Task-3-Infant-Feeding-By-SES

1 of 41  Task 3 - Infant Feeding By SES
Papers produced from
the Health Inequalities
Audit Process
Nutitiond Obesity
Diet, Nutrition and
Obesity
Task 3. Infant Feeding
(Breastfeeding and
Complimentary Feeding)
by Socio-Economic Status

The attached paper has been produced as part of the Health
Inequalities Audit process, within the scope of the Joint Action on
Health Inequalities – Equity Action.
Diet, nutrition and obesity were identified as priority subjects by
an iterative process, considering a range of health and non-health
policy areas within the EC which were potentially amendable to a
review process considering their contribution to the socio-
economic gradient in health status. The review is to inform future
discussions in the relevant policy areas of what would help to
tackle differerences in behaviours, and outcomes across the
socio-economic gradient.
The areas covered in this paper were identified in a discussion
between the Head of Service, Nutrition and Physical Activity and
the lead on Health Inequalities both within DG Health and
Consumers (European Commission), and with Chris Brookes,
Coordinator of Equity Action, Tim Lobstein of the World Obesity
Federation and Aileen Robertson, Public Health Nutritionist at
the Metropolitan University College, Copenhagen.
The outcomes are intended to provide a review of the
contribution of SES inequalities in aspects of diet, nutrition and
obesity and helping to identify the scale of the inequalities, and
therefore some of the benefits of addressing them.

Task 3. Infant Feeding: (BREASTFEEDING & Complementary feeding) BY
SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
By Aileen Robertson and Nathali L. Schumann
Author’s Profiles
Dr Aileen Robertson, PhD, RNutr. (Public Health)
is a Public Health Nutritionist responsible for international research and lecturing at Metropolitan
University College, Copenhagen, Denmark. Previously Dr Robertson was Regional Adviser for the
Nutrition and Food Security Programme at the WHO European Regional Office where she was
employed, from 1992 until 2004, to advise more than 50 Member States how to develop and
implement their multi-sectoral food and nutrition policies and action plans. From 2005 Dr Robertson
is one of the key experts developing a BSc in Global Nutrition and Health, specifically in Public
Health Nutrition and Food Policy. The Department of Global Nutrition and Health was designated as a
WHO Collaborating Centre for Nutrition in 2010. Dr Robertson is a partner in the European Union´s
DG Research and DG SANCO funded projects in addition to carrying out a variety of consultancies,
with WHO and DANIDA, related to public health nutrition and food policy.
Nathali Lehmann Schumann, MSc. Public Health
is a Public Health Professional with a MSc in Public Health from the London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine. Currently, she is a project consultant for the Division of Non-
Communicable Diseases and Life Course at the WHO Regional Office for Europe. Ms. Schumann
is providing technical support to the Division for the development of a guidance package to
improve pregnancy outcomes and reduce the risk of maternal and child later NCDs.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the following people, who have provided helpful comments and
valuable insights: Dr. Adriano Cattaneo, Institute for Maternal and Child Health ‘IRCCS Burlo
Garofolo’, Triste, Italy; Dr. Carmen Casanovas, WHO HQ, Switzerland; Maryse Arendt, Intiative
Liewensufank, Luxembourg; Dr. Mojca Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, National Institute of Public Health,
Slovenia; and Dr. Lida Lhotska, IBFAN Liaison office, IBFAN-GIFA, Switzerland.

Table of Contents
Executive Summary .........................................................................................................................5
Introduction .......................................................................................................................................7
Background ........................................................................................................................................8
DG SANCO initiatives...................................................................................................................................8
World Health Organization Initiatives.................................................................................................9
Methods.............................................................................................................................................10
Search Strategy ..........................................................................................................................................10
Eligibility Criteria .....................................................................................................................................11
Results...............................................................................................................................................11
Data from the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative Global Coordinator’s Meeting ...............11
Examples of Publications on Breastfeeding Prevalence.............................................................12
Recommendations....................................................................................................................................17
References and bibliography ....................................................................................................19
Annex I - Determinants of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices
identified by DG SANCO (2008) ................................................................................................23
Annex II - Terms of Reference...................................................................................................24
Annex III – Preliminary Data from EU Member States, Gathered at the WHO Baby-
Friendly Hospital Initiative Global Meeting in June 2014...............................................25
Annex IV - Rates of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices by socio-
demographic factors.....................................................................................................................32
Annex V - Lower breastfeeding rates in most deprived & younger groups in
England..............................................................................................................................................33
Annex VI - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices
initiation in deprived and affluent groups in Scotland....................................................35
Annex VII - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates in
deprived and affluent groups in Scotland.............................................................................37
Annex VIII - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates
depending on level of maternal education in France .......................................................40
Tables and Figures
FIGURE 1: HOW OBESITY INEQUITIES COMPOUND OVER LIFE-COURSE ............................................................................................. 7
FIGURE 2: “RATES OF INITIATION OF BREAST-FEEDING IN EUROPE: 1998–2002 AND 2003–2007...........................................13
FIGURE 3: “RATES OF ANY BREAST-FEEDING AT 6 MONTHS IN EUROPE: 1998–2002 AND 2003–2007 ....................................13
FIGURE 4: “RATES OF EXCLUSIVE BREAST-FEEDING AT 6 MONTHS IN EUROPE: 1998–2002 AND 2003–2007.........................14
TABLE 1: LIST OF CONTACTS TO DATE ...................................................................................................................................................11
TABLE 2: EXAMPLE OF DATA GATHERED AT THE WHO BABY-FRIENDLY HOSPITAL INITIATIVE MEETING IN JUNE 2014..11
TABLE 3: RATES ON EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING AT SIX MONTHS BY EU MEMBER STATES.......................................................12
TABLE 4: “COUNTRIES WITH POLICIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS MEETING STATED CRITERIA IN 2002 AND 2007”...................12
TABLE 5: BREASTFEEDING AND COMPLEMENTARY FEEDING PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS BY COUNTRY ................................15

