![12
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.
12) A maternity client is in need of surgery. Which healthcare member is legally responsible for
obtaining informed consent for an invasive procedure?
A) The nurse
B) The physician
C) The unit secretary
D) The social worker
Answer: B
Explanation: A) It is not the nurse's legal responsibility to obtain informed consent.
B) Informed consent is a legal concept designed to allow clients to make intelligent decisions
regarding their own health care. Informed consent means that a client, or a legally designated
decision maker, has granted permission for a specific treatment or procedure based on full
information about that specific treatment or procedure as it relates to that client under the
specific circumstances of the permission. The individual who is ultimately responsible for the
treatment or procedure should provide the information necessary to obtain informed consent. In
most instances, this is a physician.
C) Unit secretaries are not responsible for obtaining informed consent.
D) It is not within a social worker's scope of practice to obtain informed consent.
Page Ref: 7—8
Cognitive Level: Remembering
Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care
Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 12. Facilitate informed patient consent for care. | AACN
Essentials Competencies: VIII. 1. Demonstrate the professional standards of moral, ethical, and
legal conduct. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American
Nurses Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional
standards (ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations;
principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated
Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning.
Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of
nursing for childbearing families.
MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-15-320.jpg)
![13
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.
13) A nurse who tells family members the sex of a newborn baby without first consulting the
parents would have committed which of the following?
A) A breach of privacy
B) Negligence
C) Malpractice
D) A breach of ethics
Answer: A
Explanation: A) A breach of privacy would have been committed in this situation, because
informing other family members of the child's sex without the parents' consent violates the
parents' right to privacy. The right to privacy is the right of a person to keep his person and
property free from public scrutiny (or even from other family members).
B) Negligence is a punishable legal offense, and is more serious.
C) Malpractice is a punishable legal offense, and is more serious.
D) No breach of ethics has been committed in this situation.
Page Ref: 8
Cognitive Level: Understanding
Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Ethical Practice
Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 13. Assess own level of communication skill in
encounters with patient and families. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IV. 8. Uphold ethical
standards related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality and clients' right to
privacy. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American Nurses
Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional standards
(ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations; principles
of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts:
Nursing Process: Implementation.
Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of
nursing for childbearing families.
MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-16-320.jpg)
![14
Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.
14) The nursing instructor explains to the class that according to the 1973 Supreme Court
decision in Roe v. Wade, abortion is legal if induced:
A) Before the 30th week of pregnancy.
B) Before the period of viability.
C) To provide tissue for therapeutic research.
D) Can be done any time if mother, doctor, and hospital all agree.
Answer: B
Explanation: A) This statement is not true, because the fetus is viable many weeks before the
30th week.
B) Abortion can be performed legally until the period of viability.
C) Abortion cannot be used for the sole purpose of providing tissue for therapeutic research.
D) This is not true. Legal abortion can be done only up until the time of viability.
Page Ref: 9
Cognitive Level: Remembering
Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Ethical Practice
Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 3. Provide patient-centered care with sensitivity and
respect for the diversity of human experience. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IV. 8. Uphold
ethical standards related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality and client's
right to privacy. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American
Nurses Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional
standards (ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability
and Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations;
principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated
Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning.
Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of
nursing for childbearing families.
MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-17-320.jpg)
![shorter than the pebble or block of stone it was used to saw, for even
the iron blades used in conjunction with sand and water by modern
masons become concave by wear, and, therefore, the bottom of the
kerf they produce is convex longitudinally. I accordingly made some
further experiments, and this time upon a fragment of a greenstone
celt of such hardness that it would readily scratch window-glass. I
found, however, that with a flint flake I was able to work a groove
along it, and that whether I used sand or no, my progress was equally
certain, though it must be confessed, very slow. I am indeed doubtful
whether the flint did not produce most effect without the sand, as the
latter to become effective requires a softer body in which it may
become embedded; while by working with the points and projections
in the slightly notched edge of the flake, its scratching action soon
discoloured the water in the notch. What was most remarkable, and
served in a great measure to discredit the negative evidence to which
I before referred, was that the edges of the flake when not used with
sand showed but slight traces of wear or polish.
On the whole, I am inclined to think that both the Swiss antiquaries
are in the right, and that the blocks of stone were sawn both with and
without sand, by means of flint flakes, but principally of strips of wood
and bone used in conjunction with sand. [140] The reader may consult
Munro’s Lake-Dwellings, 1890, p. 505.
Professor Flinders Petrie, in addition to the flint implements of the
“New Race,” which he discovered near Abydos, found a number of
stone implements at Kahun, and Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell has contributed
to his [141] book an interesting chapter on their character and the
method of their manufacture.
Most of the jade implements from New Zealand and N.W. America
have been partially shaped by sawing, and in the British Museum is a
large block of jade from the former country deeply grooved by
sawing, and almost ready to be split, so as to be of the {46} right
thickness for a mere. The natives [142] use stone hammers for
chipping, flakes of trap or of some other hard rock for sawing, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-36-320.jpg)
![blocks of sandstone and a micaceous rock for grinding and polishing.
Obsidian is said to be used for boring jade. I have a flat piece of jade,
apparently part of a thin hatchet, on one face of which two notches
have been sawn converging at an angle of 135° and marking out
what when detached and ground would have formed a curved ear-
ring. It was given me by the late Mr. H. N. Moseley, who brought it
from New Zealand.
There is another peculiarity to be seen in some of the greenstone
hatchets and perforated axes, of which perhaps the most
characteristic examples occur in Switzerland, though the same may
occasionally be observed in British specimens. It is that the blocks of
stone have been reduced into form, not only by chipping with a
hammer, as is the case with flint hatchets, but by working upon the
surface with some sort of pick or chisel, which was not improbably
formed of flint. In some instances, where the hatchets were intended
for insertion into sockets of stag’s horn or other materials, their butt-
end was purposely roughened by means of a pick after the whole
surface had been polished. Instances of this roughening are common
in Switzerland, rare in France, and rarer still in England. The
greenstone hatchet found in a gravel-pit near Malton [143] (Fig. 81)
has its butt-end roughened in this manner. The shaft-holes in some
few perforated axes appear to have been worked out by means of
such picks or chisels, the hole having been bored from opposite sides
of the axe, and generally with a gradually decreasing diameter. In
some rare instances the perforation is oval. The cup, or funnel-shaped
depressions, in some hammer-stones seem to have been made in a
similar manner. The inner surface of the shaft holes in perforated axes
is also frequently ground, and occasionally polished. This has in most
cases been effected by turning a cylindrical grinder within the hole;
though in some few instances the grinding instrument has been
rubbed backwards and forwards in the hole after the manner of a file.
M. Franck de Truguet, [144] of Treytel, in Switzerland, thinks he has
found in a lake-dwelling an instrument used for finishing and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-37-320.jpg)
![enlarging the holes. It is a fragment of sandstone about 2 1
⁄2 inches
long, and rounded on one face, which is worn by friction.
But, besides the mode of chipping out the shaft-hole in {47}
perforated implements, several other methods were employed,
especially in the days when the use of bronze was known, to which
period most of the highly-finished perforated axes found in this
country are to be referred. In some cases it would appear that, after
chipping out a recess so as to form a guide for the boring tool, the
perforation was effected by giving a rotatory motion, either constant
or intermittent, to the tool. I have, indeed, seen some specimens in
which, from the marks visible in the hole, I am inclined to think a
metallic drill was used. But whether, where metal was not employed,
and no central core, as subsequently mentioned, was left in the hole,
the boring tool was of flint, and acted like a drill, or whether it was a
round stone used in conjunction with sand, as suggested by the late
Sir Daniel Wilson [145] and Sir W. Wilde, [146] so that the hole was
actually ground away, it is impossible to say. I have never seen any
flint tools that could unhesitatingly be referred to this use; but Herr
Grewingk, in his “Steinalter der Ostseeprovinzen,” [147] mentions
several implements in the form of truncated cones, which he regards
as boring-tools (Bohrstempel), used for perforating stone axes and
hammers. He suggests the employment of a drill-bow to make them
revolve, and thinks that, in some cases, the boring tools were fixed,
and the axe itself caused to revolve. Not having seen the specimens, I
cannot pronounce upon them; but the fact that several of these
conical pieces show signs of fracture at the base, and that they are all
of the same kinds of stone (diorite, augite, porphyry, and syenite) as
those of which the stone axes of the district are made, is suggestive
of their being merely the cores, resulting from boring with a tube, in
the manner about to be described, in some cases from each face of
the axe, and in others where the base of the cone is smooth, from
one face only. One of these central cores found in Lithuania is figured
by Mortillet, [148] and is regarded by him as being probably the result](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-38-320.jpg)
![of boring by means of a metal tube; others, from Switzerland,
presumably of the Stone Age, are cited by Keller. [149] Bellucci [150]
thinks that he has found them in Northern Italy.
Worsaae [151] has suggested that in early times the boring may
have been effected with a pointed stick and sand and water; and,
{48} indeed, if any grinding process was used, it is a question whether
some softer substance, such as wood, in which the sand or abrasive
material could become imbedded, would not be more effective than
flint. By way of experiment I bored a hole through the Swiss hatchet
of steatite before mentioned, and I found that in that case a flint flake
could be used as a sort of drill; but that for grinding, a stick of elder
was superior to both flint and bone, inasmuch as it formed a better
bed for the sand.
Professor Rau, of New York, has made some interesting
experiments in boring stone by means of a drilling-stock and sand,
which are described in the “Annual Report of the Smithsonian
Institute for 1868.” [152] He operated on a piece of hard diorite an inch
and three-eighths in thickness, and employed as a drilling agent a
wooden wand of ash, or at times, of pine, in conjunction with sharp
quartz sand. Attached to the wand was a heavy disc, to act as a fly-
wheel, and an alternating rotatory motion was obtained by means of
a bow and cord attached at its centre to the apex of the drilling-stock,
and giving motion to it after the manner of a “pump-drill,” such as is
used by the Dacotahs [153] and Iroquois [154] for producing fire by
friction, or what is sometimes called the Chinese drill. So slow was the
process, that two hours of constant drilling added, on an average, not
more than the thickness of an ordinary lead-pencil line to the depth of
the hole.
The use of a drill of some form or other, to which rotatory motion in
alternate directions was communicated by means of a cord, is of great
antiquity. We find it practised with the ordinary bow by the ancient
Egyptians; [155] and Ulysses is described by Homer [156] as drilling out
the eye of the Cyclops by means of a stake with a thong of leather](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-39-320.jpg)
![wound round it, and pulled alternately at each end, “like a shipwright
boring timber.” The “fire-drill,” for producing fire by friction, which is
precisely analogous to the ordinary drill, is, or was, in use in most
parts of the world. Among the Aleutian Islanders the thong-drill, and
among the New Zealanders a modification of it, is used for boring
holes in stone. Those who wish to see more on the subject must
consult Tylor’s “Early History of Mankind” [157] and a “Study of the
Primitive Methods of Drilling,” [158] by Mr. J. D. McGuire. {49}
Professor Carl Vogt [159] has suggested that the small roundels of
stone (like Worsaae, “Afb.” No. 86) too large to have been used as
spindle-whorls, which are occasionally found in Denmark, may have
been the fly-wheels of vertical pump-drills, used for boring stone
tools. They may, however, be heads of war-maces.
In the case of some of the unfinished and broken axes found in the
Swiss lakes, and even in some of the objects made of stag’s
horn, [160] there is a projecting core [161] at the bottom of the
unfinished hole. This is also often seen in [162] Scandinavian and
German specimens. Dr. Keller has shown that this core indicates the
employment of some kind of tube as a boring tool; as indeed had
been pointed out so long ago as 1832 by Gutsmuths, [163] who, in his
paper “Wie durchbohrte der alte Germane seine Streitaxt?” suggested
that a copper or bronze tube was used in conjunction with powdered
quartz, or sand and water. In the Klemm collection, formerly at
Dresden, is a bronze tube, five inches long and three quarters of an
inch in diameter, found near Camenz, in Saxony, which its late owner
regarded [164] as one of the boring tools used in the manufacture of
stone axes. This is now in the British Museum, but does not appear to
me to have been employed for such a purpose. The Danish
antiquaries [165] have arrived at the same conclusion as to tubes being
used for boring. Von Estorff [166] goes so far as to say that the shaft-
holes are in some cases so regular and straight, and their inner
surface so smooth, that they can only have been bored by means of a
metallic cylinder and emery. Lindenschmit [167] considers the boring to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-40-320.jpg)
![have been effected either by means of a hard stone, or a plug of hard
wood with sand and water, or else, in some cases, by means of a
metallic tube, as described by Gutsmuths. He engraves some
specimens, in which the commencement of the hole, instead of being
a mere depression, is a sunk ring. Similar specimens are mentioned
by Lisch. [168] Dr. Keller’s translator, Mr. Lee, cites a friend as
suggesting the {50} employment of a hollow stick, such as a piece of
elder, for the boring tool. My experience confirms this; but I found
that the coarse sand was liable to clog and accumulate in the hollow
part of the stick, and thus grind away the top of the core. If I had
used finer sand this probably would not have been the case.
Mr. Rose [169] has suggested the use of a hollow bone; but, as
already observed, I found bone less effective than wood, in
consequence of its not being so good a medium for carrying the sand.
Mr. Sehested, [170] however, who carried out a series of interesting
experiments in grinding, sawing, and boring stone implements, found
dry sand better than wet, and a bone of lamb better than either elder
or cow’s-horn for boring.
Most of the holes drilled in the stone instruments and pipes of
North America appear to have been produced by hollow drills, which
Professor Rau [171] suggests may have been formed of a hard and
tough cane, the Arundinaria macrosperma, which grows abundantly
in the southern parts of the United States. He finds reason for
supposing that the Indian workmen were acquainted with the
ordinary form of drill driven by a pulley and bow. The tubes of
steatite, one foot in length, found in some of the minor mounds of the
Ohio Valley, [172] must probably have been bored with metal.
