.
What are the defect categories?
Defects can be categorized into different types basing on the core
issues they address. Some defects address security or database
issues while others may refer to functionality or UI issues.
Security Defects, Data Quality/Database Defects, Critical
Functionality Defects, Functionality Defects, User Interface
Defects.

TYPES OF TEST REPORTS
The documents outlined in the IEEE Standard of Software Test
Documentation covers test planning, test specification, and test
reporting. Test reporting covers four document types:
• A Test Item Transmittal Report
• A Test Log
• A Test Incident report
• A test summary report

SOFTWARE TEST AUTOMATION
Automating testing is no different from a programmer using a
coding language to write programs to automate any manual
process. One of the problems with testing large systems is that
it can go beyond the scope of small test teams.
Approaches to
Automation
There are three
broad options in
Test Automation:

INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE
STANDARDS
Capability Maturity Model - Developed by the software
community in 1986 with leadership from the SEI. The CMM
describes the principles and practices underlying software
process maturity.
The CMM is organized into five
maturity levels:
• Initial
• Repeatable
• Defined
• Manageable
• Optimizing

INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE
STANDARDS
Six Sigma : Six Sigma is a quality management program to achieve
"six sigma" levels of quality. It was pioneered by Motorola in the
mid-1980s and has spread too many other manufacturing
companies, notably General Electric Corporation (GE).
ISO
ISO - International Organization for Standardization is a network
of the national standards institutes of 150 countries, on the
basis of one member per country, with a Central Secretariat in
Geneva, Switzerland, that coordinates the system. ISO is a
nongovernmental organization. ISO has developed over 13, 000
International Standards on a variety of subjects.

SOFTWARE TESTING CERTIFICATIONS
Certification Information for Software QA and Test Engineers:
CSQE - ASQ (American Society for Quality)’s program for CSQE
(Certified Software Quality Engineer).
CSQA/CSTE - QAI (Quality Assurance Institute)'s program for CSQA
(Certified Software Quality Analyst) and CSTE (Certified Software
Test Engineer) certifications
ISEB Software Testing Certifications - The British Computer
Society maintains a program of 2 levels of certifications - ISEB
Foundation Certificate, Practitioner Certificate.
ISTQB Certified Tester - The International Software Testing
Qualifications Board is a part of the European Organization for
Quality - Software Group, based in Germany.

TEST MANAGEMENT TOOLS- ALM
HP ALM (Application Life Cycle Management) is a web based tool
that helps organizations to manage the application lifecycle right
from project planning, requirements gathering, until Testing &
deployment, which otherwise is a time-consuming task.
Why use HP ALM?
The various stakeholders involved in a typical project are –
• Developer
• Tester
• Business Analysts
• Project Managers
• Product Owners

If we do not maintain centralized repository to record, maintain
and track all the artifacts related to the product, the project will
unquestionably FAIL.
We also need a mechanism to document and collaborate on all
testing and development activities.

Architecture of QC:
ALM is an enterprise application developed using Java 2 Enterprise
Edition (J2EE) that can have MS SQL Server or Oracle as its back
end. ALM has 3 components – Client, Application Server and
Database Server.
1. HP ALM client: when an end user/tester accesses the URL of
ALM, the client components are downloaded on the client's
system.
2. ALM server/Application server: Application server usually runs
on a Windows or Linux platform which caters to the client
requests.
3. Database servers: The Database layer stores three schemas.

JIRA
JIRA is an issue and project tracking software from Atlassian.
Currently, JIRA is the number one software development tool used
by Agile teams, and as Agile adoption continues to grow, more and
more organizations are introducing JIRA.
Challenges of Using JIRA for
Testing : Going back to the
question of how JIRA is set up for
testing, the short answer is that
JIRA is not set up for testing.

