![aspect to this coast and which in course of time have grown into
centers of commercial activity. German shipping circles would
consider the annexation of the Danish peninsula to Germany as a
measure leading to high economic advantages, even though the
construction of the Kiel canal has materially changed conditions
which affected the Danish-German situation when the duchies of
Schleswig and Holstein were annexed in 1866.
The present Danish-speaking population of Schleswig-Holstein is
variously estimated at between 140,000 and 150,000. These
subjects of the Kaiser occupy the territory south of the Danish
boundary to a line formed by the western section of the Lecker Au,
the southern border of the swampy region extending south of Rens
and the northern extension of the Angeln hills. Between this line and
the area in which German is spoken a zone of the old Frisian tongue
of Holland survives along the western coast of the peninsula from
the Lecker Au to the Treene river.[72] Frisian is also spoken in the
coastal islands.
The degree to which linguistic variations adapt themselves to
physical configuration is admirably illustrated in this case, by the
southerly extension of Danish along the eastern section of the
peninsula where persistence of the Baltic ridge appears in the hilly
nature of the land. The Low German of the long Baltic plain also
continued to spread unimpeded within the low-lying western portion
of the narrow peninsula, until its northward extension was arrested
by uninhabited heath land. The presence of Frisian along the
western coast is undoubtedly connected with the adaptability of
Frisians to settle in land areas reclaimed from the sea.
The province of Schleswig began to acquire historical prominence
as an independent duchy in the twelfth century. Barring few
interruptions its union with the Danish crown has been continuous to
the time of the Prussian conquest. In 1848 both Schleswig and
Holstein were disturbed by a wave of political agitation which
expressed itself in demands for the joint incorporation of both states
in the German Confederation. To what extent the mass of Danish](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-12-320.jpg)
![inhabitants of the duchies took part in this movement is a matter of
controversy. Holstein was an ancient fief of the old Germano-Roman
Empire. Its population has always been largely German. But the
duchy of Schleswig is peopled mainly by Danes. By the terms of the
treaty of Prague of August 23, 1866, both Austria and Prussia had
agreed to submit final decision on the question of nationality to
popular vote.[73] The provisions of the clause dealing with the
referendum, however, were not carried out, and on Jan. 12, 1867,
Schleswig was definitely annexed by Prussia.[74]
Incorporation of the Danish provinces was followed by systematic
attempts to Germanize the population[75] through the agency of
churches and schools. In addition a number of colonization societies
such as the “Ansiedelungs Verein für westliche Nordschleswig,”
founded at Rödding in 1891,[76] and the “Deutsche Verein für das
nordliche Schleswig” were formed to introduce German ownership of
land in the Danish districts. The final years of the nineteenth century
in particular constituted a period of strained feeling between Danes
and Germans owing to unsettled conditions brought about by duality
of language and tradition.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-13-320.jpg)
![or citizens without a country[77] was solved by the recognition of the
right of choice of nationality on their part. The German government
considered this measure as satisfying the aspirations of its subjects
of Danish birth. Nevertheless, although the Danish government
appeared to share these views, the acquiescence of Danes living in
Germany to any solution other than the restoration to Denmark of
the Danish-speaking sections of Schleswig remains doubtful. That
suspicion of the loyalty of the Schleswig Danes is still entertained in
Germany is shown by statements like that made by Henry Goddard
Leach, Secretary of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, when he
asserted[78] that Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, was
prevented from lecturing in Norwegian, in the town of Flensborg,
because the language resembled Danish.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-15-320.jpg)
![Fig. 35—Sketch map of Schleswig-Holstein showing languages spoken.
According to the Danish viewpoint. Scale, 1:1,200,000. (After Rosendal based
on Clausens and Heyers.)
In Norway the linguistic problem goes under the name of
Maalstraev. The question of language in that country was debated
with marked fervor[79] during the years prior to the separation from
Sweden. “Freedom with self-government, home, land and our own](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-16-320.jpg)
![were forced into prose or poetry by the foremost Norwegian writers,
a movement to Norsefy the Riksmaal thus being originated.
As a result of these endeavors a new language, the “Landsmaal,”
or fatherland speech, came into being about the middle of the
nineteenth century. The name of Ivar Aasen will always be linked
with it. This highly gifted peasant devoted his life to the idea of a
renaissance of the Old Norse language through the unification of the
current peasant dialects. Scientific societies, urged by patriotism no
less than by genuine scholarly interest, granted him subsidies which
enabled him to carry on his studies. Two of his works—“The
Grammar of the Norwegian Popular Language,” published in 1848,
and a “Dictionary of the Norwegian Popular Language,” in 1850—
virtually established a new medium of speech in Norway.
Landsmaal was happily introduced just about the time when a
sense of national consciousness began to dawn on Norwegian
minds. By a number of enactments of the Storting the study of the
new national tongue was made compulsory. This body first acted in
May 1885 by requesting the Government “to adopt the necessary
measures so that the people’s language, as school and official
language, be placed side by side with our ordinary written
speech.”[80] Then, in 1892, the following law for elementary schools
was framed: “The school board (in each district) shall decide
whether the school readers and text-books shall be composed in
Landsmaal or the ordinary book-‘maal’ and in which of these
languages the pupil’s written exercises shall in general be composed.
But the pupil must learn to read both languages.” Finally, in 1896,
the study of Landsmaal was made obligatory in the high schools.
After Norway secured complete national independence, in 1905,
the Landsmaal advanced rapidly. Its use was permitted in university
examinations. By 1909 one hundred and twenty-five out of six
hundred and fifty school districts had adopted “New Norse” as the
medium of instruction.[81] In the bishopric of Bergen the new
language came to stay in 56 out of 101 country parishes. The issue
between Landsmaal and Riksmaal being closely linked with](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-18-320.jpg)
![nationalism in Norway, many Norwegians have now come to look
upon the Danish tongue as a sign of former vassalage. New Norse,
on the other hand, embodies the newly acquired national
independence. In the eyes of patriots it is the language which is
most closely allied to the saga tongue of their Viking ancestors. And
yet it is stated that less than a thousand persons in Norway actually
use New Norse in their conversation.[82] The supplanting of
Norwego-Danish by the made-to-order Landsmaal bids fair to take
time. But the process of welding Norwegian dialects into a single
national language is going on. In this must be sought the
significance of Norway’s language agitation. A Norwegian tongue
which will be spoken within Norwegian boundaries is being formed.
In recent years it has been customary to publish all acts of
Parliament both in Norwego-Danish and in Landsmaal.
The Swedish language differs from Norwegian by a typical
accentuation. The growth of the language to its present form may
be traced back to the Runic period of the thirteenth century. At that
time Swedish was free from foreign admixture. The influence of
Latin and of Middle and Low German was felt later. The language
passed successively through the period of Old Swedish (1200-1500)
and Early Modern Swedish (1500-1730). Its present form belongs to
the Later Modern School, although it is spoken now without much
change from the language of the middle eighteenth century.
The eastern half of the European Continent contains a zone of
excessive linguistic intermingling along the line where Teutonic and
Slavic peoples meet. From the shores of the White Sea to the Baltic
and thence to the coast of the Black Sea an elongated belt of
lowland was ill fitted to become the seat of a single state because
nature has not provided it with strongly marked geographical
boundaries which might have favored the development of nationality.
Hence it is that before the eighteenth century we do not find a
single nation in possession of this region. On the other hand, it is the
site on which three religions met in bloody fray in modern times. At
the beginning of the modern era its northern sections became the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-19-320.jpg)
![theater of wars between Protestants and Catholics, while to the
south, Christians arrayed against eastern infidels were obliged to war
for centuries before the danger of the invasion of central Europe by
Mohammedan hordes was totally removed.
The Finns, occupying the northernmost section of this elongated
belt, are linguistically allied to the Turki. Physically they constitute
the proto-Teutonic substratum of the northern Russians with whom
they have been merged. Their land was transferred from Sweden to
Russia in 1808. Autonomy conceded by the Czar’s government
provided the inhabitants with a tolerable political status, until it was
rescinded by the imperial decree of February 15, 1899. The opening
years of the present century marked the beginning of a policy of
Slavicization prosecuted with extreme vigor on the part of the
provincial administrators.
The Finnish peoples of Russia must be regarded as autochthons
who have been subjected to the inroads of both Slavic and Tatar
invasions. In the ninth century A.D. they formed compact populations
on the European mainland directly south of Finland, where their
descendants now group themselves in scattered colonies. Except in
Finland they are being Slavicized at a rapid rate and the Slav
population is now imposing itself on the Tatar which had once
swamped the indigenous element.
