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1
Chapter 2--Traditional and Contemporary Issues and Challenges
Student:
1. Theory is abstract and of no practical use in today's environment.
True False
2. Theory and history are important only to top managers today.
True False
3. History is simply a conceptual framework for organizing knowledge and providing a blueprint for
action.
True False
4. Understanding the historical context of management provides a sense of heritage and can help managers
avoid the mistakes of others.
True False
5. Classical management consists of two distinct branches: behavioral management and human resource
movement.
True False
6. Companies (such as Coca-Cola, Ford, and GE) maintain significant libraries on their corporate histories
that show a sense of heritage and pride.
True False
7. Iron Mountain's use of time and motion studies to improve its workers' output is an example of the use of
management techniques derived from behavioral management.
True False
8. Scientific management is conceptual and easily adapted to top-level management.
True False
9. Administrative management focuses on the jobs of individual office assistants.
True False

2
10. Janice is very concerned with worker morale, and she frequently surveys employees to determine their
level of job satisfaction. She feels that people really want to work, to take more responsibility, and to
make a contribution. Her approach reflects application of Theory Y.
True False
11. According to Barnard's theory about managerial authority, managers ultimately get their authority from
the title for their position.
True False
12. The Hawthorne studies showed that piece-rate pay was an effective way of increasing work output.
True False
13. The fundamental premise of administrative management is that the social aspects of the workplace are
more important to increasing worker productivity than economic incentives.
True False
14. According to McGregor, Theory Y managers engage in optimistic managerial thinking.
True False
15. When compared to management science, operations management is focused more on applications.
True False
16. Scientific management focuses specifically on the development of scientific models.
True False
17. In its current stage of development, quantitative management is able to accurately model even such
complex processes as human behavior.
True False
18. A closed system actively interacts with its environment.
True False
19. Open systems thinking tends to develop synergy in organizations.
True False
20. Google bought Motorola in the belief that the two companies would enhance each other's performance.
Google apparently expected some entropy from the purchase.
True False

3
21. The approaches to management that try to find the one best way to solve a management problem are
called contingency approaches.
True False
22. According to contingency theory, management is more art than science.
True False
23. Enhancing quality lowers costs.
True False
24. To succeed, managers must monitor their environment and change to keep pace with it.
True False
25. Improving quality tends to decrease productivity.
True False
26. Transportation is an example of a service industry.
True False
27. Which of the following statements relative to the theory and practice of management is TRUE?
A. Academic theories have little application in business because they are not grounded in reality.
B. The value of theory is that it provides a systematic framework for management activities.
C. Theory is, by definition, very abstract and quite difficult to understand.
D. Managers never develop their own theories of how to run an organization.
E. Management theories tend to be mutually exclusive.
28. Which of the following statements most correctly describes the early practice of management?
A. The practice of management dates back about 100 years.
B. Early economists were concerned with managerial efficiency and effectiveness.
C. By 1900, most organizations were large.
D. Survival was not an issue in most organizations before 1900.
E. The scientific study of management as a field of inquiry dates back to the nineteenth century.
29. Which of the following historical books did not influence management?
A. The Second World War
B. Iliad
C. The Prince
D. Republic
E. Pride and Prejudice

4
30. Robert Owen (1771-1858), a British industrialist, recognized the importance of the human aspect of
production. Owen believed workers deserved all EXCEPT which of the following?
A. Respect and dignity
B. Paid time off
C. Good working conditions
D. Decent pay
E. Reduced hours
31. Charles Babbage emphasized the application of mathematics to production problems. Thus, his work
was a forerunner of
A. administrative management.
B. the contingency theory.
C. the behavioral school of management thought.
D. operations management.
E. the systems theory.
32. management focuses on the work of individuals.
A. Administrative
B. Behavioral
C. Human relations
D. Scientific
E. Contingency
33. Scientific management evolved at the dawn of the twentieth century because
A. labor was in abundant supply.
B. worker efficiency was low.
C. capital was in short supply.
D. information was rapidly changing.
E. piecework pay systems were not working.
34. When Subway employees make a pulled pork sandwich they spread the pork from premeasured
cardboard containers. This improves speed and consistency. Subway is applying the principles of
A. scientific management.
B. organizational behavior.
C. management science.
D. contingency theory.
E. administrative management.

5
35. At Toyota, each task that operating employees and machines perform is carefully studied to promote
maximum productivity. In some cases, tasks are studied using time and motion studies to standardize
work methods. What management approach is Toyota using?
A. Human relations management
B. Scientific management
C. Management science
D. Contingency theory
E. Administrative management
36. One of the most common complaints that visitors to emergency rooms have is the long wait, yet they see
staff sitting, doing nothing. Which of the following management approaches can hospitals use to focus
on improving efficiency?
A. The classical perspective
C. Management science
D. Contingency theory
E. Administrative management
37. Rolf is in the business of making crowns, bridges, and dentures that dentists use to repair teeth. It is a
highly competitive business, and Rolf has decided that to improve his business he needs to improve the
efficiency with which he produces the dental work. Which of the following management approaches
would be of most help to Rolf in pursuing this goal?
A. Management science
B. Contingency theory
C. Administrative management
D. The bureaucratic perspective
E. Scientific management
38. Plummer Construction has three employees. Bob the owner does design, ordering, and customer
interface. Paul and Bobby do demolition and construction with Paul specializing in the detailed trim
work and Bobby responsible for clean up. With which of the following management approaches do their
actions most agree?
B. Contingency theory