Dr. Keller, after making some experiments with a hollow bone and
quartz-sand, tried a portion of ox-horn, which he found surprisingly
more effective, the sand becoming embedded in the horn and acting
like a file. He comments on the absence of any bronze tubes that
could have been used for boring in this manner, and on the
impossibility of making flint tools for the purpose. The perishable](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-41-320.jpg)
![nature of ox-horn accounts for its absence in the Lake
settlements. [173] On the whole this suggestion appears to me the
most reasonable. Experiments have also been made in boring with
stag’s-horn. [174]
M. Troyon [175] considered that these holes were not bored by
means of a hollow cylinder, inasmuch as this would not produce so
conical an opening, and he thought that the axe was made to revolve
in some sort of lathe, while the boring was effected by {51} means of
a bronze tool used in conjunction with sand and water. He mentions
some stone axes found in Bohemia, and in the collection of the Baron
de Neuberg, at Prague, which have so little space left between the
body of the axe and the central cores, that in his opinion they must
have been bored by means of a metal point and not of a hollow
cylinder. Mortillet [176] thinks that some of the Swiss axes were bored
in a similar manner. The small holes for suspension, drilled through
some of the Danish celts, he thinks were drilled with a pointed
stone. [177] Not having seen the specimens cited by M. Troyon, I am
unable to offer any opinion upon them; but it appears to me very
doubtful whether anything in character like a lathe was known at the
early period to which the perforated axes belong, for were such an
appliance in use we should probably find it extended to the
manufacture of pottery in the shape of the potter’s wheel, whereas
the contemporary pottery is all hand-made. M. Desor, [178] though
admitting that a hollow metallic tube would have afforded the best
means of drilling these holes, is inclined to refer the axes to a period
when the use of metals was unknown. He suggests that thin flakes of
flint may have been fastened round a stick and thus used to bore the
hole, leaving a solid core in the middle. I do not however think that
such a method is practicable. In some of the Swiss [179] specimens in
which the boring is incomplete there is a small hole in advance of the
larger, so that the section is like that of a trifoliated Gothic arch. In
this case the borer would appear to have somewhat resembled a
centre-bit or pin-drill. In others [180] the holes are oval, and must have](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-42-320.jpg)
![been much modified after they were first bored. The process of boring
holes of large diameter in hard rocks such as diorite and basalt by
means of tubes was in common use among the Egyptians. These
tubes are supposed to have been made of bronze, and corundum to
have been employed with them. Professor Flinders Petrie [181] has
suggested that they had jewelled edges like the modern diamond
crown drill, and that they could penetrate diorite at the rate of one
inch in depth for 27 feet of forward motion. I think, however, that this
is an over-estimate. Saws of the same kind were also used.
Kirchner, [182] the ingenious but perverse author of “Thor’s
Donnerkeil,” considers that steel boring tools must have been used
{52} for the shaft-holes in stone axes; and even Nilsson, [183] who
comments on the rarity of the axes with the central core in the holes,
is inclined to refer them to the Iron Age. He [184] considers it an
impossibility to bore “such holes” with a wooden pin and wet sand,
and is no doubt right, if he means that a wooden pin would not leave
a core standing in the centre of the hole.
The drilling the holes through the handles of the New Zealand [185]
meres is stated to be a very slow process, but effected by means of a
wetted stick dipped in emery powder. I have seen one in which the
hole was unfinished, and was only represented by a conical
depression on each face.
In some stones, however, such holes can be readily bored with
wood and sand; and in all cases where the stone to be worked upon
can be scratched by sand, the boring by means of wood is possible,
given sufficient time, and the patience of a savage.
To what a degree this extends may be estimated by what
Lafitau [186] says of the North American Indians sometimes spending
their whole life in making a stone tomahawk without entirely finishing
it; and by the years spent by members of tribes on the Rio Negro [187]
in perforating cylinders of rock crystal, by twirling a flexible leaf-shoot
of wild plantain between the hands, and thus grinding the hole with
the aid of sand and water. The North American [188] tobacco-pipes of](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-43-320.jpg)
![IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC
PERIOD.
CHAPTER III.
CELTS.
The name of Celt, which has long been given to hatchets, adzes, or
chisels of stone, is so well known and has been so universally
employed, that though its use has at times led to considerable
misapprehension, I have thought it best to retain it. It has been
fancied by some that the name bore reference to the Celtic people,
by whom the implements were supposed to have been made; and
among those who have thought fit to adopt the modern fashion of
calling the Celts “Kelts” there have been not a few who have given
the instruments the novel name of “kelts” also. In the same manner,
many French antiquaries have given the plural form of the word as
Celtæ. Notwithstanding this misapprehension, there can be no
doubt as to the derivation of the word, it being no other than the
English form of the doubtful Latin word Celtis or Celtes, a chisel.
This word, however, is curiously enough almost an ἅπαξλεγόμενον in
this sense, being best known through the Vulgate translation of
Job, [189] though it is repeated in a forged inscription recorded by
Gruter and Aldus. [190] The usual derivation given is à cælando, and
it is regarded as the equivalent of cælum. The first use of the term
that I have met with, as applied to antiquities, is in Beger’s](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-46-320.jpg)
![“Thesaurus Brandenburgicus,” [191] 1696, where a bronze celt,
adapted for insertion in its haft, is described under the name of
Celtes.
I have said that the word celte, which occurs in the Vulgate, is
{56} of doubtful authenticity. Mr. Knight Watson, [192] in a paper
communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, has shown that the
reading in many MSS. is certe, and the question has been fully
discussed by Mr. J. A. Picton, [193] Mr. E. Marshall, [194] Dr. M.
Much, [195] and others. K. v. Becker [196] suggests that the error in
writing celte for certe originated between A.D. 800 and 1400, and he
points out that Conrad Pickel, the poet laureate, who died in 1508,
latinized his surname by Celtes. Treating the subject as one of
probability, it appears much more unlikely that a scribe should place
a newfangled word celte in the place of such a well-known word as
certe, than that certe should have been substituted for a word that
had become obsolete. I am, therefore, unwilling absolutely to
condemn the word, especially having regard to there being a
recognized equivalent in Latin, Cælum.
It has been suggested that there may originally have been some
connection between the Latin celtis and the British or Welsh cellt, a
flint; but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous resemblance
than of affinity. [197] A Welsh triad says there are three hard things in
the world—Maen Cellt (a flint stone), steel, and a miser’s heart.
The general form of stone celts is well known, being usually that
of blades, approaching an oval in section, with the sides more or less
straight, and one end broader and also sharper than the other. In
length they vary from about two inches to as much as sixteen
inches. I do not, however, propose to enter at once into any
description of the varieties in their form and character, but to pass in
review some of the opinions that have been held concerning their
nature and origin.
One of the most universal of these is a belief, which may almost
be described as having been held “semper, ubique et ab omnibus,”](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-47-320.jpg)
![in their having been thunderbolts.
“The country folks [198] of the West of England still hold that the
‘thunder-axes’ they find, once fell from the sky.” In Cornwall [199]
they still have medical virtues assigned to them; the water in which
“a thunderbolt,” or celt, has been boiled being a specific {57} for
rheumatism. In the North of England, and in parts of Scotland, they
are known as thunderbolts, [200] and, like flint arrow-heads, are
supposed to have preservative virtues, especially against diseases of
cattle. In Ireland the same superstition prevails, and I have myself
known an instance where, on account of its healing powers, a stone
celt was lent among neighbours to place in the troughs from which
cattle drank.
In the British Museum is a thin highly polished celt of jadeite,
reputed to be from Scotland, in form like Fig. 52, mounted in a silver
frame, and with a hole bored through it at either end. It is said to
have been attached to a belt and worn round the waist as a cure for
renal affections, against which the material nephrite was a sovereign
remedy.
In most parts of France, [201] and in the Channel Islands, the
stone celt is known by no other name than “Coin de foudre,” or
“Pierre de tonnerre”; and Mr. F. C. Lukis [202] gives an instance of a
flint celt having been found near the spot where a signal-staff had
been struck by lightning, which was proved to have been the bolt by
its peculiar smell when broken. M. Ed. Jacquard has written an
interesting paper on “Céraunies ou pierres de tonnerre.” [203]
In Brittany [204] a stone celt is frequently thrown into the well for
purifying the water or securing a continued supply; and in Savoy it is
not rare to find one of these instruments rolled up in the wool of the
sheep, or the hair of the goat, for good luck, or for the prevention of
the rot or putrid decay.
In Sweden [205] they are preserved as a protection against
lightning, being regarded as the stone-bolts that have fallen during
thunderstorms.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-48-320.jpg)
![In Norway they are known as Tonderkiler, and in Denmark the old
name for a celt was Torden-steen. [206] The test of their being really
thunderbolts was to tie a thread round them, and place them on hot
coals, when, if genuine, the thread was not burnt, but rather
rendered moist. Such celts promote sleep.
In Germany [207] both celts and perforated stone axes are
regarded {58} as thunderbolts (Donnerkeile or Thorskeile); and, on
account of their valuable properties, are sometimes preserved in
families for hundreds of years. I possess a specimen from North
Germany, on which is inscribed the date 1571, being probably the
year in which it was discovered. The curious perforated axe or
hammer found early in the last century, now preserved in the
Museum of Antiquities at Upsala, [208] seems to have been a family
treasure of the same kind. It bears upon it, in early Runes, an
inscription thus interpreted by Professor Stephens—“Owns Oltha this
Axe.” Another, with four [209] Runic characters upon it, was found in
Denmark, and it has been suggested that the letters on it represent
the names of Loki, Thor, Odin, and Belgthor. [210] The appearance of
the American inscribed axe from Pemberton, [211] New Jersey,
described by my namesake, Dr. J. C. Evans, and published by Sir
Daniel Wilson, is not calculated to inspire confidence in its
authenticity.
The German belief is much the same as the Irish. Stone celts are
held to preserve from lightning the house in which they are kept.
They perspire when a storm is approaching; they are good for
diseases of man and beast; they increase the milk of cows; they
assist the birth of children; and powder scraped from them may be
taken with advantage for various childish disorders. It is usually nine
days after their fall before they are found on the surface.
In the ruins of a Cistercian nunnery, Martha’s Hof, at Bonn, [212] a
large polished celt of jadeite, like Fig. 52, was found, which had
been presumably brought there as a protection against lightning. It
had been placed in the roof of a granary.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-49-320.jpg)
![In Bavaria [213] and Moravia [214] stone axes, whether perforated
or not, are regarded as thunderbolts.
In Holland, [215] in like manner, they are known as donder-beitels,
or thunder-chisels.
In Spain they are known as rayos or centellos, and are regarded
as thunder-stones, while among the Portuguese [216] {59} and in
Brazil [217] the name for a stone axe-blade is corisco, or lightning.
In Italy [218] a similar belief that these stone implements are
thunderbolts prevails, and Moscardo [219] has figured two polished
celts as Saette o Fulmini; and in Greece [220] the stone celts are
known as Astropelekia, and have long been held in veneration.
About the year 1081 we find the Byzantine emperor, Alexius
Comnenus, [221] sending, among other presents, to the Emperor
Henry III. of Germany, ἀστροπέλεκυν δεδεμένον μετὰ χρυσαφίου,
an expression which appears to have puzzled Ducange and Gibbon,
but which probably means a celt of meteoric origin mounted in gold.
About 1670 [222] a stone hatchet was brought from Turkey by the
French Ambassador, and presented to Prince François de Lorraine,
bishop of Verdun. It still exists in the Musée Lorrain at Nancy.
Nor is the belief in the meteoric and supernatural origin of celts
confined to Europe. Throughout a great part of Asia the same name
of thunderbolts or lightning-stones is applied to them. Dr. Tylor [223]
cites an interesting passage from a Chinese encyclopædia of the
seventeenth century respecting lightning-stones, some of which
have the shape of a hatchet.
In Japan [224] they are known as thunderbolts, or as the battle-axe
of Tengu, [225] the Guardian of Heaven. They are there of great
use [226] medicinally; in Java [227] they are known as lightning-teeth.
The old naturalist Rumph, [228] towards the end of the seventeenth
century, met with many such in Java and Amboyna, which he says
were known as “Dondersteenen.”
In Burma [229] and Assam [230] stone adzes are called lightning-
stones, and are said to be always to be found on the spot where a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-50-320.jpg)
![thunderbolt has fallen, provided it is dug for, three years afterwards.
When reduced to powder they are an infallible specific {60} for
ophthalmia. They [231] also render those who carry them
invulnerable, and possess other valuable properties. The same is the
case in [232] Cambodia.
Among the Malays [233] the idea of the celestial origin of these
stones generally prevails, though they are also supposed to have
been used in aërial combats between angels and demons [234]; while
in China they are revered as relics of long-deceased ancestors.
I am not aware whether they are regarded as thunderbolts in
India, [235] though a fragment of jade is held to be a preservative
against lightning. [236] Throughout the whole of Hindostan, however,
they appear to be venerated as sacred, and placed against the
Mahadeos, or adorned with red paint as Mahadeo.
It is the same in Western Africa. [237] Sir Richard Burton [238] has
described stone hatchets from the Gold Coast, which are there
regarded as “Thunder-stones.” Mr. Bowen, a missionary, states that
there also the stones, or thunderbolts, which Saugo, the Thunder
god, casts down from heaven, are preserved as sacred relics. Among
the Niam-Niam, [239] in central Africa, they are regarded as
thunderbolts. An instructive article by Richard Andrée on the place of
prehistoric stone weapons in vulgar beliefs will be found in the
Mittheilungen of the Anthropological Society of Vienna, [240] and an
article [241] by Dr. A. Bastian on “Stone Worship in Ethnography” in
the Archiv für Anthropologie.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-51-320.jpg)
![Fig. 11.—Celt with Gnostic Inscription. (The upper
figure actual size, the lower enlarged.)
The very remarkable celt of nephrite (now in the Christy
collection), procured in Egypt many years ago by Colonel Milner, and
exhibited to the Archæological Institute in 1868 [242] by the late Sir
Henry Lefroy, F.R.S., affords another instance of the superstitions
attaching to these instruments, and has been the subject of a very
interesting memoir by the late Mr. C. W. King, [243] the well-known
authority on ancient gems. In this case both faces of the celt have
been engraved with gnostic inscriptions in Greek, arranged on one
{61} face in the form of a wreath; and it was doubtless regarded as
in itself possessed of mystic power, by some Greek of Alexandria,
where it seems to have been engraved. It is shown in Fig. 11, here
reproduced from the Archæological Journal. Another celt not from
Egypt, but from Greece proper, {62} with three personages and a
Greek inscription engraved upon it, is mentioned by Mortillet. [244] It
seems to reproduce a Mithraic [245] scene. A perforated axe, with a
Chaldæan [246] inscription upon it, is in the Borgia collection, and has
been figured and described by Lenormant.
Curiously enough, the hatchet appears in ancient times to have
had some sacred importance among the Greeks. It was from a
hatchet that, according to Plutarch, [247] Jupiter Labrandeus received
that title; and M. de Longpérier [248] has pointed out a passage, from
which it appears that Bacchus was in one instance, at all events,
worshipped under the form of a hatchet, or πέλεκυς. He has also
published a Chaldæan cylinder on which a priest is represented as
making an offering to a hatchet placed upright on a throne, and has
shown that the Egyptian hieroglyph for Nouter, God, is simply the
figure of an axe.
In India the hammer was the attribute of the god Indra [249] as
Vágrâkarti. A similar worship appears to have prevailed in the North.
Saxo Grammaticus mentions that the Danish prince Magnus Nilsson,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-53-320.jpg)
![after a successful expedition against the Goths, brought back among
his trophies some Thor’s hammers, “malleos joviales,” of unusual
weight, which had been objects of veneration in an island in which
he had destroyed a temple. In Brittany the figures of stone celts are
in several instances engraved on the large stones of chambered
tumuli and dolmens.
There are two [250] deductions which may readily be drawn from
the facts just stated; first, that in nearly, if not, indeed, all parts of
the globe which are now civilized, there was a period when the use
of stone implements prevailed; and, secondly, that this period is so
remote, that what were then the common implements of every-day
life have now for centuries been regarded with superstitious
reverence, or as being in some sense of celestial origin, and not the
work of man’s hands.