Early mention of these Finns shows them divided into several
tribes. The Livs and Chuds, who dwelt mainly around the gulfs of
Livonia and of Finland, were the forefathers of the present
inhabitants of northern Livonia as well as of Esthonia.[83] The
Ingrians and the Vods inhabited the basin of the Neva. The Suomi
tribes, of which the Kvens, Karels, Yams and Tavasts were the most
important, occupied the Finnish territory held at present by their
descendants. Every river valley of northwestern Russia was in fact a
tribal homeland. The term Finnish as applied to these tribes refers to
their culture, which was Asiatic throughout. Racially, however, they
consist of Nordics with a strong addition of Tatar blood.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-20-320.jpg)
![The area of Finnish speech forms a compact mass extending south
of the 69th parallel to the Baltic shores. Its complete access to the
sea is barred in part by two coastal strips in the gulfs of Bothnia and
Finland in both of which Swedish predominates in varying
percentages.[84] The group of the Aland Islands, although included
in the Czar’s dominions, is also peopled by Swedes all the way to the
southwestern point of Finland.[85] This broken fringe of Swedish is
conceded to be a relic of the early occupation of Finland by Swedes.
[86] One of its strips, the Bothnian, is remarkably pure in
composition. The band extending on the northern shore of the Gulf
of Finland, however, contains enclaves of the Finnish element. This is
ascribed to an artificial process of “fennification” resulting from the
introduction of cheap labor in the industrial regions of southern
Finland. Slower economic development of the provinces of the
western coast, on the other hand, tends to maintain undisturbed
segregation of the population.
The ties uniting Finland with Sweden are moral and cultural.
Swedish missionaries of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were
the agents through whom Christianity was introduced into Finland.
Together with religion many Swedish customs and laws superseded
the primitive social organization of the Finns. The relation
established was virtually that of an intellectual minority gaining the
upper hand over an ignorant majority. A change in the situation
came about in the middle of the fourteenth century when Finland
became an integral part of the Swedish kingdom and all civil and
political distinctions between the two elements of its populations
were abolished.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-21-320.jpg)
![Early Russian chronicles describe the Letts and Lithuanians as
divided into several tribes.[87] The Yatvags were scattered along the
banks of the Narev. The Lithuanians proper together with the
Shmuds peopled the Niemen valley. Very little dialectical differences
exist between the two. The Shmuds cluster now in northwestern
Kovno without, however, attaining the Baltic shore. The left bank of
the Drina was occupied by the Semigals, while on the right dwelt the
Letgols who were the ancestors in direct line of the Letts of southern
Livonia. The Kors, who lived on the western shores of the Gulf of
Riga, were later to impose their name on the province of Kurland.
[88]
Two of these tribes, the Shmuds and the Lithuanians, escaped the
Teutonic conquest through the inaccessibility of their forested and
marshy retreat. Around them the Kors and the Letts, as well as the
primitive Slav occupants of Prussia, had been subjugated by the
Knights of the Teutonic Order. The only salvation for these tribes
from Teutonic oppression consisted in their seeking the natural
shelter occupied by the two more fortunate groups of their kinsmen.
Behind this natural barrier Lithuanian nationality was born in the
middle of the thirteenth century under the leadership of Mindvog, an
energetic chieftain who insured his own supremacy by causing the
leaders of rival clans to be put to death. With the help of the Poles
the Lithuanians eventually checked the easterly expansion of the
Teutons.
The region occupied by Lithuanians in former times can be traced
today by the distribution of the type of dwelling peculiar to this
people. The ancient area exceeds the borders of the present
linguistic zone. The earliest examples of Lithuanian houses consist of
a single room. The indoor life of a single family was spent within this
one apartment. This primitive habitation grew into the modern style
by the successive addition of rooms. In course of time a kitchen or a
stable was added to the main building. Sometimes the old type of
house stands to this day adjoining more modern buildings. In such
cases it is used as a barn.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-25-320.jpg)
![The old Aryan of the Lithuanians is in vogue principally along the
Duna and Niemen rivers as well as around Vilna, where this people
are settled in compact masses. In spite of the antiquity of their
language, no texts prior to the sixteenth century are known.
Emigration in the past decade to large Russian cities, and to
America, has decreased their ranks appreciably. Their number is now
estimated at 3,500,000.[89] In his native land, the Lithuanian is not
on the best of terms with neighboring peoples. He looks upon the
Russian as his political oppressor and upon the Pole as his hereditary
foe. The Lett is regarded with somewhat less animosity as a rival.
The Letts spread inland from the shores of the Gulf of Riga and
number about 1,300,000. Owing to Polish influences, many
Lithuanians are Catholics, but, in the main, both Letts and
Lithuanians are stanch Lutherans.[90] Their land is the home of
religious free thought within orthodox Russia. German influence
prevails among them on this account, although it is doubtful whether
it extends to the point of their preferring German to Russian rule.
Evil memories of the attempts of the Teutonic Knights to conquer the
immemorial seat of the Lettish and Lithuanian populations survive
throughout their forests and marshes. Neither people has forgotten
that its ancestors were refugees who sought the shelter of their
boglands as a last recourse from Teutonic aggression.
Prior to 1876, the Baltic provinces were ruled by a semi-
autonomous administration headed by a governor-general whose
rôle was more properly that of a viceroy. German was as much an
official language as Russian and no restrictions prevented its use in
courts. German schools and a German university were widely
attended. Since that date, however, the Letto-Lithuanian populations
have been deprived of the liberal régime they formerly enjoyed and
an official “Russification” has been directed against them. Most of
the Lutheran schools were closed by order of the government and
the teaching of German in schools restricted or prohibited. But to
this day the three Baltic provinces of Kurland, Livland and Estland
are considered by German writers as a domain of German culture](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-26-320.jpg)
![and Protestant faith controlled by Russian political and ecclesiastical
power.
In the province of Kurland the Germans boast 51,000 resident
kinsmen. As a rule this section of the population is confined to the
cities. Riga, Reval, Libau, Dorpat and Mitau contain notable
percentages of Germans among their citizens. The first-named city
counts 65,332 of these westerners in its population, or over 25 per
cent of the total.[91]
The Letts have settled mainly in the Kurland peninsula and
southern Livonia. They are also found in the governments of Kovno,
Petrograd and Mohilev. Lithuanians occupy the governments of
Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and Grodno. No definite boundaries between
the two peoples can be determined because their intercourse is
constant. The only difference between the two languages is found in
the greater departure of Lettic from the old Vedic forms.
North of the Letto-Lithuanian group the Esthonians, who are Finns
and speak a Finnish language, occupy a lake-covered area similar to
Finland. In both a granite tableland is the scene of human activity. In
spite of the drawbacks of their natural environment the Esthonians
depend chiefly on agriculture for sustenance. This industry has
attained a high stage of perfection in their hands and few peoples
know how to make their soil yield a higher return than do these virile
northerners.
The number of Esthonians is estimated at about one million,[92]
distributed as follows: Esthonia, 365,959; Livonia, 518,594;
Government of St. Petersburg, 64,116; Government of Pskov,
25,458; other parts of Russia, 12,855. Large colonies of Russians,
Germans and Swedes are settled in the Esthonian province. The
census of 1897 showed Russians, 18,000; Germans, 16,000;
Swedes, 5,800.
The number of Jews settled in the province is not high. The
German and Russian elements compose the nobility. The former
owned and farmed 52 per cent of the land in 1878. Since that time,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-27-320.jpg)
![however, facilities have been accorded to the peasants of the
province, mostly Esthonians, to purchase farms and the proportion
of native land holdings is gradually increasing.
Confusion of racial minglings complicates the problem of assigning
fixed ethnic place to the Esthonians. That they belong to the Finnish
family is unquestionable. Linguistically they belong to the Turkish-
speaking peoples. Long-headedness prevails among them.[93] These
are also the characteristics of the Livs or Livonians, a Finnish tribe
formerly living in Esthonia and north Livonia, now nearly extinct, but
still holding a narrow strip of forest land along the Baltic at the
northern extremity of Kurland. These Livs are now classed with the
Baltic Finns and probably number less than 2,000 individuals. Their
language has been almost entirely replaced by a Lettish dialect.
The beginning of their history finds the Esthonians pirates of the
Baltic. Danish kings found it hard to subdue them and after two
centuries of struggle sold the Danish crown’s rights to the Knights of
the Sword in 1346. From this time on German influence was to
become paramount in the province. The condition of Esthonians in
relation to their Teutonic masters was that of serfs. By the terms of
the treaty of Nystad in 1721 Esthonia was ceded to Peter the Great
by the Swedes, who then exercised control of the land. Since then it
has remained a Russian province. Lutheranism, the religion of its
people, however, has been the foundation of much sympathy for
German institutions throughout the province. To combat this feeling,
as well as to eradicate national aspirations, Russian authorities have
resorted to those harsh and repressive measures which both church
and government have often enforced throughout the Czar’s country.