6
39. Who among the following was NOT associated with scientific management?
A. Mary Parker Follett
B. Lillian Gilbreth
C. Henry Gantt
D. Frederick Taylor
E. Harrington Emerson
40. A manager who wants to use the principles of scientific management will
A. emphasize time and motion studies.
B. need a deep understanding of worker needs and feelings.
C. not be required to closely supervise his or her subordinates.
D. never actually increase worker productivity.
E. not have to carefully select and train his or her employees.
41. Life guards at Water Works pool also teach swim lessons. If they need to miss a lesson they do not get
paid, instead the substitute instructor gets the money. This is a form of
A. increased efficiency.
B. a piecework pay system.
C. soldiering.
D. Theory X.
E. Theory Y.
42. The use of a Gantt chart to schedule workers' duties, breaks, and lunches at a day-care center is an
application of one of the principles associated with
A. the classical perspective.
B. scientific management.
D. the contingency theory.
E. administrative management.
43. Which of the following is NOT a technique Frederick Taylor used to enhance worker productivity?
A. Study and time each element of the job.
B. Design the most efficient way of doing each part of a job.
C. Place both workers and managers on salary to reduce friction.
D. Supervise workers and managers to make sure they follow procedures and rest only when told to.
E. Allow managers to plan the work to be done.

7
44. The plant manager for an electronics manufacturer is often heard saying that the way to motivate
workers is to provide them with attractive wage and benefit packages. What school of thought does his
view reflect?
A. Quantitative
B. Behavioral
C. Classical
D. Contingency
E. Systems
45. Chester Barnard, former president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, made notable contributions
to management regarding
A. individual job efficiency.
B. legitimate authority.
C. management processes.
D. dynamic organizations.
E. individual rights and liberties.
46. Paul and Bobby want to start a construction company. After being in business a few months, Paul and
Bob guess that the most efficient way to demolition walls is for Paul to break them up and tear them off
and for Bobby to haul away the debris. Which of the following management theorists would be most
helpful to these entrepreneurs?
A. Henry Gantt
B. Frederick Taylor
C. Frank Gilbreth
D. Harrington Emerson
E. Max Weber
47. Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, was the first to identify all EXCEPT which of the following
managerial functions?
A. Planning
B. Organizing
C. Leading
D. Supporting
E. Controlling
48. Which of these management pioneers developed a chart for scheduling work over a span of time?
A. Lillian Gilbreth
B. Frederick Taylor
C. Harrington Emerson
D. Henry Gantt
E. Max Weber

8
49. A Gantt chart is a
A. listing of the steps required to complete a job.
B. method for developing employee wage systems.
C. device used in doing time and motion studies.
D. checklist used in equipment maintenance.
E. means of scheduling individual work or whole projects.
50. focuses on the management of the entire firm as opposed to the jobs of individual workers.
B. The contingency theory
51. All of the following were primary contributors to administrative management EXCEPT
A. Max Weber.
B. Henri Fayol.
C. Lyndall Urwick.
D. Hugo Munsterberg.
E. Chester Barnard.
52. Contributions of the classical perspective include all of the following EXCEPT
A. laid the foundation for later developments in management theory.
B. appropriate for dynamic organizations.
C. identified important management processes and functions.
D. identified important management skills.
E. focused attention on management as a valid subject of scientific inquiry.
53. Limitations of the classical perspective include all of the following EXCEPT
A. more appropriate for stable organizations.
B. more appropriate for simple organizations.
C. more appropriate for dynamic organizations.
D. often prescribed universal procedures that are not appropriate in some settings.
E. even though some writers were concerned with the human element, many viewed employees as tools
rather than resources.
54. Contemporary organization theory has its roots in
A. Weber's work on bureaucracy.
B. Fayol's 14 principles of management.
C. Barnard's work on acceptance of authority.
D. Taylor's work on job design.
E. Gilbreth's work in time and motion studies.

9
55. Barnard's theory on the acceptance of managerial authority states that
A. supervisors have inherent authority.
B. supervisors have charismatic authority.
C. if subordinates view a supervisor's directive as appropriate to organizational goals, they will accept
his or her authority.
D. so long as subordinates are able to comply with a supervisor's directives, they will accept his or her
authority.
E. supervisors have no authority unless subordinates are willing to grant it to them.
56. A law firm actually billed the mother of an employee who died almost $20,000 for work that was
required to settle the son's pending cases. The organization considers itself to be more important than the
individual. This example deals with one of the drawbacks to the use of the perspective of
management.
A. human resource
B. behavioral
C. classical
D. contingency
E. industrial psychology
57. Which of the following statements about the classical perspective of management is FALSE?
A. The classical perspective of management laid the foundation for later management theory
developments.
B. The classical perspective of management identified the key management processes.
C. The classical perspective of management prescribed action unique to each situation.
D. The classical perspective of management focused attention on management as a viable topic of
scientific inquiry.
E. The classical perspective of management identified important management functions and skills.
58. Industrial psychology is the practice of applying
A. psychology in the industrial revolution.
B. psychology to worker motivation and selection.
C. efficiency measures to psychological output.
D. statistical measures to psychological output.
E. industrial advancements to medical research.
59. Elton Mayo conducted experiments at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant from 1927-1932. He
discovered that
A. piece rate pay improved production.
B. unions limit employee initiative.
C. rate busters don't make their quota.
D. social pressure was more important than financial incentive.
E. chiselers assisted low producers.