Nor was such a belief even in Europe, and in comparatively
modern times, confined to the uneducated. On the contrary,
Mercati, [251] physician to Clement VIII., at the end of the sixteenth
{63} century, appears to have been the first to maintain that what
were regarded as thunderbolts were the arms of a primitive people
unacquainted with the use of bronze or iron. Helwing [252] at
Königsberg in 1717 showed the artificial character of the so-called
thunderbolts, and in France, De Jussieu in 1723, and Mahudel, [253]
about 1734, reproduced Mercati’s view to the Académie des
Inscriptions. In our own country, Dr. Plot, in his “History of
Staffordshire” [254] (1686), also recognized the true character of
these relics; and, citing an axe of stone made of speckled flint
ground to an edge, says that either the Britons or Romans, or both,
made use of such axes; and adds that “how they might be fastened
to a helve may be seen in the Museum Ashmoleanum, where there
are several Indian ones of the like kind fitted up in the same order
as when formerly used.” Dr. Plot’s views were not, however, accepted
by all his countrymen, for in the Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society, [255] we find Dr. Lister regarding unmistakeable stone](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-54-320.jpg)
![weapons as having been fashioned naturally and without any
artifice. Some of the old German [256] authors have written long
dissertations about these stone hatchets and axes under the name
of Cerauniæ, and given representations of various forms, which were
known as Malleus fulmineus, Cuneus fulminis, Donnerstein,
Strahlhammer, &c. Aldrovandus says that these stones are usually
about five inches long and three wide, of a substance like flint, some
so hard that a file will not touch them. About the centre of gravity of
the stone is usually a hole an inch in diameter, quite round. They all
imitate in form a hammer, a wedge, or an axe, or some such
instrument, with a hole to receive a haft, so that some think them
not to be thunderbolts, but iron implements petrified by time. But
many explode such an opinion, and relate how such stones have
been found under trees and houses struck by lightning; and assert
that trustworthy persons were present, and saw them dug out, after
the lightning had struck. [257] Kentmann informs us how, in the
month of May, 1561, there was dug out at Torgau such a bolt
projected by {64} thunder. It was five inches long, and of a stone
harder than basalt, which in some parts of Germany was used
instead of anvils. He also relates how near Jülich another stone was
driven by thunder through an enormous oak, and was then dug up.
Aldrovandus gives a highly philosophical view as to the formation of
these stones. He regards them as due to an admixture of a certain
exhalation of thunder and lightning with metallic matter, chiefly in
dark clouds, which is coagulated by the circumfused moisture and
conglutinated into a mass (like flour with water), and subsequently
indurated by heat, like a brick.
Georgius [258] Agricola draws a distinction between the Brontia
and the Ceraunia. The former, he says, is like the head of a tortoise,
but has stripes upon it, the latter is smooth and without stripes. The
Brontia seems to be a fossil echinus, and the Ceraunia a stone celt,
but both are thunderbolts. Going a little further back, we find
Marbodæus, [259] Bishop of Rennes, who died in the year 1123, and](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-55-320.jpg)
![who wrote a metrical work concerning gems, ascribing the following
origin and virtues to the Ceraunius:——
“Ventorum rabie cum turbidus æstuat äer,
Cum tonat horrendum, cum fulgurat igneus æther,
Nubibus elisus cœlo cadit ille lapillus.
Cujus apud Græcos extat de fulmine nomen:
Illis quippe locis, quos constat fulmine tactos,
Iste lapis tantum reperiri posse putatur,
Unde κεράυνιος est Græco sermone vocatus:
Nam quod nos fulmen, Græci dixere κεραυνὸν.
Qui caste gerit hune à fulmine non ferietur,
Nec domus aut villæ, quibus affuerit lapis ille:
Sed neque navigio per flumina vel mare vectus,
Turbine mergetur, nec fulmine percutietur:
Ad causas etiam, vincendaque prælia prodest,
Et dulces somnos, et dulcia somnia præstat.”
It was not, however, purely from the belief of his own day that
Marbodæus derived this catalogue of the virtues of the Cerauniæ,
but from the pages of writers of a much earlier date. Pliny, [260]
giving an account of the precious stones known as Cerauniæ, quotes
an earlier author still, Sotacus, who, to use the words of Philemon
Holland’s translation, “hath set downe two kinds more of Ceraunia,
to wit, the blacke and the red, saying that they do resemble
halberds or axeheads. And by his saying, the blacke, {65} such
especially as bee round withall, are endued with this vertue, that by
the meanes of them, cities may be forced, and whole navies at sea
discomfited; and these (forsooth) be called [261] Betuli, whereas the
long ones be named properly Cerauniæ.” Pliny goes on to say, “that
there is one more Ceraunia yet, but very geason [262] it is, and hard
to be found, which the Parthian magicians set much store by, and
they only can find it, for that it is no where to bee had than in a
place which hath been shot with a thunderbolt.” There is a very
remarkable passage in Suetonius [263] illustrative of this belief among
the Romans. After relating one prodigy, which was interpreted as](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-56-320.jpg)
![significant of the accession of Galba to the purple, he records that,
“shortly afterwards lightning fell in a lake in Cantabria and twelve
axes were found, a by no means ambiguous omen of Empire.” The
twelve axes were regarded as referring to those of the twelve lictors,
and were therefore portentous; but their being found where the
lightning fell would seem to have been considered a natural
occurrence, except so far as related to the number. It appears by no
means improbable that if the lake could be now identified, some
ancient pile settlement might be found to have existed on its shores.
The exact period when Sotacus, the most ancient of these
authorities, wrote is not known, but he was among the earliest of
Greek authors who treated of stones, and is cited by Apollonius
Dyscolus, and Solinus, as well as by Pliny. We cannot be far wrong in
assigning him to an age at least two thousand years before our time,
and yet at that remote period the use of these stone “halberds or
axeheads” had so long ceased in Greece, that when found they were
regarded as of superhuman origin and invested with magical virtues.
We have already seen that flint arrow-heads were mounted,
probably as charms, in Etruscan necklaces, and we shall
subsequently see that superstitions, almost similar to those relating
to celts, have been attached to stone arrow-heads in various
countries.
To return from the superstitious veneration attaching to them, to
the objects themselves. The materials [264] of which celts in Great
Britain are usually formed are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry, {66}
quartzite, felstone, serpentine, and various kinds of greenstone, and
of metamorphic rocks. M. A. Damour, [265] in his “Essays on the
Composition of Stone Hatchets, Ancient and Modern,” gives the
following list of materials: quartz, agate, flint, jasper, obsidian,
fibrolite, jade, jadeite, chlor
o
mel
a
nite, am
phi
bo
lite, aphanite, diorite,
saus
surite, and stauro
tide; but even to these many other varieties of
rock might be added.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-57-320.jpg)
![Fig. 12.—Near Mildenhall. 1⁄2 Fig. 13.—Near Mildenhall. 1⁄2
Implements with this peculiar edge, are found in Denmark. Indeed, the edges of
the common form of Kjökken-mödding axes [266] are usually produced in the same
manner, by the intersection of two facets, each formed by a single blow, though the
resulting edge is generally almost straight.
Closely approaching this Danish form, is that of a celt of brown {69} flint, shown
in Fig. 14, and found near Thetford by the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., with one face
nearly flat, and the edge formed by a single transverse facet. The implements,
however, of this type, with the chisel edge, are rarely met with in this country; and,
generally speaking, axes similar to those which occur in such numbers in the Danish
Kjökken-möddings and Coast-finds are of very rare occurrence elsewhere. I have,
however, a small nearly-triangular hatchet of the Danish type, and with the sides
bruised in the same manner (probably with a view of preventing their cutting the
ligaments by which the instruments were attached to their handles, or, possibly, to
prevent their cutting the hand when held), which I found in the circular
encampment known as Maiden Bower, near Dunstable.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-61-320.jpg)
![Fig. 14.—Near Thetford. 1⁄2
Hatchets of this type have also been found in some numbers in the valley of the
Somme, at Montiers, near Amiens, as well as in the neighbourhood of Pontlevoy
(Loir et Cher), in the Camp de Catenoy (Oise), and in Champagne. [267] I have also
specimens from the neighbourhood of Pressigny-le-Grand and of Châtellerault. It
would therefore appear that this form of implement is not confined to maritime
districts, and that it can hardly be regarded as merely a weight for a fishing-
line, [268] as has been suggested by Professor Steenstrup. [269]
A few of the large Polynesian adzes of basalt have their edges produced by a
similar method of chipping and are left unground.
Capt. G. V. Smith [270] has experimented in Jutland with the Kjökken-mödding
axes, and has cut down fir-trees of seven inches diameter with them. The trees for
Mr. Sehested’s [271] wooden hut were cut down and trimmed with stone hatchets
ground at the edge.
In the British Museum are several roughly-chipped flints that seem to present a
peculiar type. They are from about 4 to 6 inches long, nearly flat on one face,
coarsely worked to an almost semicircular bevel edge at one end, and with a broad
rounded notch on each side, as if to enable them to be secured to a handle,
possibly as agricultural implements. They formed part of the Durden collection, and
were found in the neighbourhood of Blandford.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-62-320.jpg)
![Santon Downham, near Thetford; at Little Dunham, Norfolk; near Ware; and near
Canterbury; but the edge is sometimes formed by several chips, in the same
manner as the sides, and not merely by the junction of two planes of fracture.
There are also smaller rough celts with the subtriangular section, of which I have
a good example, 4 1
⁄2 inches long, found by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., near Maiden
Castle, Dorsetshire. It is curiously similar to one that I found near Store Lyngby, in
Denmark.
The same form occurs in France.
Other roughly-chipped implements are to be found in various parts of Britain,
lying scattered over the fields, some of them so rude that they may be regarded as
merely flints chipped into form, to serve some temporary purpose; as wasters
thrown away as useless by those who were trying to man
u
fac
ture stone im
ple
ments
which were even
tual
ly des
tined to be ground; or as the rude implements of the
merest savage. Cer
tainly some of the stone hatchets of the Aus
tral
ian na
tives are
quite as rude or ruder, and yet we find them carefully provided with handles. In
Hert
ford
shire, I have myself picked up several such imp
le
ments; and they have
been found in con
sid
er
able num
bers in the neigh
bour
hood of Ick
ling
ham in Suf
folk,
near An
dover, and in other places. An adze-like celt of this kind (4 1
⁄2 inches) is
recorded from Wish
moor, [272] Sur
rey. Were proper search made for them, there
are probably not many dis
tricts where it would be fruit
less. In Ireland they appear
to be rare; but numerous roughly-shaped {71} implements of this class have been
found in Poitou and in other parts of France. They are also met with in Belgium and
Denmark.
As has already been suggested, it is by no means improbable that some of these
ruder unpolished implements were employed in agriculture, like the so-called
shovels and hoes of flint of North America, described by Professor Rau. I have a flat
celt-like implement about 6 1
⁄2 inches long and 3 inches broad, found in Cayuga
County, New York, which, though unground, has its broad end beautifully polished
on both faces, apparently by friction of the silty soil in which it has been used as a
hoe. It is, as Professor Rau has pointed out in other cases, slightly striated in the
direction in which the implement penetrated the ground. [273] I have also an
Egyptian chipped flint hoe from Qûrnah, polished in a precisely similar manner. It is
doubtful whether many of the rough implements from the neighbourhood of Thebes
are Neolithic or Palæolithic. [274]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/15102-250315010733-04dd2f92/85/Test-Bank-for-Olds-Maternal-Newborn-Nursing-and-Womens-Health-Across-the-Lifespan-11th-Edition-by-Davidson-64-320.jpg)
Test Bank for Olds Maternal Newborn Nursing and Womens Health Across the Lifespan 11th Edition by Davidson
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- 5. 2 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 2) Care delivered by nurse-midwives can be safe and effective and can represent a positive response to the healthcare provider shortage. Nurse-midwives tend to use less technology, which often results in which of the following? A) There is less trauma to the mother. B) More childbirth education classes are available. C) They are instrumental in providing change in the birth environment at work. D) They advocate for more home healthcare agencies. Answer: A Explanation: A) Nurse-midwife models of care can be one way to ensure that mothers receive excellent prenatal and intrapartum care. B) It is appropriate for nurse-midwives, in conjunction with doctors and hospitals, to provide childbirth classes for expectant families. C) By working with other staff members and doctors, the nurse-midwife is able to implement changes as needed within the birthing unit. D) Clients are increasingly going home sooner, so there needs to be more follow-up in the home. Page Ref: 3 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Promotion/Disease Prevention Standards: QSEN Competencies: III.A. 6. Describe how the strength and relevance of available evidence influences the choice of interventions in provision of patient-centered care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IX. 5. Deliver compassionate, patient-centered, evidence-based care that respects patient and family preferences. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Read and interpret data; apply health promotion/disease prevention strategies; apply health policy; conduct population-based transcultural health assessments and interventions. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 6. 3 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 3) The nurse is telling a new client how advanced technology has permitted the physician to do which of the following? A) Treat the fetus and monitor fetal development. B) Deliver at home with a nurse-midwife and doula. C) Have the father act as the coach and cut the umbilical cord. D) Breastfeed a new baby on the delivery table. Answer: A Explanation: A) The fetus is increasingly viewed as a patient separate from the mother, although treatment of the fetus necessarily involves the mother. B) A nurse-midwife and a doula are not examples of technological care. C) Fathers being present during labor and coaching their partners represents nontechnological care during childbirth. D) Breastfeeding is not an example of technology impacting care. Page Ref: 2—3 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.B.10. Engage patients or designated surrogates in active partnerships that promote health, safety and well-being, and self-care management. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IX.5. Deliver compassionate, patient-centered, evidence-based care that respects patient and family preferences. | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Scope of practice, roles, and responsibilities of health care team members, including overlaps. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 6 Evaluate the potential impact of some of the special situations in contemporary maternity care. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 7. 4 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 4) A nurse is examining different nursing roles. Which example best illustrates an advanced practice nursing role? A) A registered nurse who is the manager of a large obstetrical unit B) A registered nurse who is the circulating nurse during surgical deliveries (cesarean sections) C) A clinical nurse specialist working as a staff nurse on a mother-baby unit D) A clinical nurse specialist with whom other nurses consult for her expertise in caring for high- risk infants Answer: D Explanation: A) A registered nurse who is the manager of a large obstetrical unit is a professional nurse who has graduated from an accredited program in nursing and completed the licensure examination. B) A registered nurse who is a circulating nurse at surgical deliveries (cesarean sections) is a professional nurse who has graduated from an accredited program in nursing and completed the licensure examination. C) A clinical nurse specialist working as a staff nurse on a mother-baby unit might have the qualifications for an advanced practice nursing staff member but is not working in that capacity. D) A clinical nurse specialist with whom other nurses consult for expertise in caring for high-risk infants is working in an advanced practice nursing role. This nurse has specialized knowledge and competence in a specific clinical area, and is master's prepared. Page Ref: 5 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: II.A.2. Describe scopes of practice and roles of healthcare team members. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 6. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Scope of practice, roles, and responsibilities of health care team members, including overlaps. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 8. 5 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 5) A nursing student investigating potential career goals is strongly considering becoming a nurse practitioner (NP). The major focus of the NP is on which of the following? A) Leadership B) Physical and psychosocial clinical assessment C) Independent care of the high-risk pregnant client D) Tertiary prevention Answer: B Explanation: A) Leadership might be a quality of the NP, but it is not the major focus. B) Physical and psychosocial clinical assessment is the major focus of the NP. C) NPs cannot provide independent care of the high-risk pregnant client, but must work under a physician's supervision. D) The NP cannot do tertiary prevention as a major focus. Page Ref: 5 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: II.A.2. Describe scopes of practice and roles of healthcare team members. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 2. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Scope of practice, roles, and responsibilities of health care team members, including overlaps. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 9. 6 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 6) The nurse manager is consulting with a certified nurse-midwife about a client. What is the role of the CNM? Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected. Select all that apply. A) Be prepared to manage independently the care of women at low risk for complications during pregnancy and birth. B) Give primary care for high-risk clients who are in hospital settings. C) Give primary care for healthy newborns. D) Obtain a physician consultation for any technical procedures at delivery. E) Be educated in two disciplines of nursing. Answer: A, C, E Explanation: A) A CNM is prepared to manage independently the care of women at low risk for complications during pregnancy and birth and the care of healthy newborns. B) CNMs cannot give primary care for high-risk clients who are in hospital settings. The physician provides the primary care. C) A CNM is prepared to manage independently the care of women at low risk for complications during pregnancy and birth and the care of healthy newborns. D) The CNM does not need to obtain a physician consultation for any technical procedures at delivery. E) The CNM is educated in the disciplines of nursing and midwifery. Page Ref: 5 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: II.A.2. Describe scopes of practice and roles of healthcare team members. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 1. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Scope of practice, roles, and responsibilities of health care team members, including overlaps. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 10. 7 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 7) The registered nurse who has completed a master's degree program and passed a national certification exam has clinic appointments with clients who are pregnant or seeking well-woman care. What is the role of this nurse considered to be? A) Professional nurse B) Certified registered nurse (RNC) C) Clinical nurse specialist D) Nurse practitioner Answer: D Explanation: A) A professional nurse is one who has completed an accredited basic educational program and has passed the NCLEX-RN® exam. B) A certified registered nurse (RNC) has shown expertise in the field and has taken a national certification exam. C) A clinical nurse specialist has completed a master's degree program, has specialized knowledge and competence in a specific clinical area, and often is employed in hospitals on specialized units. D) A nurse practitioner has completed either a master's or doctoral degree in nursing and passed a certification exam, and functions as an advanced practice nurse. Ambulatory care settings and the community are common sites for nurse practitioners to provide client care. Page Ref: 5 Cognitive Level: Remembering Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Promotion/Disease Prevention Standards: QSEN Competencies: II.A.2. Describe scopes of practice and roles of healthcare team members. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 6. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Scope of practice, roles, and responsibilities of health care team members, including overlaps. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 11. 8 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 8) While a child is being admitting to the hospital, the parent receives information about the pediatric unit's goals, including the statement that the unit practices family-centered care. The parent asks why that is important. The nurse responds that what communication dynamic is characteristic of the family-centered care paradigm? A) The mother is the principal caregiver in each family. B) The child's physician is the key person in ensuring that the health of a child is maintained. C) The family serves as the constant influence and continuing support in the child's life. D) The father is the leader in each home; thus, all communications should include him. Answer: C Explanation: A) Culturally competent care recognizes that both matriarchal and patriarchal households exist. B) The physician is not present during the day-to-day routines in a child's life. C) Family-centered care is characterized by an emphasis on the family and family involvement throughout the pregnancy, birth, and postpartum period. D) Culturally competent care recognizes that both matriarchal and patriarchal households exist. Page Ref: 2 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Developmental Stages and Transitions Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.B.3. Provide patient-centered care with sensitivity and respect for the diversity of human experience. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IX. 6. Implement holistic, patient-centered care that reflects an understanding of human growth and development, pathophysiology, pharmacology, medical management and nursing management across the health-illness continuum, across the lifespan, and in all healthcare settings. | NLN Competencies: Relationship-Centered Care: Promote and accept the patient's emotions; accept and respond to distress in the patient and self; facilitate hope, trust and faith. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 4 Identify specific factors that contribute to a family's value system. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 12. 9 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 9) The current emphasis on federal healthcare reform has yielded what unexpected benefit? A) Assessment of the details of the family's income and expenditures B) Case management to limit costly, unnecessary duplication of services C) Many healthcare providers and consumers are becoming more aware of the vitally important role nurses play in providing excellent care to clients and families D) Education of the family about the need for keeping regular well-child visit appointments Answer: C Explanation: A) Financial assessment is more commonly the function of a social worker. The social worker is part of the interdisciplinary team working with clients, and this professional's expertise is helping clients get into the appropriate programs. B) The case management activity mentioned will not provide a source of funding. C) Nurses must clearly articulate their role in the changing environment to define and differentiate practice roles and the educational preparation required for their new roles. D) The education of the family will not provide a source of funding. Page Ref: 4 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Promotion/Disease Prevention Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.A. 4. Examine how the safety, quality and cost effectiveness of health care can be improved through the active involvement of patients and families. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 1. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Read and interpret data; apply health promotion/disease prevention strategies; apply health policy; conduct population-based transcultural health assessments and interventions. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 2 Compare the nursing roles available to the maternal-newborn nurse. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 13. 10 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 10) For prenatal care, the client is attending a clinic held in a church basement. The client's care is provided by registered nurses and a certified nurse-midwife. What is this type of prenatal care? A) Secondary care B) Tertiary care C) Community care D) Unnecessarily costly care Answer: C Explanation: A) Secondary care is specialized care; an example is checking the hemoglobin A1C of a diabetic client at an endocrine clinic. B) Tertiary care is very specialized, and includes trauma units and neonatal intensive care units. C) Prenatal care is primary care. Community care is often provided at clinics in neighborhoods to facilitate clients' access to primary care, including prenatal care and prevention of illness. D) Community care decreases costs while improving client outcomes, and is not unnecessarily expensive. Page Ref: 3 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Ante/Intra/Postpartum and Newborn Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.A. 1. Integrate understanding of multiple dimensions of patient-centered care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 1. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Environmental health; health promotion/disease prevention (e.g. transmission of disease, disease patterns, epidemiological principles); chronic disease management; health care systems; transcultural approaches to health; family dynamics. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 3 Describe the use of community-based nursing care in meeting the needs of childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 14. 11 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 11) The nurse at an elementary school is performing TB screenings on all of the students. Permission slips were returned for all but the children of one family. When the nurse phones to obtain permission, the parent states in clearly understandable English that permission cannot be given because the grandmother is out of town for 2 more weeks. Which cultural element is contributing to the dilemma that faces the nurse? A) Permissible physical contact with strangers B) Beliefs about the concepts of health and illness C) Religion and social beliefs D) Presence and influence of the extended family Answer: D Explanation: A) The situation the nurse faces is not being caused by permissible contact with strangers. B) The situation the nurse faces is not caused by beliefs about the concepts of health and illness. C) The situation the nurse faces is not caused by religion and social beliefs. D) The presence and influence of the extended family is contributing to the situation the nurse faces. In many cultures, a family elder is the primary decision maker when it comes to health care. In this case, the parent cannot grant permission to the nurse until the parent consults the grandmother. Page Ref: 4 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Screening Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. A. 2. Describe how diverse cultural, ethnic, and social backgrounds function as sources of patient, family, and community values. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IX. 5. Deliver compassionate, patient-centered, evidence-based care that respects patient and family preferences. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Analyze ethical challenges presented by ambiguous and uncertain clinical situations; self-assess one's own tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty; accept the possibility of multiple "right" answers (rather than one right answer thinking) in patient care and other professional situations. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 4 Identify specific factors that contribute to a family's value system. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 15. 12 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 12) A maternity client is in need of surgery. Which healthcare member is legally responsible for obtaining informed consent for an invasive procedure? A) The nurse B) The physician C) The unit secretary D) The social worker Answer: B Explanation: A) It is not the nurse's legal responsibility to obtain informed consent. B) Informed consent is a legal concept designed to allow clients to make intelligent decisions regarding their own health care. Informed consent means that a client, or a legally designated decision maker, has granted permission for a specific treatment or procedure based on full information about that specific treatment or procedure as it relates to that client under the specific circumstances of the permission. The individual who is ultimately responsible for the treatment or procedure should provide the information necessary to obtain informed consent. In most instances, this is a physician. C) Unit secretaries are not responsible for obtaining informed consent. D) It is not within a social worker's scope of practice to obtain informed consent. Page Ref: 7—8 Cognitive Level: Remembering Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 12. Facilitate informed patient consent for care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VIII. 1. Demonstrate the professional standards of moral, ethical, and legal conduct. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American Nurses Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional standards (ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations; principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 16. 13 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 13) A nurse who tells family members the sex of a newborn baby without first consulting the parents would have committed which of the following? A) A breach of privacy B) Negligence C) Malpractice D) A breach of ethics Answer: A Explanation: A) A breach of privacy would have been committed in this situation, because informing other family members of the child's sex without the parents' consent violates the parents' right to privacy. The right to privacy is the right of a person to keep his person and property free from public scrutiny (or even from other family members). B) Negligence is a punishable legal offense, and is more serious. C) Malpractice is a punishable legal offense, and is more serious. D) No breach of ethics has been committed in this situation. Page Ref: 8 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Ethical Practice Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 13. Assess own level of communication skill in encounters with patient and families. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IV. 8. Uphold ethical standards related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality and clients' right to privacy. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American Nurses Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional standards (ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations; principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 17. 14 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 14) The nursing instructor explains to the class that according to the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade, abortion is legal if induced: A) Before the 30th week of pregnancy. B) Before the period of viability. C) To provide tissue for therapeutic research. D) Can be done any time if mother, doctor, and hospital all agree. Answer: B Explanation: A) This statement is not true, because the fetus is viable many weeks before the 30th week. B) Abortion can be performed legally until the period of viability. C) Abortion cannot be used for the sole purpose of providing tissue for therapeutic research. D) This is not true. Legal abortion can be done only up until the time of viability. Page Ref: 9 Cognitive Level: Remembering Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Ethical Practice Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 3. Provide patient-centered care with sensitivity and respect for the diversity of human experience. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IV. 8. Uphold ethical standards related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality and client's right to privacy. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Code of ethics (e.g. American Nurses Association 2005; International Council of Nurses, 2006); regulatory and professional standards (ANA Social Policy Statement [ANA, 2003]; HIPAA [Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]); ethical decision making modes; scope of practice considerations; principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 18. 15 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 15) The nurse reviewing charts for quality improvement notes that a client experienced a complication during labor. The nurse is uncertain whether the labor nurse took the appropriate action during the situation. What is the best way for the nurse to determine what the appropriate action should have been? A) Call the nurse manager of the labor and delivery unit and ask what the nurse should have done. B) Ask the departmental chair of the obstetrical physicians what the best nursing action would have been. C) Examine other charts to find cases of the same complication, and determine how it was handled in those situations. D) Look in the policy and procedure book, and examine the practice guidelines published by a professional nursing organization. Answer: D Explanation: A) The nurse should find the standards, and not rely on another person to determine appropriateness of care. B) Physician care and nursing care are very different; physicians might not be up to date on nursing standards of care or nursing policies and procedures. C) What nursing action was undertaken in a different situation might not be based on the policies and procedures or other standards of care. The quality improvement nurse will obtain the most accurate information by examining the policies, procedures, and standards of care. D) Agency policies, procedures, and protocols contain guidelines for nursing action in specific situations. Professional organizations such as the Association of Women's Health, Obstetrical, and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN) also publish standards of practice that should guide nursing care. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: IV. A. 4. Explain the importance of variation and measurement in assessing quality of care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: V. 1. Demonstrate basic knowledge of healthcare policy, finance, and regulatory environments; including local, state, national, and global healthcare trends. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Retrieve research findings and other sources of information; critique research to judge its value and usefulness; evaluate the strength of evidence for application of research findings to clinical practice. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Evaluation. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 19. 16 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 16) The nurse is reviewing care of clients on a mother-baby unit. Which situation should be reported to the supervisor? A) A 2-day-old infant has breastfed every 2-3 hours and voided four times. B) An infant was placed in the wrong crib after examination by the physician. C) The client who delivered by cesarean birth yesterday received oral narcotics. D) A primiparous client who delivered today is requesting discharge within 24 hours. Answer: B Explanation: A) Breastfeeding every 2 hours and voiding four times is within normal limits for a 2-day-old infant. There is no negligence in this situation. B) Placing an infant in the wrong crib is malpractice. Malpractice is negligent action by a professional person. C) Receiving oral narcotics at this point in the client's stay is within normal limits. There is no negligence in this situation. D) If the client is feeling well and able to care for her infant, it is normal to be discharged at this time. The mother and baby both must be within normal limits to be discharged. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Safety and Infection Control Standards: QSEN Competencies: V. B. 1. Demonstrate effective use of strategies to reduce risk of harm to self or others. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VIII. 1. Demonstrate the professional standards of moral, ethical, and legal conduct. | NLN Competencies: Quality and Safety: Communicate effectively with different individuals (team members, other care providers, patients, families, etc.) so as to minimize risks associated with handoffs among providers and across transitions in care. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Evaluation. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 20. 17 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 17) The nurse manager is planning a presentation on ethical issues in caring for childbearing families. Which example should the nurse manager include to illustrate maternal-fetal conflict? A) A client chooses an abortion after her fetus is diagnosed with a genetic anomaly. B) A 39-year-old nulliparous client undergoes therapeutic insemination. C) A family of a child with leukemia requests cord-blood banking at a sibling's birth. D) A cesarean delivery of a breech fetus is court ordered after the client refuses. Answer: D Explanation: A) Abortion is a different type of ethical situation. B) Achieving pregnancy through the use of therapeutic insemination is a form of reproductive assistance, and is not considered a maternal-fetal conflict. C) Cord-blood banking is a different type of ethical situation. D) Maternal-fetal conflict is a special ethical situation where the rights of the fetus and the rights of the mother are considered separately. Forced cesarean birth, coercion of mothers who practice high-risk behaviors, and, perhaps most controversial, mandating experimental in utero therapy or surgery in an attempt to correct a specific birth defect are interventions that infringe on the mother's autonomy. Page Ref: 9 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I. B. 9. Assess level of patient's decisional conflict and provide access to resources. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VIII. 1. Demonstrate the professional standards of moral, ethical, and legal conduct. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment: Show respect for others' values; appreciate diversity; be civil during relationships and work; value community empowerment and social justice; work to improve social conditions affecting health; adopt inclusive language. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 21. 18 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 18) Client safety goals, which are evaluated and updated regularly, are requirements for what? A) Clinical practice guidelines B) Scope of practice C) Accreditation D) Standards of care Answer: C Explanation: A) Clinical practice guidelines are adopted within a healthcare setting to reduce variation in care management, to limit costs of care, and to evaluate the effectiveness of care. B) State nurse practice acts protect the public by broadly defining the legal scope of practice within which every nurse must function and by excluding untrained or unlicensed individuals from practicing nursing. C) The Joint Commission has identified client safety as an important responsibility of healthcare providers. D) Standards of care establish minimum criteria for competent, proficient delivery of nursing care. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Remembering Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: V. A. 7. Discuss potential and actual impact of national patient safety resources, initiatives, and regulations. | AACN Essentials Competencies: IX. 12. Create a safe environment that results in high quality patient outcomes. | NLN Competencies: Quality and Safety: Value and encourage nurses' involvement in the design, selection, implementation, and evaluation of information technologies to support patient care (e.g. as recommended by QSEN). | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 22. 19 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 19) A fetus has been diagnosed with myelomeningocele. Which of the following surgeries would be performed to correct this condition? A) Tubal ligation B) Intrauterine fetal surgery C) Cesarean section D) Sterilization Answer: B Explanation: A) Tubal ligation is not an intrauterine fetal surgery. B) Intrauterine fetal surgery, which is generally considered experimental, is a therapy for anatomic lesions that can be corrected surgically and are incompatible with life if not treated. Examples include surgery for myelomeningocele and some congenital cardiac defects. C) A cesarean birth is not considered an intrauterine fetal surgery. D) Sterilization surgery does not involve the fetus. Page Ref: 9 Cognitive Level: Remembering Client Need/Sub: Physiological Integrity: Physiological Adaptation Standards: QSEN Competencies: II. B. 8. Integrate the contributions of others who play a role in helping the patient/family achieve health goals. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI. 1. Compare/contrast the roles and perspectives of the nursing profession with other care professionals on the healthcare team (i.e. scope of discipline, education, and licensure requirements). | NLN Competencies: Teamwork: Function competently within one's own scope of practice as leader or member of the health care team and manage delegation effectively. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 23. 