Executive Summary
As health and social inequalities appear to be increasing within and between EU countries,
the Council of the European Union encourages Member States to create and promote policies,
strategies, and initiatives that support a healthy lifestyle throughout the life-course. Promoting
and supporting the best start to life, the WHO recommendations of six months exclusive
breastfeeding and timely introduction to appropriate complementary feeding, were recently re-
endorsed and stressed by the Council of the European Union. In order to inform policy-makers
how best to implement the most health promoting infant feeding approaches there is a great
need to disaggregate data by socio-economic status. However, it is unclear how many national
data sets currently exist where data are collected and disaggregated by socio-economic status in
relation to infant feeding practices, both within and between EU countries. If these
disaggregated data are readily available, they can provide a useful basis to investigate which
interventions can best reduce social inequalities in maternal and young child health by helping
us to understand what is needed to improve poor infant feeding practices.
A search of peer-reviewed publications and grey literature was conducted and five key
informants were contacted. A total of 47 documents were identified. However, we were unable
to present a summary of all documents due to time limitations for this assignment.
The findings illustrate that EU national datasets on breastfeeding prevalence and
complementary feeding practices by socio-economic status do exist. Maternal, newborn,
infant and young child health are key to addressing inequalities in obesity and so data
collection by socio-economic status, related to the beginning of the life-course, should be
prioritised by EU Member States, WHO and European Parliament and Commission.
Investigations into the interconnection between socio-economic status and infant
feeding practices will help inform policy implementation, disease prevention and health
promotion, to reduce health-related social inequalities. Following this short review of
existing data and available publications, the following recommendations are proposed to
DG SANCO:
1. It is recommended to re-evaluate the implementation of the recommendations to EU
Member States included in DG SANCO’s ‘Blue Print Report on Breastfeeding’ (2008). This
could be carried out by implementing the same methodology developed for the 2002 and
2007 surveys by Cattaneo and colleagues published in 2009.
2. Data on breastfeeding prevalence and complementary feeding practices by socio-
economic status do exist in many EU Member States. However often these data are
published in national reports in national languages. Apart from one comparative survey
published in 2012 by Ibanez et al., no systematic comparison has been made across EU
Member States. It is therefore recommended to collect and compare existing data from
each EU Member State on breastfeeding prevalence and complementary feeding
practices by socio-economic status (i.e. education, profession, maternity protection, etc.).
These results could then suggest where the gradient was shallowest and where the
absolute figures were highest in order to identify evidence of what works best to support
better infant feeding practices and thereby inform policy-makers.
3. A literature review, to include grey literature and translated national reports, should be
carried out to map, identify, compare, and contrast data sets that exist in national

languages in EU countries (e.g. a more comprehensive review than the one published by
Ibanez et al. in 2012).
carried out to find which specific practices have been successful in increasing
breastfeeding rates and improving complementary feeding practices in low socio-
economic groups, using targeted proportional universal interventions.
carried out to investigate what recommendations exist regarding how best to target the
approach ‘proportionate universalism’, which are actions “to reduce the steepness of the
social gradient in health, actions must be universal, but with a scale and intensity that is
proportionate to the level of disadvantage” in EU Member States (Marmot, 2010: p. 15)
6. Reviews or new investigations are needed to inform policy-makers how population-
based polices, such as national laws and regulations and the EU Directive on marketing
of breast-milk substitutes can proportionally protect breastfeeding and improve infant
feeding practices within lower socio-economic groups.
7. It is well known that many women in lower socio-economic groups feel discriminated
against by judgemental healthcare professionals and so tend not to attend antenatal and
postnatal healthcare services. A literature review or new investigations should be
carried out to find out what the barriers are and how families can be better served and
innovative recommendations put in place to improve maternal and young child health.
8. A strong social determinant for high levels of breastfeeding appears to be a relatively
high number of years of maternal education. More research should focus on how to best
improve infant feeding practices in families where the mothers are either teenagers or
have not had many years of schooling.