JIRA
To customize JIRA for test case management by adding a “Test
Case” issue type, you need to take the following steps:
• Create a “Test Case” issue type
• Add in the steps required to complete an expected outcome
• Make that test case the parent issue for the testing you need to
do
• Create a subtask and label that subtask as “Test Run” in order
to execute the test
• Put in the outcomes, the affected versions, the results of that
and the assignee who’s running the test within the “Test Run”
subtask

JIRA
Pros of Using JIRA for Test Case Management
Ability to create custom issue types such as test cases
One workflow for QA, developer and testing actions
Ability to use existing reporting
Ability to use an already purchased and known tool.

SELENIUM
Selenium is designed to automate web browser interaction, so
scripts can automatically perform the same interactions that any
user can perform manually. Selenium can perform any sort of
automated interaction, but was originally intended and is
primarily used for automated web application testing.
Selenium has a client-server architecture, and includes both
client and server components
Selenium Client includes:
The WebDriver API, which you use to develop test scripts to
interact with page and application elements
The RemoteWebDriver class, which communicates with a
remote Selenium server.

SELENIUM
The Seven Basic Steps of Selenium Tests
There are seven basic steps in creating a Selenium
test script, which apply to any test case and any
application under test (AUT).
1. Create a WebDriver instance.
2. Navigate to a Web page.
3. Locate an HTML element on the Web page.
4. Perform an action on an HTML element.
5. Anticipate the browser response to the action.
6. Run tests and record test results using a test framework.
7. Conclude the test.

WATERFALL METHODOLOGY
Waterfall Model methodology which is also known as
Liner Sequential Life Cycle Model.
Waterfall Model followed in the sequential order, and so
project development team only moves to next phase of
development or testing if the previous step completed
successfully.

AGILE METHODOLOGY
Agile methodology is a practice that helps continuous iteration of
development and testing in the software development process.
In this model, development and testing activities are concurrent,
unlike the Waterfall model. This process allows more
communication between customers, developers, managers, and
testers.

AGILE METHODOLOGY
Advantages of Waterfall Model:
• It is one the easiest model to manage. Because of its nature,
each phase has specific deliverables and a review process.
• It works well for smaller size projects where requirements are
• easily understandable.
• Faster delivery of the project
• Process and results are well documented.
• Easily adaptable method for shifting teams
• This project management methodology is beneficial to
manage dependencies.

AGILE METHODOLOGY
Advantages of the Agile Model:
• It is focused client process. So, it makes sure that the client is
continuously involved during every stage.
• Agile teams are extremely motivated and self-organized so it
likely to provide a better result from the development
projects.
• Agile software development method assures that quality of
the development is maintained
• The process is completely based on the incremental progress.
Therefore, the client and team know exactly what is complete
and what is not. This reduces risk in the development
process.

AGILE METHODOLOGY
certain major differences Difference between Agile and
Waterfall Model:
• Waterfall model is ideal for projects which have defined
requirements, and no changes are expected. On the other
hand, Agile is best suited where there is a higher chance of
frequent requirement changes
• The waterfall is easy to manage, sequential, and rigid method.
• Agile is very flexible and it possible to make changes in any
phase.
• In Agile process, requirements can change frequently.
However, in a waterfall model, it is defined only once by the
business analyst.

HEALTH & SAFETY- INTRODUCTION
Technology like data processing, communications and
information transfer has enabled an enormous increase in
the volume of information handled daily. These changes offer
many positive effects through faster communication, greater
job satisfaction and increased variety in the tasks performed,
but also some negatives like decreased physical variation,
information overload, repetition and monotony.
The increase in flexible and portable equipment has also
expanded the office environment into areas outside the
traditional office such as off-site locations, vehicles and the
home. Occupational health and safety practices need to keep
pace with the rapid changes in office-based work.

THE RISK MANAGEMENT
APPROACH
The aim of occupational health and safety risk management is
to eliminate or reduce the risk of injuries and illness
associated with work.
Managing health and safety in the office requires a process of
hazard identification, risk assessment, risk control and
evaluation of control measures. Effective management of
health and safety hazards also involves training, consultation,
documentation of health and safety activities and regular
review of the management system.