20 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 20) A nurse is providing guidance to a group of parents of children in the infant-to-preschool age group. After reviewing statistics on the most common cause of death in this age group, the nurse includes information about prevention of which of the following? A) Cancer by reducing the use of pesticides in the home B) Accidental injury by reducing the risk of pool and traffic accidents C) Heart disease by incorporating heart-healthy foods into the child's diet D) Pneumonia by providing a diet high in vitamin C from fruits and vegetables Answer: B Explanation: A) Cancer due to pesticide use is not a large cause of death in this age group. B) Unintentional injuries cause death in infants more often than cancer, heart disease, and pneumonia. C) Heart disease is not a large cause of death in this age group. D) Pneumonia does not cause a large number of deaths. Page Ref: 13 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Safety and Infection Control Standards: QSEN Competencies: V. A. 1. Examine human factors and other basic safety design principles as well as commonly used unsafe practices (such as work-arounds and dangerous abbreviations) | AACN Essentials Competencies: II. 7. Promote factors that create a culture of safety and caring. | NLN Competencies: Quality and Safety: Communicate potential risk factors and actual errors. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 7 Contrast descriptive and inferential statistics. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 24. 21 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 21) The nurse is preparing a report on the number of births by three service providers at the facility (certified nurse-midwives, family practitioners, and obstetricians). What is this an example of? A) Inferential statistics B) Descriptive statistics C) Evidence-based practice D) Secondary use of data Answer: B Explanation: A) Inferential statistics allow the investigator to draw conclusions from data to either support or refute causation. B) Descriptive statistics concisely describe phenomena such as births by providers. C) Evidence-based practice is the use of research conclusions to improve nursing care. D) Secondary use of data is analyzing data in a different way than was originally undertaken, or looking at different variables from a data set. Page Ref: 11 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: III. A. 2. Describe EBP to include the components of research evidence, clinical expertise and patient/family values. | AACN Essentials Competencies: III. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic elements of the research process and models for applying evidence to clinical practice. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Retrieve research findings and other sources of information; critique research to judge its value and usefulness; evaluate the strength of evidence for application of research findings to clinical practice. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Planning. Learning Outcome: 7 Contrast descriptive and inferential statistics. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 25. 22 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 22) The nurse is explaining the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to a group of student nurses. To illustrate descriptive statistics, what would the nurse use as an example? A) A positive correlation between breastfeeding and infant weight gain B) The infant mortality rate in the state of Oklahoma C) A causal relationship between the number of sexual partners and sexually transmitted infections D) The total number of spontaneous abortions in drug-abusing women as compared with non- drug-abusing women Answer: B Explanation: A) A positive correlation between two or more variables is an inferential statistic. B) The infant mortality rate in the state of Oklahoma is a descriptive statistic, because it describes or summarizes a set of data. C) A causal relationship between the number of sexual partners and sexually transmitted infections is an inferential statistic. D) The total number of spontaneous abortions in drug-abusing women is an inferential statistic. Page Ref: 11 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Promotion/Disease Prevention Standards: QSEN Competencies: III. A. 2. Describe EBP to include the components of research evidence, clinical expertise, and patient/family values. | AACN Essentials Competencies: III. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic elements of the research process and models for applying evidence to clinical practice. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Retrieve research findings and other sources of information; critique research to judge its value and usefulness; evaluate the strength of evidence for application of research findings to clinical practice. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Evaluation. Learning Outcome: 7 Contrast descriptive and inferential statistics. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 26. 23 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 23) The nurse manager is examining the descriptive statistics of increasing teen pregnancy rates in the community. Which inferential statistical research question would the nurse manager find most useful in investigating the reasons for increased frequency of teen pregnancy? A) What providers do pregnant teens see for prenatal care? B) What are the ages of the parents of pregnant teens in the community? C) Do pregnant teens drink caffeinated beverages? D) What do pregnant teens do for recreation? Answer: A Explanation: A) Understanding which providers pregnant teens are most likely to seek out for prenatal care can lead to further investigation on why prenatal care with that provider is more acceptable to teens, which in turn can lead to greater understanding of the issue of teen pregnancy. B) A question about the age of parents of pregnant teens might prove useful in seeking causes of teen pregnancy, but it is not the most useful question in understanding the increased frequency of teen pregnancy. C) Whether pregnant teens drink caffeinated beverages gives no further insight into the issues of teen pregnancy. D) Understanding the recreational activities of pregnant teens would not lead to an understanding of the issues surrounding increasing teen pregnancy rates. Page Ref: 11 Cognitive Level: Analyzing Client Need/Sub: Health Promotion and Maintenance: Health Promotion/Disease Prevention Standards: QSEN Competencies: III. A. 2. Describe EBP to include the components of research evidence, clinical expertise, and patient/family values. | AACN Essentials Competencies: III. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of the basic elements of the research process and models for applying evidence to clinical practice. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Retrieve research findings and other sources of information; critique research to judge its value and usefulness; evaluate the strength of evidence for application of research findings to clinical practice. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Diagnosis. Learning Outcome: 7 Contrast descriptive and inferential statistics. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 27. 24 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 24) The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) project focused on competencies in which areas? Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected. Select all that apply. A) Client-centered care B) Teamwork and collaboration C) Evidence-based practice D) Family planning E) Injury and violence prevention Answer: A, B, C Explanation: A) The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) project is designed "to meet the challenge of preparing future nurses who will have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to continuously improve the quality and safety of the healthcare systems within which they work," which includes client-centered care. B) The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) project, is designed "to meet the challenge of preparing future nurses who will have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to continuously improve the quality and safety of the healthcare systems within which they work," which includes teamwork and collaboration. C) The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) project, is designed "to meet the challenge of preparing future nurses who will have the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to continuously improve the quality and safety of the healthcare systems within which they work," which includes evidence-based practice. D) Healthy People 2020 focuses on family planning. E) Healthy People 2020 focuses on injury and violence prevention. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: V. B. 8. Use national patient safety resources for own professional development and to focus attention on safety in care settings. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VIII. 12. Act to prevent unsafe, illegal, or unethical care practices. | NLN Competencies: Quality and Safety: Value and encourage nurses' involvement in the design, selection, implementation, and evaluation of information technologies to support patient care (e.g., as recommended by QSEN). | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Implementation. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 28. 25 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 25) The nurse is serving on a panel to evaluate the hospital staff's reliance on evidence-based practice in their decision-making processes. Which practices characterize the basic competencies related to evidence-based practice? Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected. Select all that apply. A) Recognizing which clinical practices are supported by good evidence B) Recognizing and including clinical practice supported by intuitive evidence C) Using data in clinical work to evaluate outcomes of care D) Including quality-improvement measures in clinical practice E) Appraising and integrating scientific bases into practice Answer: A, C, E Explanation: A) Recognizing which clinical practices are supported by sound evidence is a basic competency related to evidence-based practice. B) Including clinical practice supported by intuitive evidence is not a basic competency related to evidence-based practice. C) Using data in clinical work to evaluate outcomes of care is one of the basic competencies related to evidence-based practice. D) Including quality-improvement measures is a form of evidence that can be useful in making clinical practice decisions, but it is not a basic competency related to evidence-based practice. E) Appraising and integrating scientific bases into practice is one of the characteristics of the basic competencies related to evidence-based practice. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: III. A. 2. Describe EBP to include the components of research evidence, clinical expertise and patient/family values. | AACN Essentials Competencies: II. 5. Participate in quality and patient safety initiatives, recognizing that these are complex system issues, which involve individuals, families, groups, communities, populations and other members of the healthcare team. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Translate research into practice in order to promote quality and improve practices. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Assessment. Learning Outcome: 8 Identify the impact of evidence-based practice in improving the quality of nursing care for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 29. 26 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 26) Nursing research is vital to do which of the following? Note: Credit will be given only if all correct choices and no incorrect choices are selected. Select all that apply. A) Expand the science of nursing. B) Foster evidence-based practice. C) Improve client care. D) Visually depict nursing management. E) Plan and organize care. Answer: A, B, C Explanation: A) Research is vital to expanding the science of nursing. B) Research is vital to fostering evidence-based practice. C) Research is vital to improving client care. D) The nursing process is research-based, but is not a part of the clinical pathway. Visually depicting nursing management is part of concept mapping, not nursing research. E) Organizing patient care is an aspect of the nursing process. Planning and organizing care is part of nursing care plans, not nursing research. Page Ref: 11 Cognitive Level: Understanding Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: III. A. 7. Discriminate between valid and invalid reasons for modifying evidence-based clinical practice based on clinical expertise or patient/family preferences. | AACN Essentials Competencies: III. 5. Participate in the process of retrieval, appraisal and synthesis of evidence in collaboration with other members of the healthcare team to improve patient outcomes. | NLN Competencies: Knowledge and Science: Retrieve research findings and other sources of information; critique research to judge its value and usefulness; evaluate the strength of evidence for application of research findings to clinical practice. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Nursing Process: Evaluation. Learning Outcome: 8 Identify the impact of evidence-based practice in improving the quality of nursing care for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 30. 27 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 27) A group of nurses are meeting as identified in the image below. Which behavior are the nurses demonstrating during this meeting? A) Privacy B) Advocacy C) Collaboration D) Informed consent Answer: C Explanation: C) Collaborative practice is a comprehensive model of health care that uses a multidisciplinary team of health professionals to provide cost-effective, high-quality care. In a successful team, each individual has autonomy but functions within a clearly defined scope of practice. In such a collaborative approach, no single profession "owns the patient." The right to privacy is the right of a person to keep his or her person and property free from public scrutiny. Advocacy is ensuring a patient receives necessary and required support. Informed consent is a legal concept designed to allow patients to make intelligent decisions regarding their own health care. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Analyzing Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: II.B.9. 9. Communicate with team members, adapting own style of communicating to needs of the team and situation. | AACN Essentials Competencies: VI.5. 5. Demonstrate appropriate teambuilding and collaborative strategies when working with interprofessional teams. | NLN Competencies: Relationship Centered Care; Practice; Share responsibility responsibly; collaborate and work cooperatively with others. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Assessment; Communication and Documentation. Learning Outcome: 3 Describe the use of community-based nursing care in meeting the needs of childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 31. 28 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 28) The nurse is reviewing the Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) competencies while preparing an in-service program to address safety in the neonatal intensive care unit. In which order should the nurse present these competencies? 1. Safety 2. Informatics 3. Patient-centered care 4. Quality improvement 5. Evidence-based practice 6. Teamwork and collaboration Answer: 3, 6, 5, 4, 1, 2 Explanation: The Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) project is designed "to meet the challenge of preparing future nurses who will have the knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs) necessary to continuously improve the quality and safety of the healthcare systems within which they work. The project focuses on competencies in six areas: 1. Patient-centered care, 2. Teamwork and collaboration; 3. Evidence-based practice; 4. Quality improvement; 5. Safety; and 6. Informatics. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Safety and Infection Control Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.A.1. 1. Integrate understanding of multiple dimensions of patient centered care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: II. 7. Promote factors that create a culture of safety and caring. | NLN Competencies: Quality and Safety; Ethical Comportment; Commit to a generative safety culture. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Implementation; Teaching/Learning. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 32. 29 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 29) The nurse is ensuring that a patient has provided informed consent before agreeing to an amniocentesis. In which order should the nurse validate that informed consent was provided by the patient? 1. Information provides risk and benefits 2. Information provided clearly and concisely 3. Information included treatment alternatives 4. Information explaining the right to refuse treatment 5. Information reviews consequences if no treatment provided Answer: 2, 1, 3, 5, 4 Explanation: Several elements must be addressed to ensure that the patient has given informed consent. The information must be clearly and concisely presented in a manner understandable to the patient and must include risks and benefits, the probability of success, and significant treatment alternatives. The patient also needs to be told the consequences of receiving no treatment or procedure. Finally, the patient must be told of the right to refuse a specific treatment or procedure. Each patient should be told that refusing the specified treatment or procedure does not result in the withdrawal of all support or care. Page Ref: 7 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.B. 12. Facilitate informed patient consent for care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: II. 7. Promote factors that create a culture of safety and caring. | NLN Competencies: Context and Environment; Knowledge; principles of informed consent, confidentiality, patient self-determination. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Evaluation; Nursing Process. Learning Outcome: 5 Delineate significant legal and ethical issues that influence the practice of nursing for childbearing families. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 33. 30 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 30) The nurse is preparing a presentation for new labor and delivery nurses. Which cultural group should the nurse identify as having the lowest birth rate for the 20 to 24 age range? Table 1-2 Birth Rate by Age and Race of Mother, 2011 Age All Races White Black American Indian or Alaska Native Asian or Pacific Islander 10-14 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.5 0.1 15-19 31.3 29.1 47.3 36.1 10.2 15-17 15.4 14.1 24.7 18.2 4.6 18-19 54.1 50.8 78.8 61.6 18.1 20-24 85.3 83 111.9 86.6 41.9 25-29 107.2 110 101.7 75.4 93.7 30-34 96.5 100.1 74.1 47.3 114.9 35-39 47.2 47.6 38.0 23.1 64.1 40-44 10.3 10.1 9.4 5.5 15.2 45-49 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.2 1.2 Source: Martin, J.A., Hamilton, B.E., Ventura, S.J., Osterman, M.J.K., & Matthews, T.J. (2013). Births: Final data 2011. National Vital Statistics Reports, 62(1), 1-70. A) Asian B) White C) Black D) American Indian Answer: A Explanation: A) For the 20 to 24 age group, the lowest birth rate is within the Asian or Pacific Islander cultural group. The birth rate for Whites for this age range is the next lowest. The birth rate for American Indians within this age group is the third highest and the highest birth rate for this age group is within the Black cultural group. Page Ref: 11-12 Cognitive Level: Analyzing Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.A. 1. Integrate understanding of multiple dimensions of patient centered care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: V. 6. Explore the impact of socio- cultural, economic, legal and political factors influencing healthcare delivery and practice. | NLN Competencies: Relationship Centered Care; Knowledge; The role of family, culture, and community in a person's development. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Implementation; Teaching/Learning. Learning Outcome: 6 Evaluate the potential impact of some of the special situations in contemporary maternity care. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 34. 31 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. 31) The manager of a maternal-child care area is preparing information to share with nursing staff regarding the leading causes of infant death in the United States. In which order, from most to least frequent, should the manager provide this information? 1. SIDS 2. Low birth weight 3. Unintentional injuries 4. Maternal complications 5. Congenital malformation Answer: 5, 2, 1, 4, 3 Explanation: The five leading causes of deaths of infants in the United States, from highest to lowest in frequency, are congenital malformations, low birth weight, SIDS, maternal complications, and unintentional injuries. Page Ref: 13 Cognitive Level: Applying Client Need/Sub: Safe and Effective Care Environment: Management of Care Standards: QSEN Competencies: I.A. 1. Integrate understanding of multiple dimensions of patient centered care. | AACN Essentials Competencies: V. 6. Explore the impact of socio- cultural, economic, legal and political factors influencing healthcare delivery and practice. | NLN Competencies: Relationship Centered Care; Knowledge; The role of family, culture, and community in a person's development. | Nursing/Integrated Concepts: Implementation; Teaching/Learning. Learning Outcome: 6 Evaluate the potential impact of some of the special situations in contemporary maternity care. MNL LO: Recognize contemporary issues related to care of the childbearing family.