The Esthonians are noted for their practical turn of mind. A
favorite pastime among them consists of conversing in verse. They
cling tenaciously to their language, the study of which is actively
maintained throughout the land. Two main dialects are in use. A
northern form, known as the Reval Esthonian, is recognized as the
literary language. Writers have succeeded in maintaining its
perfection and beauty. Through their efforts literature that instills](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-28-320.jpg)
![TABLE I
Population by Governments in Finland According to Language, 1910[94]
Finnish
Per
cent Swedish
Per
cent Others
Per
cent
Nylands 212,315 85.1 149,173 11.1 1,391 3.8
Åbo o. Björneborgs 413,360 66.4 63,503 33.1 240 0.5
Tavastehus 330,190 86.6 4,356 13.0 119 0.4
Viborgs 479,120 69.7 7,872 15.9 7,116 14.4
St. Michels 191,137 96.0 670 3.5 93 0.5
Kuopio 324,553 97.4 664 2.0 191 0.6
Vasa 327,828 46.4 111,094 53.0 262 0.6
Uleaborgs 292,642 88.8 1,629 5.5 1,679 5.7
TABLE II
Finland: Population According to Language, 1865-1910
1865
Per
cent 1880
Per
cent 1890
Per
cent
Finnish 1,580,000 57.2 1,756,381 52.9 2,048,545 60.7
Swedish 256,000 38.9 294,876 43.2 322,604 35.6
Russian 4,000 2.2 4,195 2.0 5,795 2.4
German 1,200 0.6 1,720 0.8 1,674 0.7
Others 2,045 1.1 2,263 1.1 1,522 0.6
1900
Per
cent 1910
Per
cent
Finnish 2,352,990 67.5 2,571,145 80.2
Swedish 349,733 28.9 338,961 16.0
Russian 5,939 2.2 7,339 2.5
German 1,925 0.7 1,794 0.6
Others 1,975 0.7 1,958 0.7](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-30-320.jpg)
![TABLE III
Finland: Distribution of Population by Language and by Religion, December 31,
1910[95]
Linguistic
group Lutheran Methodist Baptist
Greek
Catholic
Roman
Catholic Total
Finnish 2,531,014 198 1,086 38,749 98 2,571,145
Swedish 335,496 362 2,780 251 72 338,961
Russian 67 2 — 7,156 114 7,339
German 1,758 1 — 10 25 1,794
Lapps 1,660 — — — — 1,660
Others 184 1 — — 113 298
———— —– —— ——– —– ————
Total 2,870,179 564 3,866 46,166 422 2,921,197
TABLE IV
Finland: Relative Distribution by Languages of the Urban and Rural Population of the
Governments of Nyland, Åbo and Björneborg, and of Vasa, in Percentages
[96]
Urban Rural
Finnish Swedish Others Finnish Swedish Others
Nylands
1880 315.7 608.2 76.1 532.8 466.6 0.6
1890 436.2 536.2 27.1 545.1 454.0 0.9
1900 489.7 488.2 22.1 570.9 428.7 0.4
1910 579.7 411.8 8.5 589.1 410.6 0.3
Åbo and
Björneborg
1880 670.4 303.0 26.6 847.6 152.3 0.1
1890 700.0 292.8 7.2 855.7 144.2 0.1
1900 757.8 239.5 2.7 864.4 135.5 0.1
1910 792.8 204.4 2.8 880.2 119.7 0.1
Vasa
1880 195.7 800.5 3.8 695.3 304.7 [0.02]
1890 269.6 725.4 5.0 720.3 279.6 0.1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-31-320.jpg)
![FOOTNOTES:
[72] A substantial account of the tribes speaking these three
languages was given as early as 731 by the Venerable Bede in his
Historia Ecclesiastica.
[73] [Translation.] “Art. V. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria
transfers to His Majesty the King of Prussia all the rights which he
acquired by the Vienna Treaty of Peace of 30th October, 1864,
over the Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, with the condition
that the populations of the Northern Districts of Schleswig shall
be ceded to Denmark if, by a free vote, they express a wish to be
united to Denmark.” E. Herstlet: The Map of Europe by Treaty,
London, 1875, Vol. 3, p. 1722.
[74] A later treaty signed by Austria and Prussia at Vienna on Oct.
11, 1878, suppressed the referendum clause, which had never
been viewed with favor by the German government.
[75] M. R. Waultrin: Le rapprochement dano-allemand et la
question du Schleswig, Ann. Sci. Polit., May 15, and July 15,
1903.
[76] L. Gasselin: La question du Schleswig-Holstein, Paris, 1909.
[77] L. Gasselin: op. cit., p. 206.
[78] Scandinavia and the Scandinavians, New York, 1915, p. 30.
[79] Op. cit., p. 143.
[80] Op. cit., p. 147.
[81] Op. cit., p. 148.
[82] Op. cit., p. 150.
[83] A. Rambaud: Histoire de la Russie, Paris, 1914, p. 21.
[84] Atlas de Finlande, Carte 46, Helsingfors, 1911.
[85] K. B. Wiklund: Språken i Finland, 1880-1900, Ymer, 1905,
No. 2, pp. 132-149.
[86] R. Saxen: Répartition des langues, Fennia, Vol. 30, No. 2,
1910-1911, Helsingfors, 1911.
[87] A. Rambaud: Histoire de la Russie depuis les origines jusqu’à
nos jours, Paris, 1914, p. 21.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-33-320.jpg)
![[88] Rambaud: op. cit.
[89] The Russian census of 1897 showed 3,094,469.
[90] About 50,000 Letts belong to the Greek Church.
[91] H. Rosen: Die ethnographische Verhältnisse in den baltischen
Provinzen und in Litauen, Pet. Mitt., Sept. 1915, pp. 329-333.
[92] Russian census of 1897.
[93] W. Z. Ripley: The Races of Europe, New York, 1899.
[94] Statisko Årsbok för Finland 1914, Helsingfors, 1915, pp. 45-
46.
[95] Bidrag till Finlands Officiella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik,
45, Finlands Folkmängd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt
Församlingarnas Kyrkoböcker), Helsingfors, 1915, p. 127.
[96] Bidrag till Finlands Officiella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik,
45, Finlands Folkmängd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt
Församlingarnas Krykoböcker), Helsingfors, 1915, pp. 124-125.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/16812-250419092514-e91aeb14/85/Test-Bank-for-Introduction-to-Critical-Care-Nursing-7th-Edition-by-Sole-34-320.jpg)
Test Bank for Introduction to Critical Care Nursing 7th Edition by Sole
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- 4. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1 Test Bank for Introduction to Critical Care Nursing 7th Edition by Sole Full download link at: https://testbankbell.com/product/test-bank-for-introduction-to-critical-care-nursing-7th-edition- by-sole/ Chapter 01: Overview of Critical Care Nursing Sole: Introduction to Critical Care Nursing, 7th Edition MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which of the following professional organizations best supports critical care nursing practice? a. American Association of Critical-Care Nurses b. American Heart Association c. American Nurses Association d. Society of Critical Care Medicine ANS: A The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses is the specialty organization that supports and represents critical care nurses. The American Heart Association supports cardiovascular initiatives. The American Nurses Association supports all nurses. The Society of Critical Care Medicine represents the multiprofessional critical care team under the direction of an intensivist. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 5 OBJ: Discuss the purposes and functions of the professional organizations that support critical care practice. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 2. A nurse has been working as a staff nurse in the surgical intensive care unit for 2 years and is interested in certification. Which credential would be most applicable for the nurse to seek? a. ACNPC-AG b. CNML c. CCRN d. PCCN ANS: C The CCRN certification is appropriate for nurses in bedside practice who care for critically ill patients. The ACNPC-AG certification is for acute care nurse practitioners. The CNML is for critical care nurse managers or leaders. The PCCN certification is for staff nurses working in progressive care, intermediate care, or step-down unit settings. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 6 OBJ: Explain certification options for critical care nurses. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 3. The main purpose of certification is to a. assure the consumer that you will not make a mistake. b. prepare for graduate school. c. promote magnet status for your facility. d. validate knowledge of critical care nursing. ANS: D Certification assists in validating knowledge of the field, promotes excellence in the profession, and helps nurses to maintain their knowledge of critical care nursing. Certification helps to assure the consumer that the nurse has a minimum level of knowledge; however, it does not ensure that care will be mistake-free. Certification does not prepare one for graduate school; however, achieving certification demonstrates motivation for achievement and professionalism. Magnet facilities are rated on the number of certified nurses; however, that is not the purpose of certification. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 6 OBJ: Explain certification options for critical care nurses. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 4. The synergy model of practice focuses on a. allowing unrestricted visiting for the patient 24 hours a day. b. holistic and alternative therapies. c. the needs of patients and their families, which drive nursing competency. d. patients’ needs for energy and support. ANS: C The synergy model of practice states that the needs of patients and families influence and drive competencies of nurses. Nursing practice based on the synergy model would involve tailored visiting to meet the patient’s and family’s needs and the application of alternative therapies if desired by the patient, but that is not the primary focus of the model. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 6 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment
- 5. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 2 5. The family of your critically ill patient tells you that they have not spoken with the physician in over 24 hours and that they have some questions they want clarified. During morning rounds, you convey this concern to the attending intensivist and arrange a meeting with the family at 4:00 PM. Which competency of critical care nursing does this represent? a. Advocacy and moral agency in solving ethical issues b. Clinical judgment and clinical reasoning skills c. Collaboration with patients, families, and team members d. Facilitation of learning for patients, families, and team members ANS: C Although one might consider that all of these competencies are being addressed, communication and collaboration with the family and physician best exemplify the competency of collaboration. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: p. 6 | Fig 1-3 | Box 1-1 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 6. The AACN Standards for Acute and Critical Care Nursing Practice use what framework to guide critical care nursing practice? a. Evidence-based practice b. Healthy work environment c. National Patient Safety Goals d. Nursing process ANS: D The AACN Standards for Acute and Critical Care Nursing Practice delineate the nursing process as applied to critically ill patients: collect data, determine diagnoses, identify expected outcomes, develop a plan of care, implement interventions, and evaluate care. AACN promotes a healthy work environment, but this is not included in its standards. The Joint Commission has established National Patient Safety Goals, but these are not the AACN standards. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 6 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 7. The charge nurse is responsible for making the patient assignments on the critical care unit. An experienced, certified nurse is assigned to care for the acutely ill patient with sepsis who also requires continuous renal replacement therapy and mechanical ventilation. The nurse with less than 1 year of experience is assigned to two patients who are more stable. This assignment reflects implementation of the a. crew resource management model. b. National Patient Safety Goals. c. Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) model. d. synergy model of practice. ANS: D This assignment demonstrates nursing care to meet the needs of the patient. The synergy model notes that the nurse competencies are matched to the patient characteristics. Crew resource management concepts are related to team training; National Patient Safety Goals are specified by The Joint Commission to promote safe care but do not incorporate the synergy model. The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses initiative involves targeted education of undergraduate and graduate nursing students on quality and safety concepts. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: p. 6 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 8. The vision of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses is a health care system driven by a. a healthy work environment. b. care from a multiprofessional team under the direction of a critical care physician. c. the needs of critically ill patients and families. d. respectful, healing, and humane environments. ANS: C The AACN vision is a health care system driven by the needs of critically ill patients and families where critical care nurses make their optimum contributions. AACN promotes initiatives to support a healthy work environment as well as respectful and healing environments, but that is not the organization’s vision. The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) promotes care from a multiprofessional team under the direction of a critical care physician. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 5 OBJ: Discuss the purposes and functions of the professional organizations that support critical care practice. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment
- 6. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 3 9. The most important outcome of effective communication is to a. demonstrate caring practices to family members. b. ensure that patient teaching is done. c. meet the diversity needs of patients. d. reduce patient errors. ANS: D Many errors are directly attributed to faulty communication. Effective communication has been identified as an essential strategy to reduce patient errors and resolve issues related to patient care delivery. Communication may demonstrate caring practices, address diversity needs, and be used for patient/family teaching; however, the main outcome of effective communication is patient safety. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 9 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 10. You are caring for a critically ill patient whose urine output has been low for 2 consecutive hours. After a thorough patient assessment, you call the intensivist with report. Which information do you convey regarding background? a. Urine output of 40 mL/2 hours b. Current vital signs and history of aortic aneurysm repair 4 hours ago c. A statement that the patient is possibly hypovolemic d. A request for IV fluids ANS: B The history and vital signs are part of the background. Information regarding the low urine output is the situation. Information regarding possible hypovolemia is part of the nurse’s assessment, and the suggestion for fluids is the recommendation. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: p. 9 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Integrated Process: Communication MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 11. The family members of a critically ill patient bring a copy of the patient’s living will to the hospital, which identifies the patient’s wishes regarding health care. You discuss contents of the living will with the patient’s physician. This is an example of implementation of which of the AACN Standards of Professional Performance? a. Acquires and maintains current knowledge of practice b. Acts ethically on the behalf of the patient and family c. Considers factors related to safe patient care d. Uses clinical inquiry and integrates research findings in practice ANS: B Discussing end-of-life issues is an example of a nurse acting ethically on behalf of the patient and family. The example does not relate to acquiring knowledge, promoting patient safety, or using research in practice. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: p. 6 | Box 1-2 OBJ: Describe standards of care and performance for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: Implementation MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 12. Which of the following assists the critical care nurse in ensuring that care is appropriate and based on research? a. Clinical practice guidelines b. Computerized physician order entry c. Consulting with advanced practice nurses d. Implementing Joint Commission National Patient Safety Goals ANS: A Clinical practice guidelines are being implemented to ensure that care is appropriate and based on research. Some physician order entry pathways, but not all, are based on research recommendations. Some advanced practice nurses, but not all, are well versed in evidence-based practices. The National Patient Safety Goals are recommendations to reduce errors using evidence-based practices. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: p. 8 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 13. Comparing the patient’s current (home) medications with those ordered during hospitalization and communicating a complete list of medications to the next provider when the patient is transferred within an organization or to another setting are strategies to: a. improve accuracy of patient identification. b. prevent errors related to look-alike and sound-alike medications. c. reconcile medications across the continuum of care. d. reduce harms associated with the administration of anticoagulants. ANS: C These are steps recommended in the National Patient Safety Goals to reconcile medications across the continuum of care. Improving accuracy of patient identification is another National Patient Safety Goal. Preventing errors related to look-alike and sound-alike medications is done to improve medication safety, but is not related to transferring the patient between settings. Reducing harms associated with the administration of anticoagulants is another National Patient Safety Goal. DIF: Cognitive Level: Understand/Comprehension REF: p. 7 | Box 1-3 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment
- 7. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 4 14. As part of nursing management of a critically ill patient, orders are written to keep the head of the bed elevated at 30 degrees, awaken the patient from sedation each morning to assess readiness to wean from mechanical ventilation, and implement oral care protocols every 4 hours. These interventions are done as a group to reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. This group of evidence-based interventions is often called a a. bundle of care. b. clinical practice guideline. c. patient safety goal. d. quality improvement initiative. ANS: A A group of evidence-based interventions done as a whole to improve outcomes is termed a bundle of care. This is an example of the ventilator bundle. Oftentimes these bundles are derived from clinical practice guidelines and are monitored for compliance as part of quality improvement initiatives. At some point, these may become part of patient safety goals. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 7 | Box 1-3 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: Implementation MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 15. You work in an intermediate care unit and have asked to be involved in developing new guidelines to prevent pressure ulcers in your patient population. The nurse manager tells you that you do not yet have enough experience to be on the prevention task force and that your ideas will be rejected by others. This situation is an example of a. a barrier to handoff communication. b. a work environment that is unhealthy. c. ineffective decision making. d. nursing practice that is not evidence-based. ANS: B These are examples of an unhealthy work environment. A healthy work environment values communication, collaboration, and effective decision making. It also has authentic leadership. It is not an example of handoff communication, which is communication that occurs to transition patient care from one staff member to another. Neither does it relate to ineffective decision making. As a nurse, you can still implement evidence-based practice, but your influence in the unit is limited by the unhealthy work environment. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: pp. 8-9 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 16. Which of the following statements describes the core concept of the synergy model of practice? a. All nurses must be certified in order to have the synergy model implemented. b. Family members must be included in daily interdisciplinary rounds. c. Nurses and physicians must work collaboratively and synergistically to influence care. d. Unique needs of patients and their families influence nursing competencies. ANS: D The synergy model of practice is care based on the unique needs and characteristics of the patient and family members. Although critical care certification is based on the synergy model, the model does not specifically address certification. Inclusion of family members into the daily rounds is an example of implementation of the synergy model. With the focus on patients and family members with nurse interaction, the synergy model does not address physician collaboration. DIF: Cognitive Level: Apply/Application REF: p. 6 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Integrated Process: Caring MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 17. A nurse who plans care based on the patient’s gender, ethnicity, spirituality, and lifestyle is said to a. be a moral advocate. b. facilitate learning. c. respond to diversity. d. use clinical judgment. ANS: C Response to diversity considers all of these aspects when planning and implementing care. A moral agent helps resolve ethical and clinical concerns. Consideration of these factors does not necessarily facilitate learning. Clinical judgment uses other factors as well. DIF: Cognitive Level: Understand/Comprehension REF: p. 5 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: Planning MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Psychosocial Integrity