10
60. Which of the following statements characterizes the thinking that emerged from the Hawthorne studies?
A. If jobs are properly designed and proper incentives provided, predictable results will follow.
B. Workers will perform their jobs as they are told to and will maximize their output so as to increase
their pay.
C. Concern for the worker will lead to greater worker satisfaction, which will then lead to increased
output.
D. Workers generally dislike work and need to be closely supervised to ensure adequate productivity.
E. People are motivated primarily by money.
61. Which of the following statements about the Hawthorne studies is FALSE?
A. The Hawthorne studies initiated work in the human relations movement.
B. The Hawthorne studies indicated the need to consider the social aspects of the organization.
C. The Hawthorne studies showed that group norms exert a powerful influence on the members of a
group.
D. The Hawthorne studies confirmed that incentive pay plans are an effective means of increasing
production.
E. The Hawthorne studies found that money cannot be used as a motivator for workers.
62. All of the following were primary contributors to the behavioral management perspective EXCEPT
A. Hugo Munsterberg
B. Abraham Maslow
C. Elton Mayo
D. Henri Fayol
E. Douglas McGregor
63. Which of the following statements BEST describes the human relations view of management?
A. U.S. productivity exceeds that of any other country.
B. Highly paid workers will be more productive.
C. Groups are NOT as productive as the same number of individuals working independently.
D. Happy workers are productive workers.
E. Minorities and women are equally productive to white males.
64. When Pregna was a student she liked school, worked hard, and experienced success. As a high school
teacher she assumed her students would feel the same way. A student observed that Pregna acted like a
Theory Y manager. That would mean that Pregna
A. believes that people do not like to work.
B. is constantly directing a student that wants to avoid taking responsibility.
C. will often threaten her students to get them to work toward school goals.
D. believes that people naturally like work.
E. all of these choices depending on the situation.

11
65. Howard Weaver manages MacLean Insurance Agency. An employee observed that Weaver acted like a
Theory X manager. That would mean that Weaver believes
A. that people prefer to be directed.
B. in the contingency approach to management.
C. in the importance of TQM.
D. that people are committed to goals.
E. that people naturally seek out work.
66. Nipurna is a high school guidance counselor. Nipurna is well liked by the staff and students whom she
supervises. She recognizes that they have excellent problem-solving skills and are committed to
excellence. She lets the people she supervises assume as much responsibility as they are capable of
handling. It would appear that she
A. takes a Theory Z approach to management.
B. uses ideas from scientific management.
C. believes in McGregor's approach to managing people.
D. uses the qualitative perspective of management.
E. is applying principles from management science.
67. Theory X managers believe workers are
A. happy.
B. lucky.
C. lazy.
D. needy.
E. committed.
68. Topics in the field of organizational behavior include all EXCEPT which of the following?
A. Job satisfaction
B. Stress
C. Leadership
D. Organizational politics
E. Operations
69. Dr. White is one of two emergency room physicians in charge of the staff. As a supervisor, she believes
that her subordinates are valuable resources and focuses her attention on the interpersonal processes such
as group dynamics that occur in the emergency room. Her views are consistent with the
management perspective.
A. quantitative
B. behavioral
C. classical
D. contingency
E. systems

12
70. Contributions of the behavioral management perspective include all of the following EXCEPT
A. challenged the view that employees are tools
B. furthered the belief that employees are valuable resources.
C. provided important insights into motivation and group dynamics.
D. focused managerial attention on motivation and group dynamic processes.
E. challenged the complexity of individual behavior and made predictions of that behavior.
71. When a manufacturing plant uses mathematical models to plan production schedules and to schedule
equipment maintenance, it is drawing on
B. administrative management.
D. TQM.
E. the contingency approach.
72. The Army uses aircraft simulators to train helicopter pilots, which decreases fuel consumption,
helicopter maintenance, storage requirement, and air traffic control congestion. It also improves safety.
This is an example of
B. administrative management.
C. operations management.
D. behavior perspective.
E. classical perspective.
73. Operations management is concerned with
A. the application of various processes and systems used by an organization.
B. systems created to store and provide information for managerial decision making.
C. the scientific analysis of the work elements of a job.
D. the development of mathematical and statistical tools and techniques for managerial decision making.
E. None of these choices
74. management techniques do not account for individual behaviors and attitudes.
A. Scientific
B. Administrative
C. Systems
D. Human relations
E. Quantitative

13
75. Which school of management thought would be most useful to a restaurant with pizza delivery that
wanted to determine the most efficient routes for each of its drivers to follow?
A. Organizational behavior
D. Management science
E. Systems management
76. What are the two branches of quantitative management?
A. Scientific management and administrative management
B. Theory X and Theory Y
C. Contingency theory and systems theory
D. Human relations and organizational behavior
E. Management science and operations management
77. The Blue Rooster is a bakery. It sells 12 flavors of bread, made fresh daily. Some doughs require time to
rise. If they are handled too soon or too late the texture and flavor is ruined. The importance of
scheduling indicates that The Blue Rooster should adopt the perspective.
A. organizational behavior
B. scientific management
C. administrative management
D. management science
E. systems management
78. Which two managerial functions utilize quantitative management the most?
A. Controlling and organizing
B. Planning and organizing
C. Organizing and leading
D. Controlling and planning
E. Leading and controlling
79. Limitations of the quantitative management perspective include all of the following EXCEPT
A. difficult to apply.
B. cannot fully explain or predict the behavior of people in organizations.
C. mathematical sophistication may come at the expense of other important skills.
D. models may require unrealistic assumptions.
E. models may require unfounded assumptions.