- 35. Other documents randomly have different content
- 36. shorter than the pebble or block of stone it was used to saw, for even the iron blades used in conjunction with sand and water by modern masons become concave by wear, and, therefore, the bottom of the kerf they produce is convex longitudinally. I accordingly made some further experiments, and this time upon a fragment of a greenstone celt of such hardness that it would readily scratch window-glass. I found, however, that with a flint flake I was able to work a groove along it, and that whether I used sand or no, my progress was equally certain, though it must be confessed, very slow. I am indeed doubtful whether the flint did not produce most effect without the sand, as the latter to become effective requires a softer body in which it may become embedded; while by working with the points and projections in the slightly notched edge of the flake, its scratching action soon discoloured the water in the notch. What was most remarkable, and served in a great measure to discredit the negative evidence to which I before referred, was that the edges of the flake when not used with sand showed but slight traces of wear or polish. On the whole, I am inclined to think that both the Swiss antiquaries are in the right, and that the blocks of stone were sawn both with and without sand, by means of flint flakes, but principally of strips of wood and bone used in conjunction with sand. [140] The reader may consult Munro’s Lake-Dwellings, 1890, p. 505. Professor Flinders Petrie, in addition to the flint implements of the “New Race,” which he discovered near Abydos, found a number of stone implements at Kahun, and Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell has contributed to his [141] book an interesting chapter on their character and the method of their manufacture. Most of the jade implements from New Zealand and N.W. America have been partially shaped by sawing, and in the British Museum is a large block of jade from the former country deeply grooved by sawing, and almost ready to be split, so as to be of the {46} right thickness for a mere. The natives [142] use stone hammers for chipping, flakes of trap or of some other hard rock for sawing, and
- 37. blocks of sandstone and a micaceous rock for grinding and polishing. Obsidian is said to be used for boring jade. I have a flat piece of jade, apparently part of a thin hatchet, on one face of which two notches have been sawn converging at an angle of 135° and marking out what when detached and ground would have formed a curved ear- ring. It was given me by the late Mr. H. N. Moseley, who brought it from New Zealand. There is another peculiarity to be seen in some of the greenstone hatchets and perforated axes, of which perhaps the most characteristic examples occur in Switzerland, though the same may occasionally be observed in British specimens. It is that the blocks of stone have been reduced into form, not only by chipping with a hammer, as is the case with flint hatchets, but by working upon the surface with some sort of pick or chisel, which was not improbably formed of flint. In some instances, where the hatchets were intended for insertion into sockets of stag’s horn or other materials, their butt- end was purposely roughened by means of a pick after the whole surface had been polished. Instances of this roughening are common in Switzerland, rare in France, and rarer still in England. The greenstone hatchet found in a gravel-pit near Malton [143] (Fig. 81) has its butt-end roughened in this manner. The shaft-holes in some few perforated axes appear to have been worked out by means of such picks or chisels, the hole having been bored from opposite sides of the axe, and generally with a gradually decreasing diameter. In some rare instances the perforation is oval. The cup, or funnel-shaped depressions, in some hammer-stones seem to have been made in a similar manner. The inner surface of the shaft holes in perforated axes is also frequently ground, and occasionally polished. This has in most cases been effected by turning a cylindrical grinder within the hole; though in some few instances the grinding instrument has been rubbed backwards and forwards in the hole after the manner of a file. M. Franck de Truguet, [144] of Treytel, in Switzerland, thinks he has found in a lake-dwelling an instrument used for finishing and
- 38. enlarging the holes. It is a fragment of sandstone about 2 1 ⁄2 inches long, and rounded on one face, which is worn by friction. But, besides the mode of chipping out the shaft-hole in {47} perforated implements, several other methods were employed, especially in the days when the use of bronze was known, to which period most of the highly-finished perforated axes found in this country are to be referred. In some cases it would appear that, after chipping out a recess so as to form a guide for the boring tool, the perforation was effected by giving a rotatory motion, either constant or intermittent, to the tool. I have, indeed, seen some specimens in which, from the marks visible in the hole, I am inclined to think a metallic drill was used. But whether, where metal was not employed, and no central core, as subsequently mentioned, was left in the hole, the boring tool was of flint, and acted like a drill, or whether it was a round stone used in conjunction with sand, as suggested by the late Sir Daniel Wilson [145] and Sir W. Wilde, [146] so that the hole was actually ground away, it is impossible to say. I have never seen any flint tools that could unhesitatingly be referred to this use; but Herr Grewingk, in his “Steinalter der Ostseeprovinzen,” [147] mentions several implements in the form of truncated cones, which he regards as boring-tools (Bohrstempel), used for perforating stone axes and hammers. He suggests the employment of a drill-bow to make them revolve, and thinks that, in some cases, the boring tools were fixed, and the axe itself caused to revolve. Not having seen the specimens, I cannot pronounce upon them; but the fact that several of these conical pieces show signs of fracture at the base, and that they are all of the same kinds of stone (diorite, augite, porphyry, and syenite) as those of which the stone axes of the district are made, is suggestive of their being merely the cores, resulting from boring with a tube, in the manner about to be described, in some cases from each face of the axe, and in others where the base of the cone is smooth, from one face only. One of these central cores found in Lithuania is figured by Mortillet, [148] and is regarded by him as being probably the result
- 39. of boring by means of a metal tube; others, from Switzerland, presumably of the Stone Age, are cited by Keller. [149] Bellucci [150] thinks that he has found them in Northern Italy. Worsaae [151] has suggested that in early times the boring may have been effected with a pointed stick and sand and water; and, {48} indeed, if any grinding process was used, it is a question whether some softer substance, such as wood, in which the sand or abrasive material could become imbedded, would not be more effective than flint. By way of experiment I bored a hole through the Swiss hatchet of steatite before mentioned, and I found that in that case a flint flake could be used as a sort of drill; but that for grinding, a stick of elder was superior to both flint and bone, inasmuch as it formed a better bed for the sand. Professor Rau, of New York, has made some interesting experiments in boring stone by means of a drilling-stock and sand, which are described in the “Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1868.” [152] He operated on a piece of hard diorite an inch and three-eighths in thickness, and employed as a drilling agent a wooden wand of ash, or at times, of pine, in conjunction with sharp quartz sand. Attached to the wand was a heavy disc, to act as a fly- wheel, and an alternating rotatory motion was obtained by means of a bow and cord attached at its centre to the apex of the drilling-stock, and giving motion to it after the manner of a “pump-drill,” such as is used by the Dacotahs [153] and Iroquois [154] for producing fire by friction, or what is sometimes called the Chinese drill. So slow was the process, that two hours of constant drilling added, on an average, not more than the thickness of an ordinary lead-pencil line to the depth of the hole. The use of a drill of some form or other, to which rotatory motion in alternate directions was communicated by means of a cord, is of great antiquity. We find it practised with the ordinary bow by the ancient Egyptians; [155] and Ulysses is described by Homer [156] as drilling out the eye of the Cyclops by means of a stake with a thong of leather
- 40. wound round it, and pulled alternately at each end, “like a shipwright boring timber.” The “fire-drill,” for producing fire by friction, which is precisely analogous to the ordinary drill, is, or was, in use in most parts of the world. Among the Aleutian Islanders the thong-drill, and among the New Zealanders a modification of it, is used for boring holes in stone. Those who wish to see more on the subject must consult Tylor’s “Early History of Mankind” [157] and a “Study of the Primitive Methods of Drilling,” [158] by Mr. J. D. McGuire. {49} Professor Carl Vogt [159] has suggested that the small roundels of stone (like Worsaae, “Afb.” No. 86) too large to have been used as spindle-whorls, which are occasionally found in Denmark, may have been the fly-wheels of vertical pump-drills, used for boring stone tools. They may, however, be heads of war-maces. In the case of some of the unfinished and broken axes found in the Swiss lakes, and even in some of the objects made of stag’s horn, [160] there is a projecting core [161] at the bottom of the unfinished hole. This is also often seen in [162] Scandinavian and German specimens. Dr. Keller has shown that this core indicates the employment of some kind of tube as a boring tool; as indeed had been pointed out so long ago as 1832 by Gutsmuths, [163] who, in his paper “Wie durchbohrte der alte Germane seine Streitaxt?” suggested that a copper or bronze tube was used in conjunction with powdered quartz, or sand and water. In the Klemm collection, formerly at Dresden, is a bronze tube, five inches long and three quarters of an inch in diameter, found near Camenz, in Saxony, which its late owner regarded [164] as one of the boring tools used in the manufacture of stone axes. This is now in the British Museum, but does not appear to me to have been employed for such a purpose. The Danish antiquaries [165] have arrived at the same conclusion as to tubes being used for boring. Von Estorff [166] goes so far as to say that the shaft- holes are in some cases so regular and straight, and their inner surface so smooth, that they can only have been bored by means of a metallic cylinder and emery. Lindenschmit [167] considers the boring to
- 41. have been effected either by means of a hard stone, or a plug of hard wood with sand and water, or else, in some cases, by means of a metallic tube, as described by Gutsmuths. He engraves some specimens, in which the commencement of the hole, instead of being a mere depression, is a sunk ring. Similar specimens are mentioned by Lisch. [168] Dr. Keller’s translator, Mr. Lee, cites a friend as suggesting the {50} employment of a hollow stick, such as a piece of elder, for the boring tool. My experience confirms this; but I found that the coarse sand was liable to clog and accumulate in the hollow part of the stick, and thus grind away the top of the core. If I had used finer sand this probably would not have been the case. Mr. Rose [169] has suggested the use of a hollow bone; but, as already observed, I found bone less effective than wood, in consequence of its not being so good a medium for carrying the sand. Mr. Sehested, [170] however, who carried out a series of interesting experiments in grinding, sawing, and boring stone implements, found dry sand better than wet, and a bone of lamb better than either elder or cow’s-horn for boring. Most of the holes drilled in the stone instruments and pipes of North America appear to have been produced by hollow drills, which Professor Rau [171] suggests may have been formed of a hard and tough cane, the Arundinaria macrosperma, which grows abundantly in the southern parts of the United States. He finds reason for supposing that the Indian workmen were acquainted with the ordinary form of drill driven by a pulley and bow. The tubes of steatite, one foot in length, found in some of the minor mounds of the Ohio Valley, [172] must probably have been bored with metal. Dr. Keller, after making some experiments with a hollow bone and quartz-sand, tried a portion of ox-horn, which he found surprisingly more effective, the sand becoming embedded in the horn and acting like a file. He comments on the absence of any bronze tubes that could have been used for boring in this manner, and on the impossibility of making flint tools for the purpose. The perishable
- 42. nature of ox-horn accounts for its absence in the Lake settlements. [173] On the whole this suggestion appears to me the most reasonable. Experiments have also been made in boring with stag’s-horn. [174] M. Troyon [175] considered that these holes were not bored by means of a hollow cylinder, inasmuch as this would not produce so conical an opening, and he thought that the axe was made to revolve in some sort of lathe, while the boring was effected by {51} means of a bronze tool used in conjunction with sand and water. He mentions some stone axes found in Bohemia, and in the collection of the Baron de Neuberg, at Prague, which have so little space left between the body of the axe and the central cores, that in his opinion they must have been bored by means of a metal point and not of a hollow cylinder. Mortillet [176] thinks that some of the Swiss axes were bored in a similar manner. The small holes for suspension, drilled through some of the Danish celts, he thinks were drilled with a pointed stone. [177] Not having seen the specimens cited by M. Troyon, I am unable to offer any opinion upon them; but it appears to me very doubtful whether anything in character like a lathe was known at the early period to which the perforated axes belong, for were such an appliance in use we should probably find it extended to the manufacture of pottery in the shape of the potter’s wheel, whereas the contemporary pottery is all hand-made. M. Desor, [178] though admitting that a hollow metallic tube would have afforded the best means of drilling these holes, is inclined to refer the axes to a period when the use of metals was unknown. He suggests that thin flakes of flint may have been fastened round a stick and thus used to bore the hole, leaving a solid core in the middle. I do not however think that such a method is practicable. In some of the Swiss [179] specimens in which the boring is incomplete there is a small hole in advance of the larger, so that the section is like that of a trifoliated Gothic arch. In this case the borer would appear to have somewhat resembled a centre-bit or pin-drill. In others [180] the holes are oval, and must have
- 43. been much modified after they were first bored. The process of boring holes of large diameter in hard rocks such as diorite and basalt by means of tubes was in common use among the Egyptians. These tubes are supposed to have been made of bronze, and corundum to have been employed with them. Professor Flinders Petrie [181] has suggested that they had jewelled edges like the modern diamond crown drill, and that they could penetrate diorite at the rate of one inch in depth for 27 feet of forward motion. I think, however, that this is an over-estimate. Saws of the same kind were also used. Kirchner, [182] the ingenious but perverse author of “Thor’s Donnerkeil,” considers that steel boring tools must have been used {52} for the shaft-holes in stone axes; and even Nilsson, [183] who comments on the rarity of the axes with the central core in the holes, is inclined to refer them to the Iron Age. He [184] considers it an impossibility to bore “such holes” with a wooden pin and wet sand, and is no doubt right, if he means that a wooden pin would not leave a core standing in the centre of the hole. The drilling the holes through the handles of the New Zealand [185] meres is stated to be a very slow process, but effected by means of a wetted stick dipped in emery powder. I have seen one in which the hole was unfinished, and was only represented by a conical depression on each face. In some stones, however, such holes can be readily bored with wood and sand; and in all cases where the stone to be worked upon can be scratched by sand, the boring by means of wood is possible, given sufficient time, and the patience of a savage. To what a degree this extends may be estimated by what Lafitau [186] says of the North American Indians sometimes spending their whole life in making a stone tomahawk without entirely finishing it; and by the years spent by members of tribes on the Rio Negro [187] in perforating cylinders of rock crystal, by twirling a flexible leaf-shoot of wild plantain between the hands, and thus grinding the hole with the aid of sand and water. The North American [188] tobacco-pipes of
- 44. stone were more easily bored, but for them also a reed in conjunction with sand and water seems to have been employed. On the whole, we may conclude that the holes were bored in various manners, of which the principal were— 1. By chiselling, or picking with a sharp stone. 2. By grinding with a solid grinder, probably of wood. 3. By grinding with a tubular grinder, probably of ox-horn. 4. By drilling with a stone drill. 5. By drilling with a metallic drill. Holes produced by any of these means could, of course, receive their final polish by grinding. With regard to the external shaping of the perforated stone axes not much need be said. They appear to have been in some {53} cases wrought into shape by means of a pick or chisel, and subsequently ground; in other cases to have been fashioned almost exclusively by grinding. In some of the axe-hammers made of compact quartzite, the form of the pebble from which they have been made has evidently given the general contour, in the same manner as has been observed on some fibrolite hatchets, which have been made by sawing a flat pebble in two longitudinally, and then sharpening the end, or ends, the rest of the surface being left unaltered in form. This is also the case with some stone hatchets, to form which a suitable pebble has been selected, and one end ground to an edge. Such is a general review of the more usual processes adopted in the manufacture of stone implements in prehistoric times, which I have thought it best should precede the account of the implements themselves. I can hardly quit the subject without just mentioning that here, as elsewhere, we find traces of improvement and progress, both in adapting forms to the ends they had to subserve, and in the manner of treating the stubborn materials of which these implements were made. Such progress may not have been, and probably was not, uniform, even in any one country; and, indeed, there are breaks in the chronology of stone implements which it is hard to fill up; but any one comparing, for instance, the exquisitely made axe-hammers and
- 45. delicately chipped flint arrow-heads of the Bronze Age, with the rude implements of the Palæolithic Period—neatly chipped as some of these latter are—cannot but perceive the advances that had been made in skill, and in adaptation of means to ends. If, for the sake of illustration, we divide the lapse of time embraced between these two extremes into four Periods, it appears— 1. That in the Palæolithic, River-gravel, or Drift Period, implements were fashioned by chipping only, and not ground or polished. The material used in Europe was, moreover, as far as at present known, mainly flint, chert, or quartzite. 2. That in the Reindeer or Cavern Period of Central France, though grinding was almost if not quite unused, except in finishing bone instruments, yet greater skill in flaking flint and in working up flakes into serviceable tools was exhibited. In some places, as at Laugerie- haute, surface-chipping is found on the flint arrow-heads, and cup- shaped recesses have been worked in other hard stones than flint, though no other stones have been used for cutting purposes. {54} 3. That in the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period of Western Europe, other materials besides flint were largely used for the manufacture of hatchets; grinding at the edge and on the surface was generally practised, and the art of flaking flint by pressure from the edge was probably known. The stone axes, at least in Britain, were rarely perforated. 4. That in the Bronze Period such stone implements, with the exception of mere flakes and scrapers, as remained in use, were, as a rule, highly finished, many of the axes being perforated and of graceful form, and some of the flint arrow-heads evincing the highest degree of manual skill. The subsequent manufacture of stone implements in Roman and later times needs no further mention. Having said thus much on the methods by which the stone implements of antiquity were manufactured, I pass on to the consideration of their different forms, commencing with those of the Neolithic Age, and with the form which is perhaps the best known in all countries—the celt.