JOB DESIGN IN OFFICE WORK
Physical Factors:
Good job and work environment design relies on matching the
work and environment to people’s needs, capacities and
limitations.
Manual handling in the office:
Manual handling refers to any activity requiring the use of
force exerted by a person to lift, push, pull, carry or otherwise
move or restrain something.

DESIGNING A HEALTHY AND SAFE
WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Lighting in the Office:
Good lighting in workplaces is essential to enable people to see
clearly and perform their work safely.
The key factors to consider when determining the adequacy of
lighting are:
Amount of light in an area
• Number, type and position of the light sources
• Tasks or activities performed, how often and for how long
these are performed.

NOISE IN THE OFFICE
What is noise?
Noise is usually defined as any disturbing sound. In practice it
is referred to as ‘sound’ when pleasant, and ‘noise’ when
annoying.
Why is the control of noise in an office important?
In offices, ‘annoyance’ noise is likely which may interfere with
communication, annoy or distract people and affect a person’s
performance of tasks like reading and writing.

THERMAL COMFORT AND AIR
QUALITY
Thermal comfort is influenced by clothing, the job being
undertaken, temperature, humidity and air flow. People may
feel uncomfortable if the temperature within an office is
either too low or too high.
Some general suggestions for improving
thermal comfort include:
• regulate air conditioning for
temperature and humidity.
• avoid locating workstations directly in
front of or below air conditioning
outlets

OFFICE LAYOUT, WORKSTATIONS &
EQUIPMENT
Office Layout and Design
An important feature of modern office design is the need for
flexibility in office layout, furniture, equipment and the
environment to suit the needs of the users.
Function of the space;
The size and layout of a work area should accommodate
the equipment and the needs of the users. Where
equipment such as photocopiers, faxes, printers and
similar equipment are used, allow space for additional
traffic and general activity.

WORKING WITH COMPUTERS
The desktop holds the hard drive and the hardware (for
example mother board) needed to run the software programs.
When setting up the workstation employees should consider
how often they access their desktop and position it accordingly.
Notebook and laptop computers:
Laptop computers were designed for short-term or mobile
use. The portable nature of the laptop and notebook results in
them being used in a wide variety of situations and settings
where there is limited capacity to adjust the desk.

PREVENTING INJURIES
Injury prevention means giving workers the information and
equipment they need to work safely and protect themselves
from injuries at work.
Common Injuries in Retail:
• Overexertion and musculoskeletal
injuries
• Fractures and bruises
• Repetitive strain injuries

HEALTH EFFECTS
Eye strain
Reading without adequate light or reading small print over
long periods of time can sometimes cause eye strain.
Spectacle use and computers:
Many middle-aged workers suffer difficulty with close work,
known as presbyopia, and require spectacles for correction.
Bifocals are designed to correct vision when looking down
through the lower portion of the lens for close work.

HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES IN THE
OFFICE
Specific Health and Safety Issues:
Specific policies can be developed and implemented for
many workplace health and safety issues, including the
following:
• management of blood-borne diseases
• drugs and alcohol
• injuries and first aid at work
• fire and bomb threat emergencies
• personal assault, harassment and bullying.

EXERCISES FOR OFFICE WORKERS
Stop, get up and move:
Getting up and walking around is the best exercise you can get to
provide a break from sitting, concentrating and using the muscles of the
arms and hands. About every 20 to 30 minutes is a guide to how often it
is helpful to move around.
• Do a few of these exercises a few times every day.
• Dots show the muscles that you are exercising
• Make sure you relax and perform them gently
• Hold the stretch or repeat.