Introduction
Health inequalities appear to be increasing within and between EU countries (WHO & DG
SANCO, 2014). Adults with lower socio-economic status (SES) and low level of education are
more likely to become overweight and obese “(…) and the gap is generally larger in women”
(OECD, 2104: p.3). “The social gradient observed in overweight and obesity is constant with
similar gradients in healthy eating and physical activity” (OECD, 2014: p. 3). Evidence suggests
that women with lower SES are often hit hardest during economic crisis with impact on lifestyle
patterns and prevalence of obesity (OECD, 2014). This may impact pre-pregnancy body mass
index (BMI) and gestational weight gain (GWG), which are negatively associated with SES and
found to be some of the determinants for the initiation and duration of breastfeeding and
complementary feeding practices (Robertson et al., 2007; WHO & DG SANCO, 2014).
The Council of the European Union (EU) (2014) encourages Member States to create and
promote policies, strategies, and initiatives, which aim at a healthy lifestyle throughout the life-
course for all age and SES groups, including vulnerable groups such as pregnant women and
children see Figure 1. Additional emphasis is put on the efforts of “promoting and supporting
adequate breastfeeding and appropriate introduction of complementary food” (Council of the EU,
2014: p. 5).
Figure 1: How Obesity Inequities Compound over Life-Course (WHO & DG SANCO, 2014: p. 11)

It is therefore of great importance to disaggregate data by SES, especially in pregnant and
lactating women, as recommendations related to maternal, newborn, infant and young child
nutrition have recently been recognised as a key determinant of inequalities (WHO & DG SANCO,
2014). There is a need to better understand the interconnection between SES and breastfeeding
initiation and duration and optimum complementary feeding practices.
In order to achieve health equity and ‘proportionate universalism’1 it is crucial to “give every
child the best start to life” and follow the WHO recommendations of six months exclusive
breastfeeding and timely introduction to appropriate complementary feeding (Marmot, 2010: p.
16; WHO, 2003). However, not much evidence exists to describe the extent of the problem of
inequalities in the rates of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices by SES between
and within EU countries. Furthermore, only little evidence exists on how to reduce these
inequalities in maternal, newborn, infant and young child health. A list of determinants of
breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices identified by the DG SANCO (2008) is
available in Annex I.
Given:
1. The ‘EU Action Plan on Childhood Obesity 2014-2020’ (2014);
2. The EU related guidance on nutrition for newborn and infants;
3. The ‘Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant, and young child
nutrition’ (2012) endorsed at the Sixty-fifth World Health Assembly;
4. The ‘Global monitoring framework on maternal, infant, and young child nutrition’
(2014) endorsed at the Sixty-seventh World Health Assembly;
5. And the third ‘WHO European Region Food and Nutrition Action Plan 2015-2020’
(2014);
Amongst others, it is timely for the DG SANCO to consider what future projects and research
work will best help to address action on the socio-economic gradient in breastfeeding and
complementary feeding.
Background
EU Member States are already committed to public health actions and the main official
commitments related to breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices are listed below.
DG SANCO initiatives
 2014- ‘EU Action Plan on Childhood Obesity 2014-2020’ (2014)
 2009- DG SANCO funded research (Cattaneo et al., 2009) and published results of two
surveys (2002 and 2007) assessing the implementation of the ‘EU Blue Print for
Protection, promotion and support of Breastfeeding in Europe’ by each EU Member
State.
 2008- ‘EU Blue Print for Protection, promotion and support of Breastfeeding in Europe’
published by DG SANCO in 2004 and updated in 2008. This report includes
recommendations for actions and objectives by the European Commission:
1
’Proportionate universalism’ are actions “to reduce the steepness of the social gradient in health, actions
must be universal, but with a scale and intensity that is proportionate to the level of disadvantage” (Marmot,
2010: p. 15)

o “To develop EU regulations on the marketing of breastmilk substitutes which would
include all the provisions and products under the scope of the International Code as
a minimum requirement” (2008; p. 35)
o “To ensure that the International Code is reflected in the EU position at meetings of
Codex Alimentarius” (2008; p. 35)
o “To foster and support research on breastfeeding based on agreed priorities and
agenda, using agreed definitions of breastfeeding, and free from competing and
commercial interests” (2008; p. 40)
o “To support and ensure intensive exchange of expertise in breastfeeding research
among research institutions in Member States” (2008; p. 40)
 2007- DG SANCO funded document (Robertson et al., 2007) includes practical
recommendations on obesity prevention and reduction of social inequalities, by
addressing maternal and young child health including breastfeeding and complementary
feeding practices.
 2006- Infant and young child feeding: standard recommendations for the European
Union -standard recommendations on infant and young child feeding to complement the
Blueprint for Action for the Protection, Promotion and Support of Breastfeeding in
Europe (European Commission funded project SPC 2002359).
 2006- EU directive based on International Code of Marketing of Breast Milk Substitutes
(COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 2006/141/EC of 22 December 2006 on infant formulae and
follow-on formulae and amending Directive 1999/21/EC).
 2005- DG SANCO document (Cattaneo et al., 2005) on the results of a survey (2002)
assessing the current situation in regards to the protection, promotion and support of
breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices in Europe.
World Health Organization Initiatives
 2014- 1st, 2nd and 3rd WHO European Region Food and Nutrition Action Plan (2001, 2008,
2014)
 2014- ‘Obesity and Inequities - Policy Guidance’ (2014), which recognizes that maternal,
newborn, infant and young child health are key to addressing underlying inequalities in
Member States. This area has been relatively neglected and needs to be prioritised more
within Member States, WHO and European Parliament and Commission. Also, the 2014
policy guidance emphasises ‘proportionate universalism’ as a means to “tackle the root
causes of health inequities” and give every child the best start to life (WHO & DG SANCO,
2014: p. V; Marmot, 2010)
 2013- The ‘Vienna Declaration on Nutrition and Noncommunicable Diseases in the
Context of Health 2020’ (2013)
 2003- ‘Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding’ (2003)
 1990- ‘Innocenti Declaration on the Protection, Promotion, and Supprot of
Breastfeeding’ (1990)
 World Health Assembly endorsement of the Code of Marketing on Breast Milk
Substitutes (1981) and subsequent relevant resolutions.