- 8. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 5 MULTIPLE RESPONSE 1. Which of the following is a National Patient Safety Goal? (Select all that apply.) a. Accurately identify patients. b. Eliminate the use of patient restraints. c. Reconcile medications across the continuum of care. d. Reduce risks of health care–acquired infection. e. Reduce costs associated with hospitalization. ANS: A, C, D All except for eliminating the use of restraints and reducing costs are current National Patient Safety Goals. Hospitals have policies regarding the use of restraints and are attempting to reduce the use of restraints; however, this is not a National Patient Safety Goal. Many facilities are actively working on cost reduction, but this is not a National Patient Safety Goal either. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 7 | Box 1-3 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 2. Which of the following is (are) official journal(s) of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses? (Select all that apply.) a. American Journal of Critical Care b. Critical Care Clinics of North America c. Critical Care Nurse d. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly e. Critical Care Nursing Management ANS: A, C American Journal of Critical Care and Critical Care Nurse are two official AACN publications. Critical Care Clinics, Critical Care Nursing Quarterly, and Critical Care Nursing Management are not AACN publications. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 5 OBJ: Discuss the purposes and functions of the professional organizations that support critical care practice. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 3. The first critical care units were (Select all that apply.) a. burn units. b. coronary care units. c. recovery rooms. d. neonatal intensive care units. e. high-risk OB units. ANS: B, C Recovery rooms and coronary care units were the first units designated to care for critically ill patients. Burn, neonatal intensive care, and high-risk OB units were established as specialty units evolved. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 3 OBJ: Define critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 4. Which of the following nursing activities demonstrates implementation of the AACN Standards of Professional Performance? (Select all that apply.) a. Attending a meeting of the local chapter of the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses in which a continuing education program on sepsis is being taught b. Collaborating with a pastoral services colleague to assist in meeting spiritual needs of the patient and family c. Participating on the unit’s nurse practice council d. Posting an article from Critical Care Nurse on the management of venous thromboembolism for your colleagues to read e. Using evidence-based strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia ANS: A, B, C, D, E All answers are correct. Attending a program to learn about sepsis—Acquires and maintains current knowledge and competency in patient care. Collaborating with pastoral services—Collaborates with the health care team to provide care in a healing, humane, and caring environment. Posting information for others—Contributes to the professional development of peers and other health care providers. Nurse practice council—Provides leadership in the practice setting. Evidence-based practices—Uses clinical inquiry in practice. DIF: Cognitive Level: Remember/Knowledge REF: p. 4 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment
- 9. Copyright © 2017, Elsevier Inc. All Rights Reserved. 6 5. Which scenarios contribute to effective handoff communication at change of shift? (Select all that apply.) a. The nephrology consultant physician is making rounds and asks you for an update on the patient’s status and to assist in placing a central line for hemodialysis. b. The noise level is high because twice as many staff members are present and everyone is giving report in the nurses’ station. c. The unit has decided to use a standardized checklist/tool for change-of-shift reports and patient transfers. d. You and the oncoming nurse conduct a standardized report at the patient’s bedside and review key assessment findings. e. The off-going nurse is giving the patient medications at the same time as giving handoff report to the oncoming nurse. ANS: C, D A reporting tool and bedside report improve handoff communication by ensuring standardized communication and review of assessment findings. Conducting report at the bedside also reduces noise that commonly occurs at the nurses’ station during a change of shift. The nephrologist has created an interruption that can impede handoff with the next nurse. Likewise, noise in the nurses’ station can cause distractions that can impair concentration and listening. Giving medications at the same time as handoff report could lead to serious errors both in medication administration and in the report itself. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: pp. 9-10 OBJ: Describe quality and safety initiatives related to critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 6. Which strategy is important in addressing issues associated with the aging workforce? (Select all that apply.) a. Allowing nurses to work flexible shift durations b. Encouraging older nurses to transfer to an outpatient setting that is less stressful c. Hiring nurse technicians who are available to assist with patient care, such as turning the patient d. Remodeling patient care rooms to include devices to assist in patient lifting e. Developing a staffing model that accurately reflects the unit’s needs. ANS: A, C, D Modifying the work environment to reduce physical demands is one strategy to assist the aging workforce. Examples include overhead lifts to prevent back injuries. Twelve-hour shifts can be quite demanding; therefore, allowing nurses flexibility in choosing shifts of shorter duration is a good option as well. Adequate staffing, including both registered nurses and nonlicensed assistive personnel to help with nursing and nonnursing tasks, is helpful. Encouraging experienced, knowledgeable critical care nurses to leave the critical care unit is not wise as the unit loses the expertise of this group. DIF: Cognitive Level: Analyze/Analysis REF: pp. 16-17 OBJ: Identify current trends and issues in critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: N/A MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment 7. Which of the following strategies will assist in creating a healthy work environment for the critical care nurse? (Select all that apply.) a. Celebrating improved outcomes from a nurse-driven protocol with a pizza party b. Implementing a medication safety program designed by pharmacists c. Modifying the staffing pattern to ensure a 1:1 nurse/patient ratio d. Offering quarterly joint nurse-physician workshops to discuss unit issues e. Using the Situation-Background-Assessment-Recommendation (SBAR) technique for handoff communication ANS: A, D, E Meaningful recognition, true collaboration, and skilled communication are elements of a healthy work environment. Implementing a medication safety program enhances patient safety, but if done without nursing input, it could have negative outcomes. Staffing should be adjusted to meet patient needs and nurse competencies, not have predetermined ratios that are unrealistic and possibly unneeded. DIF: Cognitive Level: Apply/Application REF: pp. 8-9 OBJ: Describe standards of professional practice for critical care nursing. TOP: Nursing Process Step: Implementation MSC: NCLEX Client Needs Category: Safe and Effective Care Environment
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- 11. CHAPTER V SCANDINAVIAN AND BALTIC LANGUAGES Scandinavia’s remoteness from the center of European political strife has not saved the region from the inconveniences arising from linguistic clashes. Especially is this true where political and linguistic boundaries do not coincide. The Danish-German frontier has been marked by antagonism between Danes and Germans. Denmark’s hold on Schleswig-Holstein prior to 1866 had engendered bitter feeling among Germans, who considered the subjection of their kinsmen settled on the right bank of the Elbe estuary as unnatural. After Prussia had annexed the contested region, it was the Danes’ turn to feel dissatisfied and to claim the districts occupied by their countrymen. The problem of Schleswig-Holstein is a direct consequence of Germany’s geography. By its position in Europe the Teutonic empire is essentially a land power. Its maritime development began in the midst of adverse natural conditions in the northern confines of the country. The southern Baltic and the North Sea are both shallow. Sandbanks and winter ice hamper navigation in the easternmost stretch of these waters. An outlet exists only in the round-about and rock-studded Danish straits. The Oder, Elbe and Ems are constantly discharging material collected from the mountainous heart of Europe. The harbors of the northwestern shore are artificial and require ceaseless watching, for all of which German navigation pays a heavy annual tax. The Danish tongue of land which divides Germany’s northern sea boundary into two separate regions contains in its eastern and northern coasts the very advantages which Germany cannot find on its northern frontier. Eastern Jutland boasts a few natural harbors located at the head of the indentations which impart a fiord-like
- 12. aspect to this coast and which in course of time have grown into centers of commercial activity. German shipping circles would consider the annexation of the Danish peninsula to Germany as a measure leading to high economic advantages, even though the construction of the Kiel canal has materially changed conditions which affected the Danish-German situation when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were annexed in 1866. The present Danish-speaking population of Schleswig-Holstein is variously estimated at between 140,000 and 150,000. These subjects of the Kaiser occupy the territory south of the Danish boundary to a line formed by the western section of the Lecker Au, the southern border of the swampy region extending south of Rens and the northern extension of the Angeln hills. Between this line and the area in which German is spoken a zone of the old Frisian tongue of Holland survives along the western coast of the peninsula from the Lecker Au to the Treene river.[72] Frisian is also spoken in the coastal islands. The degree to which linguistic variations adapt themselves to physical configuration is admirably illustrated in this case, by the southerly extension of Danish along the eastern section of the peninsula where persistence of the Baltic ridge appears in the hilly nature of the land. The Low German of the long Baltic plain also continued to spread unimpeded within the low-lying western portion of the narrow peninsula, until its northward extension was arrested by uninhabited heath land. The presence of Frisian along the western coast is undoubtedly connected with the adaptability of Frisians to settle in land areas reclaimed from the sea. The province of Schleswig began to acquire historical prominence as an independent duchy in the twelfth century. Barring few interruptions its union with the Danish crown has been continuous to the time of the Prussian conquest. In 1848 both Schleswig and Holstein were disturbed by a wave of political agitation which expressed itself in demands for the joint incorporation of both states in the German Confederation. To what extent the mass of Danish
- 13. inhabitants of the duchies took part in this movement is a matter of controversy. Holstein was an ancient fief of the old Germano-Roman Empire. Its population has always been largely German. But the duchy of Schleswig is peopled mainly by Danes. By the terms of the treaty of Prague of August 23, 1866, both Austria and Prussia had agreed to submit final decision on the question of nationality to popular vote.[73] The provisions of the clause dealing with the referendum, however, were not carried out, and on Jan. 12, 1867, Schleswig was definitely annexed by Prussia.[74] Incorporation of the Danish provinces was followed by systematic attempts to Germanize the population[75] through the agency of churches and schools. In addition a number of colonization societies such as the “Ansiedelungs Verein für westliche Nordschleswig,” founded at Rödding in 1891,[76] and the “Deutsche Verein für das nordliche Schleswig” were formed to introduce German ownership of land in the Danish districts. The final years of the nineteenth century in particular constituted a period of strained feeling between Danes and Germans owing to unsettled conditions brought about by duality of language and tradition.