14
80. Which of the following statements describes the inherent strength in the quantitative management
theory?
A. The quantitative management theory provides numerous decision-making tools and techniques.
B. The quantitative management theory has realistic assumptions that permit close approximations of
organizational processes.
C. The quantitative management theory has allowed accurate modeling of individual behaviors and
attitudes.
D. The quantitative management theory enhances development of other management skills.
E. None of these choices
81. help managers integrate and enlarge their understanding of the three principal schools of
management thought.
A. Administrative management and scientific management
B. Systems theory and contingency theory
C. The human relations movement and organizational behavior
D. Management science and operations management
E. Scientific management and bureaucratic management
82. Which of the following is NOT an output?
A. Profit
B. Service
C. Product
D. Complaint form
E. Information
83. According to the systems perspective of management, which of the following is NOT an example of a
transformation process for an organization?
A. Employee behavior
B. Control systems
C. Administrative systems
D. Technology
E. Operating systems
84. After ordering from Amazon, customers are asked to review the product and the seller. This is an
example of which part of the system?
A. Inputs
B. Outputs
C. Feedback
D. Transformation processes
E. Material

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Near the middle of the Tecovas Formation there is a bed of white,
crumbly (friable) sandstone. Averaging about 15 feet in thickness,
this sandstone contains many joints (small crack-like fractures) along
which no appreciable movement has taken place (fig. 8). There are
two distinct sets of these joints which intersect each other at right
angles. The distinctive joint patterns, the color, and the friability of
this sandstone clearly differentiate it from the harder, darker, and
more coarse-grained sandstones of the overlying Trujillo Formation
(p. 22).
The upper part of the Tecovas consists of a layer of orange shale
which overlies the middle sandstone unit and is in contact with the
lower part of the Trujillo Formation.
Fig. 12. Taken from the northwest rim near Coronado Lodge, this
photograph shows the four major rock units exposed in the park: (1) The
Quartermaster Formation which forms the lower wall and canyon floor;

22
(2) Tecovas Formation; (3) Trujillo Formation which caps the mesas; and
(4) Ogallala Formation.
The fossils which have been found in the Tecovas Formation suggest
that these rocks were derived from sediments deposited in swamps
and streams. Unlike the marine deposits of the Quartermaster,
the rocks of the Tecovas were formed from continental deposits
laid down on the land. Fossils found in the canyon include the bones
and teeth of the extinct semi-aquatic reptiles known as phytosaurs
(fig. 13) and bone and skull fragments of a primitive amphibian called
Buettneria (fig. 14). Coprolites (the fossilized excrement of animals),
pieces of petrified wood, and the teeth and bones of lungfish have
also been reported from the Tecovas.

23
Fig. 13. The skull of this crocodile-like creature called a phytosaur is
typical of the reptiles that inhabited the Palo Duro area during the
Triassic Period. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical
Museum.)
A number of minerals including hematite, an iron mineral, and
psilomelane, a barium-magnesium oxide, occur in the Tecovas.
Hematite is an ore of iron and psilomelane a manganese ore, though
neither of these is present in commercial quantities in the canyon.
The Tecovas also contains a number of concretions which range from
a fraction of an inch to as much as 6 inches in diameter. These
spherical masses are generally harder than the fine-grained shaly
sands in which they are found and were thus left behind when the
surrounding rock was eroded away. Some of these concretions are
marked by cracks or veins filled with the mineral calcite. Concretions
bearing this type of structure are called septaria, or septarian
concretions.
Geodes are also found in the Tecovas Formation. These are rounded
concretionary rocks with a hollow interior that is frequently lined with
mineral crystals. Well-formed crystals of clear calcite have been found
in many of the geodes from the Tecovas.
Among park landmarks that are characterized by the multi-hued
Tecovas strata are the middle portion of Triassic Peak (fig. 25), the
upper part of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), Capitol Peak (fig. 32), and
the Devil’s Slide (fig. 35).
Trujillo Formation.—
Named from rock exposures on Trujillo Creek in Oldham
County, Texas, the Trujillo is easy to distinguish from the
underlying Tecovas Formation. The contact is quite distinct and lies
between the top of the orange Tecovas shale and the base of the
massive-bedded, cliff-forming Trujillo sandstone (fig. 25). Although

generally fine grained and thickly bedded, there are local
concentrations of pebble-sized rock fragments in the Trujillo. The
weathered surface of the lower sandstone is stained red or dark
brown by iron oxides. However, a fresh, unweathered surface is
typically gray or greenish gray in color, and careful examination of the
unweathered rock reveals the presence of tiny flakes of mica.
The basal Trujillo sandstone is one of the most conspicuous rock units
in the canyon and forms many of the prominent benches and mesas
so typical of the Palo Duro landscape. In places the sandstone is
cross-bedded (p. 20) and contains channel deposits of coarse sand
which suggest that the sediments from which it was derived were
deposited in ancient stream beds.
Red, maroon, and gray shales overlie the basal sandstone member of
the Trujillo, and these shales are overlain by cross-bedded, coarse-
grained sandstone. Another interval of varicolored shales separates
the middle sandstone bed from the upper sandstone member. The
middle sandstone unit is a conspicuous ledge- or cliff-forming rock
and is medium to coarse grained and commonly cross-bedded. In
most localities, the upper sandstone is overlain by a section of red
and green shales which mark the uppermost limits of the Trujillo
Formation. In places, however, this shale section has been removed
by erosion and rocks of Tertiary age directly overlie the sandstone.
Although fossils are not common, the remains of Buettneria (fig. 14),
leaf imprints, pieces of mineralized wood, and the scattered teeth and
bone fragments of reptiles and amphibians have been found.
Phytosaur remains, especially teeth, have also been collected from
the Trujillo sandstones.
The Indians who formerly inhabited the Palo Duro area (p. 3) put the
rocks of the canyon to a number of uses. This appears to be
especially true of the rather coarse-grained Trujillo sandstones, which
were commonly used for constructing primitive rock shelters. The
abrasive surface of the sandstone was especially well suited for
grinding grain, and mortar holes have been found in a number of