Methods
In the following section the methods used to meet the Terms of Reference (TOR) (Annex II)
are described.
Search Strategy
A targeted search for EU Member States was conducted during June 2014. Relevant
publications were identified through the search strategy shown below. Some of the references
cited in these publications were also searched manually to yield additional information.
The search strategy:
1. Peer-reviewed publications from electronic databases were searched (PubMed and
EMBASE), using an established methods that involved combining the following search
terms:
(newborn OR infan*), (nutrition OR feeding), (breast-fe* OR breastfe* OR breast fe* OR
weaning OR breastmilk OR breast-milk OR breast milk), (early OR exclusive OR
continued), (prevalence OR incidence OR rate), (monitor* OR surveillance), ((maternal
OR maternity OR parental) AND (pay OR leave OR protection OR ‘working condition*’ OR
‘breastfeeding break*’ OR ‘breast-feeding break*’ OR ‘breast feeding break*’ OR
benefit*)) AND (determinant*, (socio-economic status OR SES OR social class),
(employment OR ethnicity OR education OR age OR culture OR smok* OR (maternal AND
(obes* OR overweight)) OR (support and (group OR peer counselling OR professional OR
mother-to-mother)) OR ((antenatal OR postnatal) AND care)) OR (birth weight OR birth-
weight OR gestational age OR gestational-age) OR (midwife AND (visit* OR support OR
‘accreditation system*’)) OR (((baby friendly OR baby-friendly) AND (hospital* OR
community)) OR BFH OR BFHI OR BFCI OR BFC)) AND (country specific OR EU OR
European Union)
2. Grey literature was used to search for national and international documents. The search
terms were the same as the ones above and were employed throughout the steps ‘a’ to ‘f’,
which are listed below.
a. National authorities websites, including Ministry of Health (MoH)
b. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
c. Save the Children
d. World Health Organization (WHO)
e. International Labour Organization (ILO)
f. International Baby Food Action Network
3. Key informants were identified and contacted by email, Table 1. The personal contacts
included: National contacts from the High Level Group and WHO/EURO National Focal
Points, NGOs including IBFAN, National Experts, and Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative
(BFHI) Meeting Coordinators and WHO.

Table 1: List of Contacts to Date
Italy Institute for Maternal and Child Health ‘IRCCS Burlo Garofolo’ Dr. Adriano Cattaneo
Slovenia National Institute of Public Health Dr. Mojca Gabrijelčič Blenkuš
Switzerland WHO HQ Dr. Carmen Maria Casanavos
Luxembourg Initiativ Liewensufank (Center for pregnancy, childbirth,
breastfeeding and parenting)
Maryse Arendt
Switzerland IBFAN Liaison Office
(IBFAN-GIFA)
Dr. Lida Lhotska
Scotland University of Dundee Prof. Mary Renfrew*
New Zealand New Zealand Breastfeeding Authority Julie Stufkens*
*not contacted yet
Eligibility Criteria
The inclusion criteria included relevant publications (articles, papers, and documents) on the topic.
The exclusion criteria included: non-English language and pre-2008 publications. However, some grey
literature in national language e.g. Luxembourg was accessed.
Results
The search strategy identified 47 articles, papers, and documents relevant to the aim and
objectives of the TOR. Due to time allocation only a few examples from the reviewed
publications are presented, however titles and details of all 47 documents are included in the
references/bibliography.
The grey literature search identified national data collected by national authorities in
national language. Therefore, mostly grey literature published from the United Kingdom and
Ireland were included. However, other EU Member States do have data available, e.g. a report by
the MoH of Luxembourg presents national data on infant feeding practices by SES (Ministére de
la Santé de Luxembourg, 2008).
Data from the Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative Global Coordinator’s Meeting
A WHO BFHI Global Coordinators’ meeting was held in Lithuania in June 2014. Seventeen EU
Member States were among the participating countries. At this meeting, specific national data
was collected (Table 2) and the EU results are available in Annex III. The results show that
among the 17 EU Member States, only 13 EU Member States collect national surveillance data on
infant feeding practices.
Table 2: Example of Data Gathered at the WHO Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative Meeting in June 2014