- 46. IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD. CHAPTER III. CELTS. The name of Celt, which has long been given to hatchets, adzes, or chisels of stone, is so well known and has been so universally employed, that though its use has at times led to considerable misapprehension, I have thought it best to retain it. It has been fancied by some that the name bore reference to the Celtic people, by whom the implements were supposed to have been made; and among those who have thought fit to adopt the modern fashion of calling the Celts “Kelts” there have been not a few who have given the instruments the novel name of “kelts” also. In the same manner, many French antiquaries have given the plural form of the word as Celtæ. Notwithstanding this misapprehension, there can be no doubt as to the derivation of the word, it being no other than the English form of the doubtful Latin word Celtis or Celtes, a chisel. This word, however, is curiously enough almost an ἅπαξλεγόμενον in this sense, being best known through the Vulgate translation of Job, [189] though it is repeated in a forged inscription recorded by Gruter and Aldus. [190] The usual derivation given is à cælando, and it is regarded as the equivalent of cælum. The first use of the term that I have met with, as applied to antiquities, is in Beger’s
- 47. “Thesaurus Brandenburgicus,” [191] 1696, where a bronze celt, adapted for insertion in its haft, is described under the name of Celtes. I have said that the word celte, which occurs in the Vulgate, is {56} of doubtful authenticity. Mr. Knight Watson, [192] in a paper communicated to the Society of Antiquaries, has shown that the reading in many MSS. is certe, and the question has been fully discussed by Mr. J. A. Picton, [193] Mr. E. Marshall, [194] Dr. M. Much, [195] and others. K. v. Becker [196] suggests that the error in writing celte for certe originated between A.D. 800 and 1400, and he points out that Conrad Pickel, the poet laureate, who died in 1508, latinized his surname by Celtes. Treating the subject as one of probability, it appears much more unlikely that a scribe should place a newfangled word celte in the place of such a well-known word as certe, than that certe should have been substituted for a word that had become obsolete. I am, therefore, unwilling absolutely to condemn the word, especially having regard to there being a recognized equivalent in Latin, Cælum. It has been suggested that there may originally have been some connection between the Latin celtis and the British or Welsh cellt, a flint; but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous resemblance than of affinity. [197] A Welsh triad says there are three hard things in the world—Maen Cellt (a flint stone), steel, and a miser’s heart. The general form of stone celts is well known, being usually that of blades, approaching an oval in section, with the sides more or less straight, and one end broader and also sharper than the other. In length they vary from about two inches to as much as sixteen inches. I do not, however, propose to enter at once into any description of the varieties in their form and character, but to pass in review some of the opinions that have been held concerning their nature and origin. One of the most universal of these is a belief, which may almost be described as having been held “semper, ubique et ab omnibus,”
- 48. in their having been thunderbolts. “The country folks [198] of the West of England still hold that the ‘thunder-axes’ they find, once fell from the sky.” In Cornwall [199] they still have medical virtues assigned to them; the water in which “a thunderbolt,” or celt, has been boiled being a specific {57} for rheumatism. In the North of England, and in parts of Scotland, they are known as thunderbolts, [200] and, like flint arrow-heads, are supposed to have preservative virtues, especially against diseases of cattle. In Ireland the same superstition prevails, and I have myself known an instance where, on account of its healing powers, a stone celt was lent among neighbours to place in the troughs from which cattle drank. In the British Museum is a thin highly polished celt of jadeite, reputed to be from Scotland, in form like Fig. 52, mounted in a silver frame, and with a hole bored through it at either end. It is said to have been attached to a belt and worn round the waist as a cure for renal affections, against which the material nephrite was a sovereign remedy. In most parts of France, [201] and in the Channel Islands, the stone celt is known by no other name than “Coin de foudre,” or “Pierre de tonnerre”; and Mr. F. C. Lukis [202] gives an instance of a flint celt having been found near the spot where a signal-staff had been struck by lightning, which was proved to have been the bolt by its peculiar smell when broken. M. Ed. Jacquard has written an interesting paper on “Céraunies ou pierres de tonnerre.” [203] In Brittany [204] a stone celt is frequently thrown into the well for purifying the water or securing a continued supply; and in Savoy it is not rare to find one of these instruments rolled up in the wool of the sheep, or the hair of the goat, for good luck, or for the prevention of the rot or putrid decay. In Sweden [205] they are preserved as a protection against lightning, being regarded as the stone-bolts that have fallen during thunderstorms.
- 49. In Norway they are known as Tonderkiler, and in Denmark the old name for a celt was Torden-steen. [206] The test of their being really thunderbolts was to tie a thread round them, and place them on hot coals, when, if genuine, the thread was not burnt, but rather rendered moist. Such celts promote sleep. In Germany [207] both celts and perforated stone axes are regarded {58} as thunderbolts (Donnerkeile or Thorskeile); and, on account of their valuable properties, are sometimes preserved in families for hundreds of years. I possess a specimen from North Germany, on which is inscribed the date 1571, being probably the year in which it was discovered. The curious perforated axe or hammer found early in the last century, now preserved in the Museum of Antiquities at Upsala, [208] seems to have been a family treasure of the same kind. It bears upon it, in early Runes, an inscription thus interpreted by Professor Stephens—“Owns Oltha this Axe.” Another, with four [209] Runic characters upon it, was found in Denmark, and it has been suggested that the letters on it represent the names of Loki, Thor, Odin, and Belgthor. [210] The appearance of the American inscribed axe from Pemberton, [211] New Jersey, described by my namesake, Dr. J. C. Evans, and published by Sir Daniel Wilson, is not calculated to inspire confidence in its authenticity. The German belief is much the same as the Irish. Stone celts are held to preserve from lightning the house in which they are kept. They perspire when a storm is approaching; they are good for diseases of man and beast; they increase the milk of cows; they assist the birth of children; and powder scraped from them may be taken with advantage for various childish disorders. It is usually nine days after their fall before they are found on the surface. In the ruins of a Cistercian nunnery, Martha’s Hof, at Bonn, [212] a large polished celt of jadeite, like Fig. 52, was found, which had been presumably brought there as a protection against lightning. It had been placed in the roof of a granary.
- 50. In Bavaria [213] and Moravia [214] stone axes, whether perforated or not, are regarded as thunderbolts. In Holland, [215] in like manner, they are known as donder-beitels, or thunder-chisels. In Spain they are known as rayos or centellos, and are regarded as thunder-stones, while among the Portuguese [216] {59} and in Brazil [217] the name for a stone axe-blade is corisco, or lightning. In Italy [218] a similar belief that these stone implements are thunderbolts prevails, and Moscardo [219] has figured two polished celts as Saette o Fulmini; and in Greece [220] the stone celts are known as Astropelekia, and have long been held in veneration. About the year 1081 we find the Byzantine emperor, Alexius Comnenus, [221] sending, among other presents, to the Emperor Henry III. of Germany, ἀστροπέλεκυν δεδεμένον μετὰ χρυσαφίου, an expression which appears to have puzzled Ducange and Gibbon, but which probably means a celt of meteoric origin mounted in gold. About 1670 [222] a stone hatchet was brought from Turkey by the French Ambassador, and presented to Prince François de Lorraine, bishop of Verdun. It still exists in the Musée Lorrain at Nancy. Nor is the belief in the meteoric and supernatural origin of celts confined to Europe. Throughout a great part of Asia the same name of thunderbolts or lightning-stones is applied to them. Dr. Tylor [223] cites an interesting passage from a Chinese encyclopædia of the seventeenth century respecting lightning-stones, some of which have the shape of a hatchet. In Japan [224] they are known as thunderbolts, or as the battle-axe of Tengu, [225] the Guardian of Heaven. They are there of great use [226] medicinally; in Java [227] they are known as lightning-teeth. The old naturalist Rumph, [228] towards the end of the seventeenth century, met with many such in Java and Amboyna, which he says were known as “Dondersteenen.” In Burma [229] and Assam [230] stone adzes are called lightning- stones, and are said to be always to be found on the spot where a
- 51. thunderbolt has fallen, provided it is dug for, three years afterwards. When reduced to powder they are an infallible specific {60} for ophthalmia. They [231] also render those who carry them invulnerable, and possess other valuable properties. The same is the case in [232] Cambodia. Among the Malays [233] the idea of the celestial origin of these stones generally prevails, though they are also supposed to have been used in aërial combats between angels and demons [234]; while in China they are revered as relics of long-deceased ancestors. I am not aware whether they are regarded as thunderbolts in India, [235] though a fragment of jade is held to be a preservative against lightning. [236] Throughout the whole of Hindostan, however, they appear to be venerated as sacred, and placed against the Mahadeos, or adorned with red paint as Mahadeo. It is the same in Western Africa. [237] Sir Richard Burton [238] has described stone hatchets from the Gold Coast, which are there regarded as “Thunder-stones.” Mr. Bowen, a missionary, states that there also the stones, or thunderbolts, which Saugo, the Thunder god, casts down from heaven, are preserved as sacred relics. Among the Niam-Niam, [239] in central Africa, they are regarded as thunderbolts. An instructive article by Richard Andrée on the place of prehistoric stone weapons in vulgar beliefs will be found in the Mittheilungen of the Anthropological Society of Vienna, [240] and an article [241] by Dr. A. Bastian on “Stone Worship in Ethnography” in the Archiv für Anthropologie.