24
places. One of these (fig. 15) can be seen along the tracks of the Sad
Monkey Railroad (p. 35) near the foot of Triassic Peak. The Indians
also used the clays of the Quartermaster, Tecovas, and Trujillo
Formations to make pottery, and iron and copper minerals such as
hematite and malachite were used to make red and green pigments
for decoration and war paint.
The Trujillo shales and sandstones can be seen in a number of Palo
Duro’s more spectacular geological oddities. These erosional
remnants are best developed where blocks of erosion-resistant
sandstone protect underlying pedestals of softer shale (fig. 15). This
type of differential weathering (p. 31) has produced a number of
interesting and unusually shaped pedestal rocks or “hoodoos” (figs.
16 and 20). The most spectacular erosional remnant—and one that
has come to be the “trademark” of Palo Duro Canyon—is the
Lighthouse (fig. 31). The great jumble of boulders called the Rock
Garden (fig. 34) is also composed largely of massive blocks of
dislodged Trujillo sandstone. These boulders accumulated on the
canyon floor as a result of landslides. In addition, the rock profile
known as Santana’s Face (fig. 28) is a naturally sculptured profile in
the Trujillo sandstone that forms the cap of Timber Mesa.
Ogallala Formation.—
The Ogallala Formation is named from exposures around Ogallala in
Keith County, Nebraska. There is a major unconformity between the
Trujillo Formation of the Triassic and the overlying Ogallala Formation
of Pliocene (Late Tertiary) age. Missing here is the geologic evidence
for what may have been some of the more exciting chapters in the
canyon’s history. There is no record, for example, of the Jurassic and
Cretaceous Periods which together encompass almost 120
million years of earth history. Also missing is any evidence of
what transpired during more than 90 percent of the Tertiary Period,
for no rocks of Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, or Miocene age are
exposed in the canyon. Together these four epochs comprise
approximately 47 million years of earth history. It is impossible, of

course, to determine how many geologic formations may have been
formed and later eroded during the 167 million years represented by
this unconformity. However, our knowledge of present-day deposition
and erosion suggests that the missing geologic record undoubtedly
represents many thousands of feet of rock.
Fig. 14. The skeleton of Buettneria, a large amphibian, found in Upper
Triassic strata in the canyon. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains
Historical Museum.)
The lower portion of the Ogallala Formation is composed of a
reddish-brown, fine- to medium-grained sandstone that contrasts
sharply with the underlying red and green shales that are exposed in
the top of the Trujillo Formation. Much of this sandy rock is

25
characterized by pebbles consisting of a variety of igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Because it consists of rock and
mineral fragments of varied composition and size, this kind of
sedimentary rock is called a conglomerate. The type of rock
fragments found in basal Ogallala conglomerates suggests that they
were transported to the Panhandle-Plains area by streams flowing
southeastward from the Rocky Mountains. As these streams
deposited their loads, they left behind a wide spread blanket of sand,
gravel, and mud which formed an extensive alluvial plain that
extended from western Nebraska to northwest Texas. Although it is
less than 100 feet thick in Palo Duro Canyon, in places this great
mantle of fluvial (stream-deposited) sediments is as much as 900 feet
thick.
Fig. 15. The depression in this boulder is a mortar hole believed to have
been used by the Indians for grinding corn.

26
Fig. 16. This pedestal rock, located near the Lighthouse, is capped by a
slab of weather-resistant Trujillo sandstone.
Most of the Ogallala Formation consists of a mixture of diverse
rock types such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, clay and
marl. But the upper part of the formation is characterized by thick
caliche deposits. A dull, earthy calcite deposit, caliche typically forms
in areas of scant rainfall. It is believed to originate when ground
moisture, containing dissolved calcium bicarbonate, moves to the
surface where the moisture steadily evaporates leaving a calcium
carbonate crust on or near the surface (fig. 17).
Caliche, which derives its name from the Latin calix, meaning “lime,”
may be firm and compact or loose and powdery. It is also commonly
found mixed with other materials such as clay, sand, or gravel.
Caliche commonly occurs in the Trans-Pecos, southwestern Gulf
Coastal Plain, and the High Plains area of Texas (see fig. 5, p. 8). In

the latter area it typically makes up the “caprock.” Caliche is
commonly quarried in these parts of Texas where it is used as road
material and as an aggregate.
Good exposures of Ogallala caliche can be seen on the surface
around the overlook at Coronado Lodge on the northwest rim of the
canyon (fig. 17). Ogallala strata also crop out along the upper
reaches of Park Road 5 as it starts to descend into the canyon. But
probably the most spectacular exposures of the Ogallala are exposed
in the precipitous face of the Fortress Cliff (fig. 33) which forms part
of the eastern rim of the canyon.
Also located within the Ogallala Formation is a very important aquifer
—a porous, water-bearing rock formation. This fine-to coarse-grained
sandstone is very porous and permeable and is the most important
single water-producing formation in the Panhandle-Plains area.