- 14. Fig. 34—Sketch map of Schleswig-Holstein showing languages spoken. According to the German viewpoint. Scale, 1:1,200,000. (Based on maps on pp. 59, 60, Andree’s Handatlas, 6th ed.) At present the problem of Schleswig is considered settled by the German government. A treaty signed on January 11, 1907, between the cabinets of Berlin and Copenhagen defined the status of the inhabitants of the annexed duchy. The problem of the “Heimatlose”
- 15. or citizens without a country[77] was solved by the recognition of the right of choice of nationality on their part. The German government considered this measure as satisfying the aspirations of its subjects of Danish birth. Nevertheless, although the Danish government appeared to share these views, the acquiescence of Danes living in Germany to any solution other than the restoration to Denmark of the Danish-speaking sections of Schleswig remains doubtful. That suspicion of the loyalty of the Schleswig Danes is still entertained in Germany is shown by statements like that made by Henry Goddard Leach, Secretary of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, when he asserted[78] that Roald Amundsen, discoverer of the South Pole, was prevented from lecturing in Norwegian, in the town of Flensborg, because the language resembled Danish.
- 16. Fig. 35—Sketch map of Schleswig-Holstein showing languages spoken. According to the Danish viewpoint. Scale, 1:1,200,000. (After Rosendal based on Clausens and Heyers.) In Norway the linguistic problem goes under the name of Maalstraev. The question of language in that country was debated with marked fervor[79] during the years prior to the separation from Sweden. “Freedom with self-government, home, land and our own
- 17. language” was the plea of Mr. Jörgen Lövland, subsequently Premier of Norway, in an address to the Norwegian youth in 1904. “Political freedom,” then said Mr. Lövland, “is not the deepest and greatest. Greater is it for a nation to preserve her intellectual inheritance in her native tongue.” Norwegian history is not continuous, complaisant historians to the contrary. A long break occurs from the Union of Kalmar in 1397, when the country ceased to exist as a political entity, to 1814. During this period of extinction, Norway was a mere geographical shuttlecock tossed between Sweden and Denmark. The latter country as a rule obtained the upper hand in its dealings with Norway. This relation accounts for the analogies in the languages of the two nations. But although Norway had seceded from Denmark in 1814, the Danish language, representing the speech of the more energetic and better educated Danes, remained official. Four and a half centuries of union between the two countries had made Danish the medium of intellectual development throughout Norway. But this linguistic invasion was accompanied by a notable modification of Danish. Norwegian intonations and sound articulations became adapted to it and the Norwego-Danish language, which is spoken today, gradually came into use. This hybrid language, however, does not prevail exclusively. About 95 per cent of the Norwegians speak, according to districts, different dialects derived from the Old Norse. The Norwego-Danish, or Riksmaal, is the language of polite society and the one which a foreigner naturally learns when in Norway. The language of the land, or Norsk as it is called by the Norwegians, has the merit of being more homogeneous than either Danish or Swedish. Nationality and language have grown apace in Norway. Prior to the nineteenth century the use of words taken from the Norwegian dialects was considered bad form. The granting of a constitution to the Norwegians, in 1814, created a strong feeling of nationality throughout the land. This spirit was reflected in active research for every form of Old Norse culture. Hitherto despised patois words
- 18. were forced into prose or poetry by the foremost Norwegian writers, a movement to Norsefy the Riksmaal thus being originated. As a result of these endeavors a new language, the “Landsmaal,” or fatherland speech, came into being about the middle of the nineteenth century. The name of Ivar Aasen will always be linked with it. This highly gifted peasant devoted his life to the idea of a renaissance of the Old Norse language through the unification of the current peasant dialects. Scientific societies, urged by patriotism no less than by genuine scholarly interest, granted him subsidies which enabled him to carry on his studies. Two of his works—“The Grammar of the Norwegian Popular Language,” published in 1848, and a “Dictionary of the Norwegian Popular Language,” in 1850— virtually established a new medium of speech in Norway. Landsmaal was happily introduced just about the time when a sense of national consciousness began to dawn on Norwegian minds. By a number of enactments of the Storting the study of the new national tongue was made compulsory. This body first acted in May 1885 by requesting the Government “to adopt the necessary measures so that the people’s language, as school and official language, be placed side by side with our ordinary written speech.”[80] Then, in 1892, the following law for elementary schools was framed: “The school board (in each district) shall decide whether the school readers and text-books shall be composed in Landsmaal or the ordinary book-‘maal’ and in which of these languages the pupil’s written exercises shall in general be composed. But the pupil must learn to read both languages.” Finally, in 1896, the study of Landsmaal was made obligatory in the high schools. After Norway secured complete national independence, in 1905, the Landsmaal advanced rapidly. Its use was permitted in university examinations. By 1909 one hundred and twenty-five out of six hundred and fifty school districts had adopted “New Norse” as the medium of instruction.[81] In the bishopric of Bergen the new language came to stay in 56 out of 101 country parishes. The issue between Landsmaal and Riksmaal being closely linked with
- 19. nationalism in Norway, many Norwegians have now come to look upon the Danish tongue as a sign of former vassalage. New Norse, on the other hand, embodies the newly acquired national independence. In the eyes of patriots it is the language which is most closely allied to the saga tongue of their Viking ancestors. And yet it is stated that less than a thousand persons in Norway actually use New Norse in their conversation.[82] The supplanting of Norwego-Danish by the made-to-order Landsmaal bids fair to take time. But the process of welding Norwegian dialects into a single national language is going on. In this must be sought the significance of Norway’s language agitation. A Norwegian tongue which will be spoken within Norwegian boundaries is being formed. In recent years it has been customary to publish all acts of Parliament both in Norwego-Danish and in Landsmaal. The Swedish language differs from Norwegian by a typical accentuation. The growth of the language to its present form may be traced back to the Runic period of the thirteenth century. At that time Swedish was free from foreign admixture. The influence of Latin and of Middle and Low German was felt later. The language passed successively through the period of Old Swedish (1200-1500) and Early Modern Swedish (1500-1730). Its present form belongs to the Later Modern School, although it is spoken now without much change from the language of the middle eighteenth century. The eastern half of the European Continent contains a zone of excessive linguistic intermingling along the line where Teutonic and Slavic peoples meet. From the shores of the White Sea to the Baltic and thence to the coast of the Black Sea an elongated belt of lowland was ill fitted to become the seat of a single state because nature has not provided it with strongly marked geographical boundaries which might have favored the development of nationality. Hence it is that before the eighteenth century we do not find a single nation in possession of this region. On the other hand, it is the site on which three religions met in bloody fray in modern times. At the beginning of the modern era its northern sections became the
- 20. theater of wars between Protestants and Catholics, while to the south, Christians arrayed against eastern infidels were obliged to war for centuries before the danger of the invasion of central Europe by Mohammedan hordes was totally removed. The Finns, occupying the northernmost section of this elongated belt, are linguistically allied to the Turki. Physically they constitute the proto-Teutonic substratum of the northern Russians with whom they have been merged. Their land was transferred from Sweden to Russia in 1808. Autonomy conceded by the Czar’s government provided the inhabitants with a tolerable political status, until it was rescinded by the imperial decree of February 15, 1899. The opening years of the present century marked the beginning of a policy of Slavicization prosecuted with extreme vigor on the part of the provincial administrators. The Finnish peoples of Russia must be regarded as autochthons who have been subjected to the inroads of both Slavic and Tatar invasions. In the ninth century A.D. they formed compact populations on the European mainland directly south of Finland, where their descendants now group themselves in scattered colonies. Except in Finland they are being Slavicized at a rapid rate and the Slav population is now imposing itself on the Tatar which had once swamped the indigenous element. Early mention of these Finns shows them divided into several tribes. The Livs and Chuds, who dwelt mainly around the gulfs of Livonia and of Finland, were the forefathers of the present inhabitants of northern Livonia as well as of Esthonia.[83] The Ingrians and the Vods inhabited the basin of the Neva. The Suomi tribes, of which the Kvens, Karels, Yams and Tavasts were the most important, occupied the Finnish territory held at present by their descendants. Every river valley of northwestern Russia was in fact a tribal homeland. The term Finnish as applied to these tribes refers to their culture, which was Asiatic throughout. Racially, however, they consist of Nordics with a strong addition of Tatar blood.