- 53. Fig. 11.—Celt with Gnostic Inscription. (The upper figure actual size, the lower enlarged.) The very remarkable celt of nephrite (now in the Christy collection), procured in Egypt many years ago by Colonel Milner, and exhibited to the Archæological Institute in 1868 [242] by the late Sir Henry Lefroy, F.R.S., affords another instance of the superstitions attaching to these instruments, and has been the subject of a very interesting memoir by the late Mr. C. W. King, [243] the well-known authority on ancient gems. In this case both faces of the celt have been engraved with gnostic inscriptions in Greek, arranged on one {61} face in the form of a wreath; and it was doubtless regarded as in itself possessed of mystic power, by some Greek of Alexandria, where it seems to have been engraved. It is shown in Fig. 11, here reproduced from the Archæological Journal. Another celt not from Egypt, but from Greece proper, {62} with three personages and a Greek inscription engraved upon it, is mentioned by Mortillet. [244] It seems to reproduce a Mithraic [245] scene. A perforated axe, with a Chaldæan [246] inscription upon it, is in the Borgia collection, and has been figured and described by Lenormant. Curiously enough, the hatchet appears in ancient times to have had some sacred importance among the Greeks. It was from a hatchet that, according to Plutarch, [247] Jupiter Labrandeus received that title; and M. de Longpérier [248] has pointed out a passage, from which it appears that Bacchus was in one instance, at all events, worshipped under the form of a hatchet, or πέλεκυς. He has also published a Chaldæan cylinder on which a priest is represented as making an offering to a hatchet placed upright on a throne, and has shown that the Egyptian hieroglyph for Nouter, God, is simply the figure of an axe. In India the hammer was the attribute of the god Indra [249] as Vágrâkarti. A similar worship appears to have prevailed in the North. Saxo Grammaticus mentions that the Danish prince Magnus Nilsson,
- 54. after a successful expedition against the Goths, brought back among his trophies some Thor’s hammers, “malleos joviales,” of unusual weight, which had been objects of veneration in an island in which he had destroyed a temple. In Brittany the figures of stone celts are in several instances engraved on the large stones of chambered tumuli and dolmens. There are two [250] deductions which may readily be drawn from the facts just stated; first, that in nearly, if not, indeed, all parts of the globe which are now civilized, there was a period when the use of stone implements prevailed; and, secondly, that this period is so remote, that what were then the common implements of every-day life have now for centuries been regarded with superstitious reverence, or as being in some sense of celestial origin, and not the work of man’s hands. Nor was such a belief even in Europe, and in comparatively modern times, confined to the uneducated. On the contrary, Mercati, [251] physician to Clement VIII., at the end of the sixteenth {63} century, appears to have been the first to maintain that what were regarded as thunderbolts were the arms of a primitive people unacquainted with the use of bronze or iron. Helwing [252] at Königsberg in 1717 showed the artificial character of the so-called thunderbolts, and in France, De Jussieu in 1723, and Mahudel, [253] about 1734, reproduced Mercati’s view to the Académie des Inscriptions. In our own country, Dr. Plot, in his “History of Staffordshire” [254] (1686), also recognized the true character of these relics; and, citing an axe of stone made of speckled flint ground to an edge, says that either the Britons or Romans, or both, made use of such axes; and adds that “how they might be fastened to a helve may be seen in the Museum Ashmoleanum, where there are several Indian ones of the like kind fitted up in the same order as when formerly used.” Dr. Plot’s views were not, however, accepted by all his countrymen, for in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, [255] we find Dr. Lister regarding unmistakeable stone
- 55. weapons as having been fashioned naturally and without any artifice. Some of the old German [256] authors have written long dissertations about these stone hatchets and axes under the name of Cerauniæ, and given representations of various forms, which were known as Malleus fulmineus, Cuneus fulminis, Donnerstein, Strahlhammer, &c. Aldrovandus says that these stones are usually about five inches long and three wide, of a substance like flint, some so hard that a file will not touch them. About the centre of gravity of the stone is usually a hole an inch in diameter, quite round. They all imitate in form a hammer, a wedge, or an axe, or some such instrument, with a hole to receive a haft, so that some think them not to be thunderbolts, but iron implements petrified by time. But many explode such an opinion, and relate how such stones have been found under trees and houses struck by lightning; and assert that trustworthy persons were present, and saw them dug out, after the lightning had struck. [257] Kentmann informs us how, in the month of May, 1561, there was dug out at Torgau such a bolt projected by {64} thunder. It was five inches long, and of a stone harder than basalt, which in some parts of Germany was used instead of anvils. He also relates how near Jülich another stone was driven by thunder through an enormous oak, and was then dug up. Aldrovandus gives a highly philosophical view as to the formation of these stones. He regards them as due to an admixture of a certain exhalation of thunder and lightning with metallic matter, chiefly in dark clouds, which is coagulated by the circumfused moisture and conglutinated into a mass (like flour with water), and subsequently indurated by heat, like a brick. Georgius [258] Agricola draws a distinction between the Brontia and the Ceraunia. The former, he says, is like the head of a tortoise, but has stripes upon it, the latter is smooth and without stripes. The Brontia seems to be a fossil echinus, and the Ceraunia a stone celt, but both are thunderbolts. Going a little further back, we find Marbodæus, [259] Bishop of Rennes, who died in the year 1123, and
- 56. who wrote a metrical work concerning gems, ascribing the following origin and virtues to the Ceraunius:—— “Ventorum rabie cum turbidus æstuat äer, Cum tonat horrendum, cum fulgurat igneus æther, Nubibus elisus cœlo cadit ille lapillus. Cujus apud Græcos extat de fulmine nomen: Illis quippe locis, quos constat fulmine tactos, Iste lapis tantum reperiri posse putatur, Unde κεράυνιος est Græco sermone vocatus: Nam quod nos fulmen, Græci dixere κεραυνὸν. Qui caste gerit hune à fulmine non ferietur, Nec domus aut villæ, quibus affuerit lapis ille: Sed neque navigio per flumina vel mare vectus, Turbine mergetur, nec fulmine percutietur: Ad causas etiam, vincendaque prælia prodest, Et dulces somnos, et dulcia somnia præstat.” It was not, however, purely from the belief of his own day that Marbodæus derived this catalogue of the virtues of the Cerauniæ, but from the pages of writers of a much earlier date. Pliny, [260] giving an account of the precious stones known as Cerauniæ, quotes an earlier author still, Sotacus, who, to use the words of Philemon Holland’s translation, “hath set downe two kinds more of Ceraunia, to wit, the blacke and the red, saying that they do resemble halberds or axeheads. And by his saying, the blacke, {65} such especially as bee round withall, are endued with this vertue, that by the meanes of them, cities may be forced, and whole navies at sea discomfited; and these (forsooth) be called [261] Betuli, whereas the long ones be named properly Cerauniæ.” Pliny goes on to say, “that there is one more Ceraunia yet, but very geason [262] it is, and hard to be found, which the Parthian magicians set much store by, and they only can find it, for that it is no where to bee had than in a place which hath been shot with a thunderbolt.” There is a very remarkable passage in Suetonius [263] illustrative of this belief among the Romans. After relating one prodigy, which was interpreted as
- 57. significant of the accession of Galba to the purple, he records that, “shortly afterwards lightning fell in a lake in Cantabria and twelve axes were found, a by no means ambiguous omen of Empire.” The twelve axes were regarded as referring to those of the twelve lictors, and were therefore portentous; but their being found where the lightning fell would seem to have been considered a natural occurrence, except so far as related to the number. It appears by no means improbable that if the lake could be now identified, some ancient pile settlement might be found to have existed on its shores. The exact period when Sotacus, the most ancient of these authorities, wrote is not known, but he was among the earliest of Greek authors who treated of stones, and is cited by Apollonius Dyscolus, and Solinus, as well as by Pliny. We cannot be far wrong in assigning him to an age at least two thousand years before our time, and yet at that remote period the use of these stone “halberds or axeheads” had so long ceased in Greece, that when found they were regarded as of superhuman origin and invested with magical virtues. We have already seen that flint arrow-heads were mounted, probably as charms, in Etruscan necklaces, and we shall subsequently see that superstitions, almost similar to those relating to celts, have been attached to stone arrow-heads in various countries. To return from the superstitious veneration attaching to them, to the objects themselves. The materials [264] of which celts in Great Britain are usually formed are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry, {66} quartzite, felstone, serpentine, and various kinds of greenstone, and of metamorphic rocks. M. A. Damour, [265] in his “Essays on the Composition of Stone Hatchets, Ancient and Modern,” gives the following list of materials: quartz, agate, flint, jasper, obsidian, fibrolite, jade, jadeite, chlor o mel a nite, am phi bo lite, aphanite, diorite, saus surite, and stauro tide; but even to these many other varieties of rock might be added.
- 58. The material most commonly in use in the southern and eastern parts of Britain was flint derived from the chalk; in the north and west, on the contrary, owing to the scarcity of flint, different hard metamorphic and eruptive rocks were more frequently employed, not on account of any superior qualities, but simply from being more accessible. So far as general character is concerned, stone celts or hatchets may be divided into three classes, which I propose to treat separately, as follows:— 1. Those merely chipped out in a more or less careful manner, and not ground or polished; 2. Those which, after being fashioned by chipping, have been ground or polished at the edge only; and 3. Those which are more or less ground or polished, not only at the edge, but over the whole surface. In describing them I propose to term the end opposite to the cutting edge, the butt-end; the two principal surfaces, which are usually convex, I shall speak of as the faces. These are either bounded by, or merge in, what I shall call the sides, according as these sides are sharp, rounded, or flat. In the figures the celts are all engraved on the scale of half an inch to the inch, or half linear measure, and are presented in front and side-view, with a section beneath.
- 59. CHAPTER IV. CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. Celts which have been merely chipped into form, and left unground, even at the edge, are of frequent occurrence in England, especially in those counties where flint is abundant. They are not, however, nearly so common in collections of antiquities as those which have been ground either wholly or in part; and this, no doubt, arises from the fact that many of them are so rudely chipped out, that it requires a practised eye to recognize them, when associated, as they usually are, with numerous other flints of natural and accidental forms. No doubt many of these chipped celts, especially where, from the numbers discovered, there appears to have been a manufactory on the spot, were intended to be eventually ground; but there are some which are roughly chipped, and which may possibly have been used as agricultural implements without further preparation; and others, the edges of which are so minutely and symmetrically chipped, that they appear to be adapted for use as hatchets or cutting-tools without requiring to be farther sharpened by grinding. There are others again, as already mentioned at page 32, the edges of which have been produced by the intersection of two facets only, and are yet so symmetrical and sharp, that whetting their edge on a grindstone would be superfluous. Of this character I possess several specimens from Suffolk, of which one from Mildenhall is engraved in Fig. 12. As will be observed, the edge is nearly semicircular, but it is nevertheless formed merely by the intersection of two facets, each resulting from a single chip or flake of flint having been removed. I have in my collection another hatchet from the same place, which is so curiously similar to this
- 60. in all respects, that it was probably made by the same hand. I am not, however, aware whether the two were found together. There is in these implements a peculiar curvature on one face, as shown in the side view, which, I think, must be connected with the method by which they were attached to their handles. From the form, {68} it seems probable that they were mounted as adzes, with the edge transversely to the line of the handle, and not as axes. I have a more roughly-chipped specimen of the same type, found near Wanlud’s Bank, Luton, Beds, by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in which the same curvature of one of the faces is observable. It is not so conspicuous in a larger implement of the same class, also from Mildenhall (Fig. 13), but this likewise is slightly curved longitudinally. In the Christy Collection is another, found at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, of the same type. It is rounded at the butt, but nearly square at the cutting edge, which is formed by the junction of two facets, from which flakes have been struck off. I have seen others of the same character from near the Bartlow Hills, Cambs, and from Sussex. Others, from 4 3 ⁄4 to 6 inches in length, from Burwell, Wicken, and Bottisham Fens, are preserved in the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and in my own collection. In the Greenwell collection is a specimen 7 3 ⁄4 inches long, from Burnt Fen. I have also a French implement of this kind from the neighbourhood of Abbeville.
- 61. Fig. 12.—Near Mildenhall. 1⁄2 Fig. 13.—Near Mildenhall. 1⁄2 Implements with this peculiar edge, are found in Denmark. Indeed, the edges of the common form of Kjökken-mödding axes [266] are usually produced in the same manner, by the intersection of two facets, each formed by a single blow, though the resulting edge is generally almost straight. Closely approaching this Danish form, is that of a celt of brown {69} flint, shown in Fig. 14, and found near Thetford by the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., with one face nearly flat, and the edge formed by a single transverse facet. The implements, however, of this type, with the chisel edge, are rarely met with in this country; and, generally speaking, axes similar to those which occur in such numbers in the Danish Kjökken-möddings and Coast-finds are of very rare occurrence elsewhere. I have, however, a small nearly-triangular hatchet of the Danish type, and with the sides bruised in the same manner (probably with a view of preventing their cutting the ligaments by which the instruments were attached to their handles, or, possibly, to prevent their cutting the hand when held), which I found in the circular encampment known as Maiden Bower, near Dunstable.
- 62. Fig. 14.—Near Thetford. 1⁄2 Hatchets of this type have also been found in some numbers in the valley of the Somme, at Montiers, near Amiens, as well as in the neighbourhood of Pontlevoy (Loir et Cher), in the Camp de Catenoy (Oise), and in Champagne. [267] I have also specimens from the neighbourhood of Pressigny-le-Grand and of Châtellerault. It would therefore appear that this form of implement is not confined to maritime districts, and that it can hardly be regarded as merely a weight for a fishing- line, [268] as has been suggested by Professor Steenstrup. [269] A few of the large Polynesian adzes of basalt have their edges produced by a similar method of chipping and are left unground. Capt. G. V. Smith [270] has experimented in Jutland with the Kjökken-mödding axes, and has cut down fir-trees of seven inches diameter with them. The trees for Mr. Sehested’s [271] wooden hut were cut down and trimmed with stone hatchets ground at the edge. In the British Museum are several roughly-chipped flints that seem to present a peculiar type. They are from about 4 to 6 inches long, nearly flat on one face, coarsely worked to an almost semicircular bevel edge at one end, and with a broad rounded notch on each side, as if to enable them to be secured to a handle, possibly as agricultural implements. They formed part of the Durden collection, and were found in the neighbourhood of Blandford.
- 63. Another and more common form of roughly-chipped celt is that of which an example is given in Fig. 15, from my own collection. It was found at Oving, near Chichester, and was given me by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. The edge, in this instance, is formed in the same manner, by the intersection of two facets, but the section is nearly {70} triangular. If attached to a handle it was probably after the manner of an adze rather than of an axe. I have a smaller specimen of the same type, and another, flatter and more neatly chipped, 7 3 ⁄4 inches long, from the Cambridge Fens. Fig. 15.—Oving, near Chichester. 1⁄2 I have seen implements of much the same form which have been found at Bemerton, near Salisbury (Blackmore Museum); at St. Mary Bourne, Andover; at
- 64. Santon Downham, near Thetford; at Little Dunham, Norfolk; near Ware; and near Canterbury; but the edge is sometimes formed by several chips, in the same manner as the sides, and not merely by the junction of two planes of fracture. There are also smaller rough celts with the subtriangular section, of which I have a good example, 4 1 ⁄2 inches long, found by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., near Maiden Castle, Dorsetshire. It is curiously similar to one that I found near Store Lyngby, in Denmark. The same form occurs in France. Other roughly-chipped implements are to be found in various parts of Britain, lying scattered over the fields, some of them so rude that they may be regarded as merely flints chipped into form, to serve some temporary purpose; as wasters thrown away as useless by those who were trying to man u fac ture stone im ple ments which were even tual ly des tined to be ground; or as the rude implements of the merest savage. Cer tainly some of the stone hatchets of the Aus tral ian na tives are quite as rude or ruder, and yet we find them carefully provided with handles. In Hert ford shire, I have myself picked up several such imp le ments; and they have been found in con sid er able num bers in the neigh bour hood of Ick ling ham in Suf folk, near An dover, and in other places. An adze-like celt of this kind (4 1 ⁄2 inches) is recorded from Wish moor, [272] Sur rey. Were proper search made for them, there are probably not many dis tricts where it would be fruit less. In Ireland they appear to be rare; but numerous roughly-shaped {71} implements of this class have been found in Poitou and in other parts of France. They are also met with in Belgium and Denmark. As has already been suggested, it is by no means improbable that some of these ruder unpolished implements were employed in agriculture, like the so-called shovels and hoes of flint of North America, described by Professor Rau. I have a flat celt-like implement about 6 1 ⁄2 inches long and 3 inches broad, found in Cayuga County, New York, which, though unground, has its broad end beautifully polished on both faces, apparently by friction of the silty soil in which it has been used as a hoe. It is, as Professor Rau has pointed out in other cases, slightly striated in the direction in which the implement penetrated the ground. [273] I have also an Egyptian chipped flint hoe from Qûrnah, polished in a precisely similar manner. It is doubtful whether many of the rough implements from the neighbourhood of Thebes are Neolithic or Palæolithic. [274]
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