27
Fig. 17. The white surface in the right foreground consists of caliche (p.
26) in the Ogallala Formation. Coronado Lodge can be seen in the right
background.
Opal and chert are locally abundant in the Ogallala conglomerates.
The opal, which is found in small cavities in the conglomerate is not
of the gem variety but it does fluoresce. Minerals that exhibit
fluorescence emit visible colors when exposed to ultraviolet light. For
this reason, the Ogallala opal is sought after by rock and
mineral collectors. The chert, a flint-like variety of quartz,
occurs as nodules in the conglomerate and in a well-developed layer
near the base of the formation. Both of these siliceous (silica-
bearing) rocks were apparently prized by the Indians, who used them
to fashion knives, scrapers, projectile points, and other artifacts. The
Indians also learned that flat slabs of caliche were ideal for lining
fireplaces and to construct primitive rock shelters.
A number of Pliocene vertebrates have been found in the Palo Duro
area. Known as the “Age of Mammals,” the Tertiary Period was
characterized by mammals as diverse as were the reptiles of the
Mesozoic Era. Among these unusual creatures were such now-extinct
species as the saber-tooth cat and the elephant-like shovel-jawed
mastodon (fig. 18). The remains of these as well as bones of giraffe-
like camels, pony-sized horses, and sloths have been found in the
vicinity of the canyon. The grassy plains of Pliocene time were also
inhabited by large tortoises which reached lengths of up to 3 feet
(fig. 19). Dioramas showing how these animals might have looked, as
well as their actual remains, are on display in the Hall of Pre-History
in the lower floor of the Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum in
Canyon, 13 miles west of the park (p. 35).

Fig. 18. This life-size model of a shovel-jawed mastodon is typical of the
now-extinct, elephant-like creatures that lived in this area during the
Pliocene Epoch. (Photograph courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical
Museum.)
Fig. 19. The carapaces of giant tortoises as much as 3 feet long have been
collected from Pliocene rocks in the Palo Duro area. (Photograph
courtesy Panhandle-Plains Historical Museum.)

28
29
Rocks of the Pleistocene.—
The youngest rocks in Palo Duro Canyon State Park were formed
during the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the
Cenozoic Era (see geologic time scale, p. 11). Pleistocene rocks are
rather widespread in much of the Panhandle-Plains area and they are
mostly composed of sediments which were deposited in stream
valleys, in lakes or ponds, or by the wind. Most of the Pleistocene
strata in the park area consist of loose deposits of silt and sand which
were deposited by wind action. Known locally as “blow sand,” this
reddish-brown, silty sand overlies the Ogallala caliche at most points
along the canyon’s rim.

HOW THE CANYON WAS CARVED
The visitor seeing Palo Duro Canyon for the first time may find it
difficult to believe that this yawning chasm began as a simple gully.
But to the geomorphologist—the geologist who studies the origin and
development of landscapes—Palo Duro Canyon is but a gully
magnified many times over. This is evident because the shape of the
canyon, the nature of its tributaries, and the character of its walls
indicate that it has been deepened and lengthened by the
downcutting of a stream and widened by other geologic processes.
THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF RUNNING WATER
Palo Duro Canyon is a classic example of a land-form that has been
created by the geologic work of running water. Undoubtedly the most
important single agent of erosion, running water probably does more
to wear away the land than all the other geologic agents combined.
This is not surprising considering the fact that the earth’s annual
precipitation (such as rain and snow) equals about four billion tons of
water. Although the amount of precipitation varies greatly from place
to place, the average annual precipitation on land is about 40 inches
of water. Of this, roughly 25 percent runs off from the land to form
streams.
When one drives through the park and fords the normally gently
flowing waters of the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River he may
well wonder if this unimposing stream actually is the geologic agent
that is responsible for this deep gorge. But the visitor who happens
to be present during a severe rainstorm will soon be convinced, for
during heavy rains this gentle stream becomes a raging torrent. As
the river increases in size it also becomes a more effective land-
shaping tool, for the larger and swifter the stream, the more rock
material it can carry. Thus, when flowing at peak capacity, this branch

30
of the Red River becomes a moving ribbon of sandpaper whose load
of sand, silt, and gravel has cut and scoured the canyon walls and
floor for hundreds of thousands of years. How long has it taken the
river to carve this remarkable chasm? Although there is no way of
knowing for sure, geologic evidence indicates that the canyon has
formed during the last one million years—a relatively short time,
geologically speaking.
The work of the river is made still more effective by water and
sediment which it receives from its tributaries; this added water
substantially increases the volume and velocity of the river. Although
many of the tributary streams are dry throughout much of the year,
they carry large quantities of water during heavy rains. Moreover,
because most of these streams flow over rock surfaces which are not
protected by thick soil or vegetation, their waters are quickly
transported to the master stream. Thus, the volume and velocity of
the Prairie Dog Town Fork of the Red River make it possible—
especially during flood periods—for the river to carry a large load of
rock particles which effectively erodes the stream channel. Where
does this rock debris come from? Most of it is eroded from the sides
and bottom of the river’s channel.
The river carries its load in a number of ways. Material such as salt
and other soluble matter is transported in a dissolved state or in
solution. Still more, for example, silt and fine sand, is carried in
suspension. These sediments are suspended between the surface of
the water and the bottom of the stream channel. Those particles that
will not dissolve in water and are too heavy to be carried in
suspension, constitute the bottom load of the stream. These larger
sediments, such as gravel, cobbles, and boulders, roll, bounce, or
slide along the stream bed.
As flash floods course through Palo Duro Canyon, the river uses its
load to erode further the rocks over which it passes. Each
moving rock fragment literally becomes a cutting tool for
abrasion as the loose rock particles slowly wear away the banks and