Data on exclusive breastfeeding at six months were also collected at the meeting. The rates
from the EU Member States are shown in Table 3. Unfortunately, the complete meeting report is
not yet available in time to be included in this report. It is not clear if the WHO template included
a question about collection of infant feeding surveillance data by SES or if only the existence of
mean prevalence was assessed.
Table 3: Rates on Exclusive Breastfeeding at Six Months by EU Member States
Country Exclusive Breastfeeding from
Birth to 6 Months Rate (%)
Data Source
Austria 10 Data from 2006 (published in Esberger 2007)
Belgium 26 Published in Wallonia 2009
Croatia 76.2 (0-2 months)
54.5 (3-5 months)
Croatian Health Service Yearbook 2011, Croatian National
Institute of Public Health 2012
Estonia N/A -
France N/A -
Germany 37 KIGGS (2007)
Greece 0.5 National Feeding Survey (2007)
Italy N/A -
Lithuania 30.7 Data of annual reports of primary health care facilities,
Institute of Hygiene, 2012
Luxembourg N/A -
Malta N/A -
Netherlands N/A -
Poland 19.3 2013
Slovenia N/A -
Spain 28.5 -
Sweden 13.5 -
United Kingdom 1 -
Examples of Publications on Breastfeeding Prevalence
Cattaneo and colleagues (2009) carried out surveys in 2002 and 2007 of EU Member States to
assess the degree of implementation of the ‘EU Blue Print for Protection, promotion and support
of Breastfeeding in Europe’ (DG SANCO, 2008). The studies showed that an increasing number of
national policies were complying with recommendations on the protection, promotion, and
support of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices, Table 3 (Cattaneo et al., 2009).
Only small improvements on maternity protection and implementation of the International Code
on Marketing of Breast milk Substitutes were reported, whereas the BFHI showed more
improvements.
Table 4: “Countries with policies and recommendations meeting stated criteria in 2002 and 2007”
(Cattaneo et al., 2009: p. 752).

Only “slight improvements in the rates of initiation, exclusivity and duration [of breastfeeding]”
were observed within EU Member States (Cattaneo et al., 2009: p.751), see Figures 2-4.
Therefore Cattaneo and colleagues recommended more actions on “pre-service training and
standard monitoring of breastfeeding rates” be carried out both within and between EU Member
States (Cattaneo et al., 2009: p.751) in order to improve the average prevalence rates. One major
disadvantage is that the data were only presented as national averages and so this hides the
wide-range of different rates that probably exists between different socio-economic groups
within each country.
Figure 2: “Rates of initiation of breast-feeding in Europe: 1998–2002 () and 2003–2007 (). Data missing from
EL, HU and RO. SI, SE and MT: any breast-feeding at discharge. PL and IE: exclusive breast-feeding at
discharge. IC: any breast-feeding at 1 week. ES, EE and LV: any breast-feeding at 6 weeks. FI: any breast-
feeding at age less than 1 month. NL and SK: initiation of exclusive breast-feeding. All other countries:
initiation of any breast-feeding” (Cattaneo et al., 2009: p. 756).
Figure 3: “Rates of any breast-feeding at 6 months in Europe: 1998–2002 () and 2003–2007 (). Data missing
from DK, EL, FR, HU,IE, MT, PL, RO, SK and SI” (Cattaneo et al., 2009: p. 756).

Figure 4: “Rates of exclusive breast-feeding at 6 months in Europe: 1998–2002 () and 2003–2007 (). Data
missing from BE, BG, EE, EL, FR, IE, MT, PT and SI. DK and SE: full breast-feeding. UK and NL (2007):
exclusive breast-feeding at 5 months” (Cattaneo et al., 2009: p. 756).

Similarly a report by the NGO Save the Children ‘State of the World’s Mothers’ (2012)
provided an overview of breastfeeding practices, maternal protection, working conditions, and
BFHI, and included 25 EU Member States, Table 4. However, again the breastfeeding rates are
presented as national averages with no breakdown by the different socio-economic groups.
Table 5: Breastfeeding and Complementary Feeding Practices and Conditions by Country (Save the
Children, 2012: p. 43)