- 21. The area of Finnish speech forms a compact mass extending south of the 69th parallel to the Baltic shores. Its complete access to the sea is barred in part by two coastal strips in the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland in both of which Swedish predominates in varying percentages.[84] The group of the Aland Islands, although included in the Czar’s dominions, is also peopled by Swedes all the way to the southwestern point of Finland.[85] This broken fringe of Swedish is conceded to be a relic of the early occupation of Finland by Swedes. [86] One of its strips, the Bothnian, is remarkably pure in composition. The band extending on the northern shore of the Gulf of Finland, however, contains enclaves of the Finnish element. This is ascribed to an artificial process of “fennification” resulting from the introduction of cheap labor in the industrial regions of southern Finland. Slower economic development of the provinces of the western coast, on the other hand, tends to maintain undisturbed segregation of the population. The ties uniting Finland with Sweden are moral and cultural. Swedish missionaries of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were the agents through whom Christianity was introduced into Finland. Together with religion many Swedish customs and laws superseded the primitive social organization of the Finns. The relation established was virtually that of an intellectual minority gaining the upper hand over an ignorant majority. A change in the situation came about in the middle of the fourteenth century when Finland became an integral part of the Swedish kingdom and all civil and political distinctions between the two elements of its populations were abolished.
- 22. Fig. 36—View of the Lake country near Kuopi, showing the Kallavesi Sea with low islands and level shores. This is a characteristic Finnish landscape.
- 23. Fig. 37—Above the Koivukoski Falls at Kajana. Finnish waterways are the usual lanes of traffic between the inland seas of that country. Finland’s union with the west failed, however, to bring about Swedish predominance in the land. The Finns preserved their language and tended in fact to assimilate their conquerors. The physical isolation of their country from Sweden contributed largely to foster this incipient stage of Finnish nationality. The Gulf of Bothnia and the frozen solitudes of Lapland proved an effective barrier to the complete fusion of Swedes and Finns. Eastward, however, no natural obstacles intervened between Finland and Russia. The prolonged struggle between the latter country and Sweden hence inevitably led to the Russian conquest of Finland. The peace of Nystad in 1721 enabled Russia to occupy Finnish territory for the first time. All of the southeastern portion of the duchy then became part of the Muscovite empire. A further cession
- 24. in 1743 at the treaty of Åbo brought Swedish frontiers as far west as the Kymmens line. The final conquest was ratified by the treaty of peace signed by Swedish and Russian plenipotentiaries on September 17, 1809. Sweden formally renounced its rights over Finland and the duchy became part of Russia. Today Finland is a country with three languages. Russian is the channel of official activity. Finnish, through a literary revival, has won its right to be the language of the land and this is a symbol of the Finns’ desire for independent national existence. Swedish remains as the age-old medium through which Christianity and western culture were conveyed. It is also to a large extent the business language of the province, especially for communication with western Europe. Competition between the three languages is carried on with unabating energy. The struggle is an outward manifestation of the fight for independence waged by the natives of Finland in the presence of Swedish and Russian efforts to dominate the country. The common danger from Russia has lately drawn the Swedish and Finnish groups together, although the Finns were previously strongly anti-Swedish. The old antagonism still lingers in society life. The Swedish-speaking element rarely mixes with the Finnish-speaking. This is particularly noticeable at Helsingfors, where each language represents a distinct stratum of social life. In Russia’s Baltic provinces two of the world’s oldest yet absolutely distinct languages are spoken. South of the Gulf of Finland the Esthonians or Chuds still retain a primitive form of Mongolian. In the neighboring Letto-Lithuanian group, on the other hand, a speech which is closely akin to the old Aryan is employed. Almost any Lithuanian peasant can understand simple phrases in Sanskrit. The survival of archaic languages in this section of Europe is the result of isolation provided by a forested and marshy country in which folk- characteristics maintained their ancient forms. From the racial standpoint Esthonians, Letts and Lithuanians are fair, generally tall, narrow-faced and long-headed. In the Fellin district, in southern Estland, a very pure Nordic type is found among peoples of Esthonian speech.
- 25. Early Russian chronicles describe the Letts and Lithuanians as divided into several tribes.[87] The Yatvags were scattered along the banks of the Narev. The Lithuanians proper together with the Shmuds peopled the Niemen valley. Very little dialectical differences exist between the two. The Shmuds cluster now in northwestern Kovno without, however, attaining the Baltic shore. The left bank of the Drina was occupied by the Semigals, while on the right dwelt the Letgols who were the ancestors in direct line of the Letts of southern Livonia. The Kors, who lived on the western shores of the Gulf of Riga, were later to impose their name on the province of Kurland. [88] Two of these tribes, the Shmuds and the Lithuanians, escaped the Teutonic conquest through the inaccessibility of their forested and marshy retreat. Around them the Kors and the Letts, as well as the primitive Slav occupants of Prussia, had been subjugated by the Knights of the Teutonic Order. The only salvation for these tribes from Teutonic oppression consisted in their seeking the natural shelter occupied by the two more fortunate groups of their kinsmen. Behind this natural barrier Lithuanian nationality was born in the middle of the thirteenth century under the leadership of Mindvog, an energetic chieftain who insured his own supremacy by causing the leaders of rival clans to be put to death. With the help of the Poles the Lithuanians eventually checked the easterly expansion of the Teutons. The region occupied by Lithuanians in former times can be traced today by the distribution of the type of dwelling peculiar to this people. The ancient area exceeds the borders of the present linguistic zone. The earliest examples of Lithuanian houses consist of a single room. The indoor life of a single family was spent within this one apartment. This primitive habitation grew into the modern style by the successive addition of rooms. In course of time a kitchen or a stable was added to the main building. Sometimes the old type of house stands to this day adjoining more modern buildings. In such cases it is used as a barn.
- 26. The old Aryan of the Lithuanians is in vogue principally along the Duna and Niemen rivers as well as around Vilna, where this people are settled in compact masses. In spite of the antiquity of their language, no texts prior to the sixteenth century are known. Emigration in the past decade to large Russian cities, and to America, has decreased their ranks appreciably. Their number is now estimated at 3,500,000.[89] In his native land, the Lithuanian is not on the best of terms with neighboring peoples. He looks upon the Russian as his political oppressor and upon the Pole as his hereditary foe. The Lett is regarded with somewhat less animosity as a rival. The Letts spread inland from the shores of the Gulf of Riga and number about 1,300,000. Owing to Polish influences, many Lithuanians are Catholics, but, in the main, both Letts and Lithuanians are stanch Lutherans.[90] Their land is the home of religious free thought within orthodox Russia. German influence prevails among them on this account, although it is doubtful whether it extends to the point of their preferring German to Russian rule. Evil memories of the attempts of the Teutonic Knights to conquer the immemorial seat of the Lettish and Lithuanian populations survive throughout their forests and marshes. Neither people has forgotten that its ancestors were refugees who sought the shelter of their boglands as a last recourse from Teutonic aggression. Prior to 1876, the Baltic provinces were ruled by a semi- autonomous administration headed by a governor-general whose rôle was more properly that of a viceroy. German was as much an official language as Russian and no restrictions prevented its use in courts. German schools and a German university were widely attended. Since that date, however, the Letto-Lithuanian populations have been deprived of the liberal régime they formerly enjoyed and an official “Russification” has been directed against them. Most of the Lutheran schools were closed by order of the government and the teaching of German in schools restricted or prohibited. But to this day the three Baltic provinces of Kurland, Livland and Estland are considered by German writers as a domain of German culture