bed of the stream. Eventually the abraded rock fragments become
smooth and rounded and the stream channel is gradually worn down
to a lower level; it is also widened.
The river also erodes by hydraulic action as loose rock fragments are
lifted and moved by the force of the stream’s current. This process is
similar to the effect produced when soil is churned up and washed
away when water from a garden hose is sprayed on loose earth. The
effects of hydraulic action have played an important role in widening
the canyon, for recession of the cliffs away from the middle of the
canyons has been caused in part by undercutting. Thus, as the soft
shale and gypsum beds were removed by the stream, the overlying
sandstone formations gradually broke off and fell into the canyon.
Once on the canyon floor, most of the slabs and blocks of sandstone
were eventually broken up and carried away by the streams as sand
and mud. Not all of the boulders have been destroyed in this manner;
in places (for example, the Rock Garden) similar boulders are seen
today (fig. 34).
WEATHERING AND GRAVITY ADD THE FINAL TOUCH
Most of the energy of the river has been expended in downcutting,
for the canyon has apparently been deepened more rapidly than it
has been widened. But as the stream gouged its channel deeper into
the bedrock, an ever-increasing expanse of canyon wall was exposed
to other agents of erosion. Slowly—almost imperceptibly—the walls of
the canyon have been eroded by the processes of weathering and
mass-wasting.
Weathering.—
Wherever rocks are exposed on the earth’s surface, they are attacked
by the agents of weathering. They are dissolved by rainwater, pried
apart by frost and ice, and blasted by windblown sand. Some of the
changes produced by weathering are purely mechanical, that is, the

31
rock is simply reduced to smaller fragments without being broken
down chemically or undergoing any change in its mineral
composition. This mechanical weathering, or disintegration, takes
place in a number of ways. Changes are especially noticeable in rocks
that are subjected to large daily temperature variations. If a crack in
these rocks becomes filled with water and the temperature drops
below freezing, ice forms. When water freezes it expands by about
10 percent of its volume—this is the reason why water pipes often
split open during the winter. Just as in a water pipe, the pressure of
the expanding ice is commonly great enough to widen and deepen
the crack in the rock. This process, called frost wedging, may
ultimately cause the rock to split and fall apart. The cumulative
effects of frost wedging have probably played a significant role in
prying off large blocks of rocks from the walls and rim of the canyon.
Animals and plants may also hasten rock disintegration. Plant roots
commonly grow in rock crevices and as the roots become larger they
wedge the rock apart. Burrowing animals such as rabbits, gophers,
and ground squirrels also promote rock disintegration. Although they
do not attack the rocks directly, their digging exposes new rock
surfaces to weathering processes. The holes these creatures make
also permit water and air to enter the earth more easily, thereby
hastening rock destruction.
Man, of course, promotes more rock disintegration than all other
animals combined. Thus, as one explores the canyon’s trails and
climbs its walls, he will not only see evidence of the various types of
mechanical weathering, he will also be contributing to the further
wearing away of the rocks.
Decomposition, or chemical weathering, works hand in hand with
mechanical weathering. But unlike disintegration, decomposition
produces rock materials that are basically different from the original
unweathered rock. These changes are brought about as the
result of chemical reactions between minerals in the rocks and
water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Although the arid climate and

severe winters of the Panhandle generally facilitate mechanical
weathering, some of the red shales and gypsum deposits show the
effect of oxidation, hydration, and other forms of chemical
weathering (fig. 10).
Mass-wasting.—
Mass-wasting, the erosional process by which rock and soil move
downslope in response to the force of gravity, has also been
instrumental in shaping Palo Duro Canyon. This type of erosion has
been especially active on the walls of the canyon, for here the slopes
are steep enough to promote downward movement of earth
materials. In a few places there have been landslides which have
moved large quantities of rock in a short span of time. But most mass
movements have been imperceptibly slow as masses of talus
(accumulations of rock debris) on steeper slopes have inched slowly
downhill because of their own weight. Talus deposits produced in this
way can be seen at the foot of most of the cliffs and erosional
remnants throughout the canyon (fig. 20).
Differential erosion.—
Even the most casual observer will soon note that not all of the
canyon’s rocks have been equally affected by erosion. Indeed, it is
the nature of this differential erosion that gives Palo Duro Canyon the
rugged sculptured appearance that accounts for much of its beauty.
Visitors to Palo Duro Canyon commonly ask why the rock formations
are so diversely shaped. The answer to this question lies in the rocks
themselves. Because the various rock strata are of unequal hardness,
they erode at different rates of speed. Hence, the harder, more
resistant rocks, such as the sandstones and conglomerates of the
Trujillo Formation, form the shelves, ledges, and “caps” of the rock
sculptures. The Lighthouse (fig. 31) and other pedestal rocks (fig. 16)
are good examples of land-forms produced by differential erosion.

32
The “hoodoos” mentioned earlier are also the products of this type of
erosion (figs. 16 and 20).
Fig. 20. Talus slopes (arrow) are well developed on the east side of
Capitol Peak and in places obscure the Quartermaster red beds. Note the
“hoodoo” at the south (left) end of the structure.
Softer rocks like shales and clay are more readily eroded and
they normally form slopes rather than cliffs or ledges (fig. 12).
Grooves, recesses, and caves have also developed in some of the less
resistant rocks such as the shales and gypsum beds of the
Quartermaster Formation. Catarina Cave (fig. 27) which has formed
in the red and white shales of the Spanish Skirts (fig. 26) is a good
example of this type of feature. Caves of this type afforded protection
to both man and wild animals since the dawn of history, for their
remains have been found in a number of similar caves.