One recent review published in 2012 did attempt to investigate if different rates of
breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices in different socio-economic groups within
16 industrialized countries (Ibanez et al., 2012). Low rates of breastfeeding were identified in
women who are “young, single, from low socioeconomic group, or with a low level of education”. It
was noted that in some countries “women from immigrant population groups breastfed more then
the native-born population” (Ibanez et al., 2012: p. 305). The actual rates of breastfeeding and
complementary feeding practices and their association with socio-demographic factors
published in the paper by Ibanez et al. (2012) are displayed in Annex IV. The paper by Ibanez et
al. (2012) appears to be the only published comparative study of breastfeeding and
complementary feeding practices rates by SES across very few (seven) EU Member States
(Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, UK). However it appears many more
countries do collect these data at national level. For example, in the ‘Infant Feeding Survey’
(2012) from England, the initial breastfeeding and exclusive breastfeeding rates by six weeks
were 81% and 23% respectively. Maternal age, level of education, and professional occupation
were all found to influence the incidence and duration of breastfeeding in the England.
Also in England, Oakley and colleagues (2013) conducted an ecological area-based analysis
using routinely collected data from 141 Primary Care Trusts. The study demonstrated lower
breastfeeding rates in the most deprived groups, younger mothers, and smoking mothers,
(Annex V).
Similarly in Scotland, a prospective cohort study by Donnan et al. (2013) followed 344
women from the Ninewells Hospital in Dundee. At delivery 68% of the women initiated
breastfeeding and at 16 weeks only 20% were exclusively breastfeeding; Almost half (48%) of
the most deprived women did not initiate breastfeeding compared with only around one fifth
(22%) in the two most affluent groups; similarly only one third (30%) initiated breastfeeding in
the most deprived groups compared with almost half (47%) of the most affluent mothers, Annex
VI (Donnan et al., 2013). The study identified previous breastfeeding experience as a strong
predictor of whether or not mothers would breastfeed.
A descriptive study by Ajetunmobi and colleagues (2013) looked at health records for 731,595
infants born in Scotland between 1997 and 2009. This study also found lower breastfeeding
rates in the most deprived compared with the most affluent groups at both 10 days and six-eight
weeks after birth (Annex VII).
A French prospective study based on 1339 mothers’ social and occupational characteristics,
found that the return to work was a strong predictor for stopping breastfeeding (Bonet et al.,
2012). Also those with lower than high school education were less likely to breastfeed compared
with those having a university education or high school diploma, Annex VIII (Bonet et al., 2012).

Discussion and Recommendations
In order to decrease health inequities within and between the EU Member States, efforts to
protect, promote and support exclusive breastfeeding and timely introduction to appropriate
complementary feeding must be improved across the whole population and with a particular
focus on the lower socio-economic groups (Council of the EU, 2014; WHO & DG SANCO, 2014;
Marmot, 2010; WHO, 2003). All data retrieved for this short review show a social gradient
related to breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates in different socio-economic groups.
However, no comparative EU survey has been made using existing national breastfeeding
and complementary feeding practices data, which have been collected by SES. Cattaneo et al.
(2009) carried out a survey to assess the situation and the changes in relation to the
implementation of the EU ‘Blue Print on breastfeeding’ between 2002 and 2007 (DG SANCO,
2008) but breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates were not presented according to
different socio-economic groups.
As health inequalities related to obesity appear to be increasing within and between EU
countries, we must gain more knowledge about the socio-demographic distribution of good
infant feeding practices. This can be achieved by collecting data on both breastfeeding and
complementary feeding rates and their determinants, and identifying how poor rates can be
improved through proportionate universal healthcare services and breastfeeding and
complementary feeding interventions that are tailored to the specific needs of particular socio-
economic groups (WHO & DG SANCO, 2014). Moreover, priority should be given to research and
interventions related to the protection, as opposed to the promotion and support of
breastfeeding. As protection has the potential to be more of an equalizer than promotion and
support, which tend to increase the gaps, at least in an initial phase of implementation
(Cattaneo, 2012)
Recommendations
Maternal, newborn, infant and young child health are key to addressing inequalities in
obesity and so data collection by SES, related to the beginning of the life-course, should be
prioritised by EU Member States, WHO and European Parliament and Commission. In this short
review we have been able to demonstrate that many EU countries do collect data on infant
feeding practices by SES and so these existing data could be better exploited to inform policy
development and implementation. Following this short review of existing data and available
publications, eight recommendations are proposed to DG SANCO:
1. It is recommended to re-evaluate the implementation of the recommendations to EU
Member States included in DG SANCO’s ‘Blue Print Report on Breastfeeding’ (2008). This
could be carried out by implementing the same methodology developed for the 2002 and
2007 surveys by Cattaneo and colleagues published in 2009.
2. Data on breastfeeding prevalence and complementary feeding practices by socio-
economic status do exist in many EU Member States. However often these data are
published in national reports in national languages. Apart from one comparative survey
published in 2012 by Ibanez et al., no systematic comparison has been made across EU
Member States. It is therefore recommended to collect and compare existing data from
each EU Member State on breastfeeding prevalence and complementary feeding