SOFT SKILLS -TEAM WORK
Working on teams can be rewarding, but at times it can be difficult
and downright frustrating. If there are poor communicators on your
team, you may often feel left in the dark, confused or misunderstood.
To create a successful team, effective communication methods are
necessary for both team members and leaders.
• Communicate, Communicate!
• Don't Blame Others
• Support Group Member's ideas
• No Bragging
• Listen Actively
• Get Involved

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communication is a process, which involves sharing of information
between people through a continuous activity of speaking
listening, and understanding.
Importance of communication:
• Leads to personal effectiveness.
• Helps to network with people.
• Influences motivation for enhanced performance.
• Builds better understanding between boss and subordinates.
• Creates better interpersonal relations.
• Increases listening ability.

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
What is involved in the communication process?
The steps involved in this process are:
• Idea
• Encoding:
• The Channel
• Decoding
• Feedback
• Evaluation
• Understanding
Tips on face-to-face
communication :
• Mannerism
• Thinking
• Courtesy
• . Timing
• Listening
• Structuring
• Styling

NON VERBAL SKILLS AT WORKPLACE
It is the process of communication through sending and
receiving wordless messages.
Non-verbal communication describes all intentional and
unintentional messages that are not written or spoken.
The popular aphorism “Actions speak louder than words”
holds a great deal of meaning when it comes to
understanding the essence of non-verbal communication.

NON VERBAL SKILLS AT WORKPLACE
Characteristics of non-verbal communication:
Convey feeling: up to 93% of emotional meaning is
communicated non-verbally
Form relationships: Establish the nature of relationship
Express truth: nonverbal cues may leak
feelings.
Contextual: Conveys relational
information
Culture Bound:
Gender bound.

IMPROVING LISTENING SKILLS AT
WORKPLACE
One of the most powerful tools for effective, two-way
communication is active listening. We spend more time
listening than we spend at any other method of
communicating.
Active listening is a skill you learn by practice. It takes more
effort than plain „hearing‟ but the benefits make it well
worthwhile. Listening goes beyond hearing. Hearing is a
physiological activity that occurs when sound waves hit our
eardrums.

ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS
Organizational skills in the workplace can include general
organizing, planning, time management, scheduling,
coordinating resources and meeting deadlines.
An organizational skill is one of the most important
transferable job skills a worker can possess. Companies need
workers who can stay organized and focus on the projects at
hand.

ANALYTICAL THINKING
Analytical thinking skills are methods we can use to analyze,
tackle, and sort new information, ideas, problems, and
solutions.
Some of the most common
analytical skills are:
Organization, Troubleshooting
Communication, Budgeting
Reporting, Research
Data analysis, Diagnostics
Creativity, Metrics,
Analyzing.

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of
actively and skill fully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,
synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or
generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning,
or communication, as a guide to belief and action.”
Ways to critically think about
information include:
• Conceptualizing
• Analyzing
• Synthesizing
• Evaluating
CRITICAL THINKING

PROBLEM SOLVING & DECISION
MAKING
Definition of a Problem: A problem exists when there is a gap
between what you expect to happen and what actually
happens.
Definition of Decision Making: Decision making is selecting a
course of action from among available alternatives.
Defining the problem: Diagnose a situation so that the focus
is on the real problem, not just on its symptoms. Symptoms
become evident before the problem does.

PLAN AND ORGANISE
Planning is helpful in to figure out which tasks are the most
important and which tasks can wait. Knowing about plan and
organise, you’ll be able to break up your work into smaller pieces
and focus on each task, one at a time, starting with the most
important.
Rules for Planning and Organizing:
Rule # 1 Prioritizing
Rule # 2 Time Management
Rule # 3 Coordinating Resources
Rule # 4 Delegating
Rule # 5 Creating Systems
Rule #6 Planning Ahead

EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
In today’s world of rapid-fast communication via texts and emails,
most of us would rather shoot off a written message than make a
phone call. it provides a nice document trail for our work records.
very few people know when writing is the right or wrong.

READING SKILLS
Many people have trouble with reading. Reading well takes
practice!
• Make sure you understand the type of text you have.
• Decide on the purpose of your reading.
• Scan your reading before you begin..
• Read intensively if you want to practice the fundamentals
and learn vocabulary.

Software engineer

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