33
Thus, within a relatively short time—geologically speaking—the
familiar land-shaping processes described above have joined forces to
provide Texas with one of its most remarkable natural attractions. But
interestingly enough, the same geologic processes that created these
unusual formations are busily at work destroying them. As time
passes and erosion progresses, the caps of the pedestals are worn
away and the underlying shales crumble and are washed into the
valley below. Yet even as the old land-forms are being destroyed,
wind, water, ice, and man are attacking the canyon walls to produce
still more of these interesting erosional remnants.

WHAT TO DO AND SEE AT PALO DURO CANYON
STATE PARK
The visitor to Palo Duro Canyon can choose from a number of
recreational and educational activities. Moreover, regardless of
whether one visits for a few hours to picnic along the banks of the
river, or spends a week at one of the well-kept campgrounds, the visit
will probably be both pleasant and rewarding. In the pages that
follow there is a brief description of certain of the park landmarks and
some of the more popular attractions within the canyon. The
numbers in parentheses refer to numbers which designate these
places on the map of Palo Duro Canyon (fig. 2, pp. 4-5). Hopefully,
this information will help one to plan his visit to the canyon and
thereby make his stay more enjoyable and worthwhile.
Park Entrance (1).—
The first stop in the park is the gate at the ranger station (fig. 21).
Here one pays a modest admission fee and receives literature and
information about the park. The park is open every day of the year,
but the entrance gates close at sundown.
Coronado Lodge and Observation Point (2).—
The overlook at Coronado Lodge (fig. 22), located about half a mile
from the Park Entrance, is a good place to start one’s visit. Situated
on a ledge of Ogallala caliche (p. 26), the Lodge is an attractive,
rustic structure constructed of blocks of Trujillo sandstone (p. 22). Its
picture windows and outdoor overlook provide a matchless view of
the canyon and make it possible to become oriented for the descent
to the canyon floor. Large, coin-operated telescopes permit close-up
views of distant parts of the canyon, and there are museum cases

containing objects of historical and geological interest from the Palo
Duro area. If possible one should visit the Coronado Observation
Point more than once during the visit, preferably at different times of
the day. Because of shifting clouds and changing lighting conditions,
the canyon presents a continually changing panorama from sunrise to
sunset. Open year-round, the Lodge offers a complete line of
souvenirs, film, and camping supplies. There is also a snack bar
where coffee, sandwiches, and cold drinks can be purchased.
The Scenic Drive (1-16).—
After viewing the canyon from Coronado Lodge, one should take the
scenic drive on Park Road 5. This paved, all-weather road descends
the northwest rim of the canyon and continues on to the turnaround
at Cow Camp, a distance of about 8 miles. Although the present
scenic drive was completed in 1951, the path that it follows is
essentially that which was laid out by Colonel Charles Goodnight
when he established Palo Duro ranch in 1876. The road descends to
the canyon floor in a series of well-engineered turns, but because it
drops some 800 feet in little more than a mile it is wise to use second
or low gear on the descent. One should also observe the posted
speed limits (10 to 20 miles per hour) and keep to the right side of
the road at all times.
In the 800-foot drop from rim to floor, the complete geologic section
of the canyon is traversed, as one passes from the Pleistocene sands
through the Ogallala, Trujillo, and Tecovas Formations, before
reaching the Quartermaster Formation which is exposed in the
canyon floor. Each of these geologic formations is discussed
elsewhere in this publication (pp. 16-28).
Pioneer Amphitheatre (3).—
Upon reaching the canyon floor, Park Road 5 flattens out and from
this point it is but a short distance to the Pioneer Amphitheatre, one
of the canyon’s newest and most popular attractions. Here, located at

the foot of a colorful 600-foot cliff, is a remarkable 1500-seat outdoor
theatre of latest design (fig. 23). Each evening during a ten-week
summer season, a symphonic drama portraying the history of the
Texas Panhandle is presented in the amphitheatre. Information about
these productions can be obtained at the Park Entrance, Coronado
Lodge, and other points within the park.

34
Fig. 21. The entrance gate to Palo Duro Canyon State Park.

35
Fig. 22. Coronado Lodge on the canyon’s northwest rim affords
panoramic views of the canyon.
Sad Monkey Train Ride (4).—
The Sad Monkey Railroad begins—and ends—at Sad Monkey, Texas, a
small “community” that lies at the foot of Triassic Peak (fig. 24).
Unlike most miniature railroads, the Sad Monkey Special is not a
“kiddie” ride. Instead, this 2-mile journey provides an opportunity to
get away from the road for a closer look at the geologic formations
exposed along the track. There are especially good views of the
Spanish Skirts (fig. 26), Catarina Cave (fig. 27), and Triassic Peak
(fig. 25). These, and other features of geologic interest, are pointed
out by an experienced lecturer who also presents a brief review of
the geologic history of the area.
Triassic Peak (5).—

Long used by Indians and ranchers as a Palo Duro landmark, the
canyon visitor will find Triassic Peak to be equally useful as a geologic
landmark. When viewed from the Sad Monkey Railroad Terminal, the
south face of Triassic Peak clearly reveals three of the four major
geologic formations of the canyon (fig. 25).
Fig. 23. Located on the canyon floor, Pioneer Amphitheatre is a modern
outdoor theatre where symphonic dramas are presented each summer.
(Courtesy Mrs. Ples Harper, Texas Panhandle Heritage Foundation, Inc.;
photograph by Ron Horn.)
The lower one-third of the peak consists of deeply furrowed, red and
white banded shales of the Quartermaster Formation (p. 17).
Overlying the Permian red beds are the brightly colored, multi-hued
Tecovas shales of Triassic age (p. 19). The composition of the
Tecovas is such that the lower shales tend to weather into relatively
gentle slopes with rather smooth surfaces. Triassic Peak is capped by

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