practices by SES (i.e. education, profession, maternity protection, etc.). These results
would suggest where the gradient was shallowest and where the absolute figures were
highest in order to identify evidence of what works best to support better infant feeding
practices and thereby inform policy-makers.
carried out to map, identify, compare, and contrast data sets that exist in national
languages in EU countries (e.g. a more comprehensive review than the one published by
Ibanez et al. in 2012).
carried out to find which specific practices have been successful in increasing
breastfeeding rates and improving complementary feeding practices in low socio-
economic groups, using targeted proportional universal interventions.
carried out to investigate what recommendations exist regarding how best to target the
approach ‘proportionate universalism’, which are actions “to reduce the steepness of the
social gradient in health, actions must be universal, but with a scale and intensity that is
proportionate to the level of disadvantage” in EU Member States (Marmot, 2010: p. 15)
6. Reviews or new investigations are needed to inform policy-makers how population-
based polices, such as national laws and regulations and the EU Directive on marketing
of breast-milk substitutes can proportionally protect breastfeeding and improve infant
feeding practices within lower socio-economic groups.
7. It is well known that many women in lower socio-economic groups feel discriminated
against by judgemental healthcare professionals and so tend not to attend antenatal and
postnatal healthcare services. A literature review or new investigations should be
carried out to find out what the barriers are and how families can be better served and
innovative recommendations put in place to improve maternal and young child health.
8. A strong social determinant for high levels of breastfeeding appears to be a relatively
high number of years of maternal education. More research should focus on how to best
improve infant feeding practices in families where the mothers are either teenagers or
have not had many years of schooling.

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Annex I - Determinants of breastfeeding and complementary feeding
practices identified by DG SANCO (2008)
Determinants of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices (DG SANCO, 2008: p.
13).
Mother, Newborn, Infant, Child, Family — Age, parity, physical and psychological health of the
mother
— Breastfeeding experience of the mother
— Education, employment, social class, ethnicity, area of
residence
— Knowledge, attitudes, confidence in the ability to
breastfeed
— Marital status, family size, support from father/partner
and family
— Lifestyles (smoking, alcohol, drugs, diet, physical
exercise)
— Birth weight, gestational age, mode of delivery, health
of the newborn
— Access to role-models who have had positive
breastfeeding experiences
Healthcare System — Access to antenatal care and quality of care
— Quality of assistance during delivery and in the first
few days
— Access to postnatal maternal and child health care,
and quality of care
— Type and quality of professional support for lactation
management
— Access to peer counseling and mother-to-mother
support
Public Health Policies — Level of priority and financial support given to
breastfeeding
— Official policies, recommendations and plans
— Breastfeeding monitoring and surveillance systems
— Quality of pre- and in-service training of health
workers
— Financial support for voluntary mother-to-mother
support activities
— CBSC and use of different media for breastfeeding
advocacy
Social Policies and Culture — Legislation on and enforcement of the International
Code
— Legislation on maternity protection and its
enforcement
— Representation of infant feeding and mothering in the
media
— Obstacles and barriers to breastfeed in public
— Prevalence and activities of mother-to-mother support
groups
— Level of community awareness and knowledge

Annex II - Terms of Reference
3. BREASTFEEDING AND ITS DETERMINANTS BY SOCIO_ECONOMIC STATUS
It would be useful to produce an analysis of inequalities in breastfeeding between countries,
between regions and by socio-economic status. Data should look at not just the incidence of
breastfeeding, but also maternal pay, maternal leave, working conditions, baby-friendly
hospitals, midwife visits and support, and other determinants of breastfeeding.
This is politically very timely both in terms of the interest of parliament in the topic, the funding
of two projects looking at guidance on nutrition for babies, and for the EU Child Obesity strategy.
Proposal 5
A scoping study of data and data sources on breastfeeding
and influences on breastfeeding, in relation to
inequalities
1. Undertake database search of scientific literature on
breastfeeding and breastfeeding determinants and SES in EU
member states. Exclude non-English language and papers
published pre-2008. 8 hours
2. Undertake a web-based search for grey literature including
government surveys and UN agency reports. Exclude non-
English language and papers published pre-2008. 8 hours
3. Identify key informants and contact by email to ask if they
can recommend relevant information not otherwise
identified. 10 hours
4. Write a report summarising the evidence found in the time
allowed, and identify the apparent evidence gaps. 6 hours
Metropol
32 hours

Annex III – Preliminary Data from EU Member States, Gathered at the WHO
Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative Global Meeting in June 2014
Your Country: Austria
1 Whenever data is reported, please also list the
source of the data (with link, if possible) and the
year the data was collected.
Yes / No Comment if you need
1.1 Is statistical
surveillance data on
infant feeding
collected in your
country?
No Not on country level, at
least not regularly.
But of course, certified
baby-friendly hospital do
monitor their
breastfeeding rates
If yes, at which level? (specify yes where applicable)
Nationally? No
Regionally? No
By each facility? Partly Only certified baby-friendly
hospitals use a common tool that
allows for comparative analysis,
and only for the time when
mothers and babies are in hospital.
How frequently is data
collected
every… specify year or month with Y or
M
Your Country: Belgium
year the data was collected. 2012
1.1 Is statistical
infant feeding
collected in your
country?
Yes and no Only for the BFHI
Hospital and hospitals
that are part of the
"training project" funded
by the Ministry of Public
Health
Nationally? no
Regionally? no
By each facility? Looked at the answer above
collected
Every Y specify year or month with Y or
M