- 27. and Protestant faith controlled by Russian political and ecclesiastical power. In the province of Kurland the Germans boast 51,000 resident kinsmen. As a rule this section of the population is confined to the cities. Riga, Reval, Libau, Dorpat and Mitau contain notable percentages of Germans among their citizens. The first-named city counts 65,332 of these westerners in its population, or over 25 per cent of the total.[91] The Letts have settled mainly in the Kurland peninsula and southern Livonia. They are also found in the governments of Kovno, Petrograd and Mohilev. Lithuanians occupy the governments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and Grodno. No definite boundaries between the two peoples can be determined because their intercourse is constant. The only difference between the two languages is found in the greater departure of Lettic from the old Vedic forms. North of the Letto-Lithuanian group the Esthonians, who are Finns and speak a Finnish language, occupy a lake-covered area similar to Finland. In both a granite tableland is the scene of human activity. In spite of the drawbacks of their natural environment the Esthonians depend chiefly on agriculture for sustenance. This industry has attained a high stage of perfection in their hands and few peoples know how to make their soil yield a higher return than do these virile northerners. The number of Esthonians is estimated at about one million,[92] distributed as follows: Esthonia, 365,959; Livonia, 518,594; Government of St. Petersburg, 64,116; Government of Pskov, 25,458; other parts of Russia, 12,855. Large colonies of Russians, Germans and Swedes are settled in the Esthonian province. The census of 1897 showed Russians, 18,000; Germans, 16,000; Swedes, 5,800. The number of Jews settled in the province is not high. The German and Russian elements compose the nobility. The former owned and farmed 52 per cent of the land in 1878. Since that time,
- 28. however, facilities have been accorded to the peasants of the province, mostly Esthonians, to purchase farms and the proportion of native land holdings is gradually increasing. Confusion of racial minglings complicates the problem of assigning fixed ethnic place to the Esthonians. That they belong to the Finnish family is unquestionable. Linguistically they belong to the Turkish- speaking peoples. Long-headedness prevails among them.[93] These are also the characteristics of the Livs or Livonians, a Finnish tribe formerly living in Esthonia and north Livonia, now nearly extinct, but still holding a narrow strip of forest land along the Baltic at the northern extremity of Kurland. These Livs are now classed with the Baltic Finns and probably number less than 2,000 individuals. Their language has been almost entirely replaced by a Lettish dialect. The beginning of their history finds the Esthonians pirates of the Baltic. Danish kings found it hard to subdue them and after two centuries of struggle sold the Danish crown’s rights to the Knights of the Sword in 1346. From this time on German influence was to become paramount in the province. The condition of Esthonians in relation to their Teutonic masters was that of serfs. By the terms of the treaty of Nystad in 1721 Esthonia was ceded to Peter the Great by the Swedes, who then exercised control of the land. Since then it has remained a Russian province. Lutheranism, the religion of its people, however, has been the foundation of much sympathy for German institutions throughout the province. To combat this feeling, as well as to eradicate national aspirations, Russian authorities have resorted to those harsh and repressive measures which both church and government have often enforced throughout the Czar’s country. The Esthonians are noted for their practical turn of mind. A favorite pastime among them consists of conversing in verse. They cling tenaciously to their language, the study of which is actively maintained throughout the land. Two main dialects are in use. A northern form, known as the Reval Esthonian, is recognized as the literary language. Writers have succeeded in maintaining its perfection and beauty. Through their efforts literature that instills
- 29. vigor into the national consciousness has sprung into being around the legends and folk-tales of the region. With the exception of the Finns all the peoples of northwestern Russia are being gradually absorbed by the Slavic mass. The Slav’s ability to fuse with alien peoples is a conspicuous historical fact. In the Baltic provinces he seldom holds aloof as does his German rival. A growing spirit of liberalism in Russia, and the gradual loss of influence of the German nobility, ever ready to stir the opposition of Baltic peoples against Russian institutions, are two factors which have promoted the consolidation of Russian power in its northwesternmost territory. The Slav’s achievement in Baltic regions, during the past three centuries, has consisted in steadily replacing the Teutonic stratum by a layer of his own kinsmen. Swedes and Germans have either fallen back or become lost in the midst of Slavic populations. The movement can hardly be called a migration, but it is a westerly expansion of most persistent and irresistible character although never aggressively manifested. As a consequence Russia’s northwestern boundary with a reconstituted Poland may be foreseen.
- 30. TABLE I Population by Governments in Finland According to Language, 1910[94] Finnish Per cent Swedish Per cent Others Per cent Nylands 212,315 85.1 149,173 11.1 1,391 3.8 Åbo o. Björneborgs 413,360 66.4 63,503 33.1 240 0.5 Tavastehus 330,190 86.6 4,356 13.0 119 0.4 Viborgs 479,120 69.7 7,872 15.9 7,116 14.4 St. Michels 191,137 96.0 670 3.5 93 0.5 Kuopio 324,553 97.4 664 2.0 191 0.6 Vasa 327,828 46.4 111,094 53.0 262 0.6 Uleaborgs 292,642 88.8 1,629 5.5 1,679 5.7 TABLE II Finland: Population According to Language, 1865-1910 1865 Per cent 1880 Per cent 1890 Per cent Finnish 1,580,000 57.2 1,756,381 52.9 2,048,545 60.7 Swedish 256,000 38.9 294,876 43.2 322,604 35.6 Russian 4,000 2.2 4,195 2.0 5,795 2.4 German 1,200 0.6 1,720 0.8 1,674 0.7 Others 2,045 1.1 2,263 1.1 1,522 0.6 1900 Per cent 1910 Per cent Finnish 2,352,990 67.5 2,571,145 80.2 Swedish 349,733 28.9 338,961 16.0 Russian 5,939 2.2 7,339 2.5 German 1,925 0.7 1,794 0.6 Others 1,975 0.7 1,958 0.7
- 31. TABLE III Finland: Distribution of Population by Language and by Religion, December 31, 1910[95] Linguistic group Lutheran Methodist Baptist Greek Catholic Roman Catholic Total Finnish 2,531,014 198 1,086 38,749 98 2,571,145 Swedish 335,496 362 2,780 251 72 338,961 Russian 67 2 — 7,156 114 7,339 German 1,758 1 — 10 25 1,794 Lapps 1,660 — — — — 1,660 Others 184 1 — — 113 298 ———— —– —— ——– —– ———— Total 2,870,179 564 3,866 46,166 422 2,921,197 TABLE IV Finland: Relative Distribution by Languages of the Urban and Rural Population of the Governments of Nyland, Åbo and Björneborg, and of Vasa, in Percentages [96] Urban Rural Finnish Swedish Others Finnish Swedish Others Nylands 1880 315.7 608.2 76.1 532.8 466.6 0.6 1890 436.2 536.2 27.1 545.1 454.0 0.9 1900 489.7 488.2 22.1 570.9 428.7 0.4 1910 579.7 411.8 8.5 589.1 410.6 0.3 Åbo and Björneborg 1880 670.4 303.0 26.6 847.6 152.3 0.1 1890 700.0 292.8 7.2 855.7 144.2 0.1 1900 757.8 239.5 2.7 864.4 135.5 0.1 1910 792.8 204.4 2.8 880.2 119.7 0.1 Vasa 1880 195.7 800.5 3.8 695.3 304.7 [0.02] 1890 269.6 725.4 5.0 720.3 279.6 0.1
- 32. 1900 359.6 637.9 2.5 738.8 261.1 0.1 1910 482.4 512.5 5.1 770.9 228.9 0.2
- 33. FOOTNOTES: [72] A substantial account of the tribes speaking these three languages was given as early as 731 by the Venerable Bede in his Historia Ecclesiastica. [73] [Translation.] “Art. V. His Majesty the Emperor of Austria transfers to His Majesty the King of Prussia all the rights which he acquired by the Vienna Treaty of Peace of 30th October, 1864, over the Duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, with the condition that the populations of the Northern Districts of Schleswig shall be ceded to Denmark if, by a free vote, they express a wish to be united to Denmark.” E. Herstlet: The Map of Europe by Treaty, London, 1875, Vol. 3, p. 1722. [74] A later treaty signed by Austria and Prussia at Vienna on Oct. 11, 1878, suppressed the referendum clause, which had never been viewed with favor by the German government. [75] M. R. Waultrin: Le rapprochement dano-allemand et la question du Schleswig, Ann. Sci. Polit., May 15, and July 15, 1903. [76] L. Gasselin: La question du Schleswig-Holstein, Paris, 1909. [77] L. Gasselin: op. cit., p. 206. [78] Scandinavia and the Scandinavians, New York, 1915, p. 30. [79] Op. cit., p. 143. [80] Op. cit., p. 147. [81] Op. cit., p. 148. [82] Op. cit., p. 150. [83] A. Rambaud: Histoire de la Russie, Paris, 1914, p. 21. [84] Atlas de Finlande, Carte 46, Helsingfors, 1911. [85] K. B. Wiklund: Språken i Finland, 1880-1900, Ymer, 1905, No. 2, pp. 132-149. [86] R. Saxen: Répartition des langues, Fennia, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1910-1911, Helsingfors, 1911. [87] A. Rambaud: Histoire de la Russie depuis les origines jusqu’à nos jours, Paris, 1914, p. 21.
- 34. [88] Rambaud: op. cit. [89] The Russian census of 1897 showed 3,094,469. [90] About 50,000 Letts belong to the Greek Church. [91] H. Rosen: Die ethnographische Verhältnisse in den baltischen Provinzen und in Litauen, Pet. Mitt., Sept. 1915, pp. 329-333. [92] Russian census of 1897. [93] W. Z. Ripley: The Races of Europe, New York, 1899. [94] Statisko Årsbok för Finland 1914, Helsingfors, 1915, pp. 45- 46. [95] Bidrag till Finlands Officiella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik, 45, Finlands Folkmängd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt Församlingarnas Kyrkoböcker), Helsingfors, 1915, p. 127. [96] Bidrag till Finlands Officiella Statistik, VI, Befolkningsstatistik, 45, Finlands Folkmängd den 31 December, 1910 (enligt Församlingarnas Krykoböcker), Helsingfors, 1915, pp. 124-125.