Your Country: CROATIA
1.1 Is statistical surveillance data
on infant feeding collected in
your country?
Yes
Nationally? Yes
collected
every 1 Y specify year or month with Y or
M
1.2 Is the responsible
authority for the
delivery of health
services in your
country
yes/no Comment if you need
Regional No Yes - National authority
Your Country: ESTONIA
your country?
Yes
Nationally? Yes
collected
6 weeks, 3 mths, 6 mths specify year or month with Y or
M
Your Country: Finland
1 Whenever data is reported, please also list the source
of the data (with link, if possible) and the year the data
was collected.
1.1 Is statistical
infant feeding collected
in your country?
Yes National Institute for
Health and Welfare
If yes, at which level? (specify yes where applicable) National Institute for Health and Welfare
Nationally? Yes
Regionally? No
By each facility? Yes Many facilities collect the data
How frequently is data collected Nationally every 5th year Latest data was collected
between 11/2010 – 5/2011

Your Country: FRANCE
of the data (with link, if possible) and the year the
data was collected.
your country?
yes
Nationally? yes At birth and 9 months
Regionally?
By each facility?
How frequently is data collected every… 1 Y specify year or month with Y or
M
Your Country: Germany
your country?
Yes
Nationally? No
Regionally? Yes Only in certain facilities
By each facility? no
collected
M
non-periodically
Your Country: Greece
1.1 Is statistical
infant feeding
collected in your
country?
Yes Accurate data
available only as part
of a National Feeding
survey performed in
2007
Nationally? Yes
Regionally?
By each facility? Yes Facilities that express interest in
BFH assessment
collected
M
Not regularly Aiming at repeating feeding survey in 2015

Your Country: Italy
of the data (with link, if possible) and the year the
data was collected.
your country?
yes
Nationally? yes A survey done by the National
Institue of Statistics (ISTAT) every
5 years
Regionally? some In some regions, but not all
By each facility? partial Hospitals that are BFHs and
working to become BFHs are
required to do it.
How frequently is data collected every… specify year or month with Y or
M
5 y
Your Country: LITHUANIA
1.1 Is statistical
infant feeding
collected in your
country?
yes Data of annual reports of
primary health care
facilities (infant feeding
0-3, 0-6 months,
exclusive/not exclusive),
Institute of Hygiene
By each facility? yes
collected
Every Year specify year or month with Y or
M
Your Country: LUXEMBOURG
of the data (with link, if possible) and the year the data
was collected.
1.1 Is statistical surveillance data on
infant feeding collected in your
country?
YES
Nationally? yes
Annual data from maternity
hospitals
Regularly +/- every 5 years in a
survey
Regionally?
By each facility? yes Feeds into national data
How frequently is data collected Every Y… specify year or month with Y or
M
Every year 1. Annual data from maternity hospitals
2. Regularly +/- every 5 years in a survey more data

Your Country: Malta
1.1 Is statistical
infant feeding
collected in your
country?
yes Only discharge rate
Nationally? yes
collected
M
Quarterly and yearly
Your Country: Netherlands
your country?
Yes
Nationally? No No more since 2010
Regionally? No
By each facility? Yes Mandatory for BFHI designated
institutions
collected
M
year
Your Country: Poland
your country?
yes
Nationally? Yes The statistical data on newborn
feeding have been collected in the
whole of the country since
01.01.2014. Data are collected for
all babies born in hospitals on a
day of discharge from the
hospital.
Regionally? Yes Only as a research
By each facility? Yes Only as a research
collected
M
The statistical data on infant feeding have been collected in the whole of the country since 01.01.2014. Data
are collected for all babies born in hospitals on a day of discharge from the hospital. This is national
common action.

Your Country: Slovenia
your country?
Yes
Nationally? Yes National breastfeeding statistics is
at the moment established only
for all newborn infants (and their
mothers) at discharge from
maternity hospitals.
Regionally?
By each facility? Yes Health care facilities are following
up BF statistics individually for
their information
collected
every… Year
Your Country: SPAIN
your country?
YES
Nationally? YES National Institute of Statistics
Surveys every 5 year
Regionally? YES Some regions
By each facility? YES Maternity Hospitals collect data of
EBF, BF and AF at discharge /
from birth to discharge.
collected
M
5 Y
Your Country: Sweden
your country?
yes
Nationally? yes
Regionally? yes
By each facility? yes
collected
Every year specify year or month with Y or
M

Your Country: United Kingdom
your country?
Yes
Nationally? Yes
Regionally? Yes
By each facility? Yes
collected
M
M

Annex IV - Rates of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices by
socio-demographic factors
Tables and Figures from Ibanez and colleagues (2012): p. 309.

Annex V - Lower breastfeeding rates in most deprived & younger groups in England
Tables from Oakley et al. (2013): p. 4,6,7.

This work is part of EQUITY ACTION which has received funding from the European Union,
in the framework of the Health Programme. The sole responsibility for this work lies with the author
Annex VI - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices initiation in
deprived and affluent groups in Scotland
Tables from Donnan et al. (2013): p. 6.

www.health-inequalities

Annex VII - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates in deprived and
affluent groups in Scotland
Tables from Ajetunmobi et al. (2013): p. 89-90.

Annex VIII - Comparison of breastfeeding and complementary feeding rates depending on
level of maternal education in France
Tables from Bonet et al. (2012): p. 717.

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