The Economic History of Alexander the Great Expedition

International Journal of Economics
and Financial Research
ISSN(e): 2411-9407, ISSN(p): 2413-8533
Vol. 2, No. 2, pp: 16-32, 2016
URL: http://arpgweb.com/?ic=journal&journal=5&info=aims
16
Academic Research Publishing Group
The Economic History of Alexander the Great Expedition
Ioannis N. Kallianiotis Economics/Finance Department The Arthur J. Kania School of Management University of Scranton
Scranton, PA 18510-4602 U.S.A.
1. Introduction
“Totum Graecorum est.” (Marcus Tullius Cicero; 106 B.C.-43 B.C)
Alexander the Great (Μέγαο Ἀιέμαλδξνο; 356-323 B.C.) was borne in North Greece and was living in the 4th
century B.C. We know him as a great Greek (Hellen) general and king, but he was at the same time, an excellent
economist (oeconomologos) because he had to manage the economy of his wars, his enormous campaign from North
Greece (Macedonia)1
to India (Hindus River), and to exercise an efficient and effective public policy (revenue,
spending, and surpluses) for his vast Empire and to satisfy all the citizens as a civilizer and not as a conqueror. His
role, as it has been proved later, was a divine one; he was a “social forerunner”. At a point Alexander said that “…I
am grateful to gods that I was borne Hellen…”.2
He had the consciousness of his historic descent and invitation
(“call from God”). Of course, as a student of the greatest of philosophers (panepistimon, παλεπηζηήκωλ) Aristotle
(Ἀξηζηνηέιεο; 384–322 B.C.),3
he has shown outstanding management and leadership capabilities. His military
budgets contained more or less what budgets of states comprised; like, rates of salaries, health and welfare, building
projects, supplies, transports, acquisitions and maintenance of military equipment, reforms of the tax system, indirect
taxes and donations, debt financing, royal lands apportionment, support of veterans and their families, building of
cities and infrastructures, even controlling financial scandals and we can extract many other information useful for
our leaders and policy makers, today (after 2,350 years), and for economic historians.
A few decades earlier than Alexander‟s appearance, a disciple of Socrates, Xenophon (Ξελνθῶλ; 430-354 B.C.),
had developed a new philosophy (science) that he gave the name Oeconomicos (κονομικός, Οἰκονομία),4
which
1
<<Ἔζηη νὖλ Ἑιιάο θαί ἟ Μαθεδνλία.>>Strabo, ΢ηξάβωλ
2
<<...Δὐγλωκνλῶ ηνῖο ζενῖο ὅηη ἐγελλήζελ Ἕιιελ...>> (Alexander the Great).
3
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, “Aristotle was the first genuine scientist in history ... [and] every scientist is in his debt.”
4
The Oeconomicus (Οἰθνλνκηθόο) can actually be seen as a treatise on success in leading both an army and a state. Scholars lean towards a
relatively late date in Xenophon‟s life for the composition of the Oeconomicus, perhaps after 362 B.C. Cicero translated the Oeconomicus into
Latin, and the work gained popularity during the Renaissance in a number of translations. Adam Smith has taken many ideas from Oeconomicus,
but he “forgot” to give reference to Xenophon. See, Marchant and Todd,(1997) .
Abstract: The philosophy of Economics and economic policy were developed by Xenophon in Ancient
Greece. Alexander the Great was living a little later in the 4th century B.C. and we know him as a great Hellen
king, civilizer, and “forerunner”; but, he was, an excellent economist because he had to manage the economy
of his enormous campaign from Greece to India and to exercise an efficient and effective public policy for his
vast Empire. Also, “he desired not pleasure or wealth, but only excellence and glory”, which was the moral and
ethical Greek philosophy of his time. Alexander had said that “…I am grateful to gods that I was borne
Hellen…” and had all these Hellenic values, which made him one of the most important person in human
history. He had shown outstanding management capabilities, with rates of salaries, health and welfare, building
projects, supplies, transports, reforms of the tax system, indirect taxes and donations, loans, minting of coins,
even controlling financial scandals and other information useful for our policy makers, today. We measure his
budgets by using the weights of gold and silver coins and determine and compare prices by taking these
information from different historians of his time. Alexander economic policy with its surpluses is very useful
for our current leaders and scholars. Also, the history and the role of this extraordinary man and the
contribution of the Greek civilization and language in God‟s plan, for His revolted and deluded creation and
humanity to be in a position to understand and accept His revelation, which Greeks were expecting since the
Golden Century of Athens, is discussed.
Keywords: Role of Economics; Role of Economists; History of Economic Thought; Monetary Policy; Fiscal Policy,
General; Economic History; Development of the Discipline; Historiographical and Sources and Methods
JEL Classification: A11; B1; E52; E62; N00; N01.

International Journal of Economics and Financial Research, 2016, 2(2):16-32
17
was misspelled in 18th
century A.D. in West Europe and was written as Economics; but its creator was Xenophon
and for this reason, he is the “Father of Economics”. The meaning of this discipline is “the management of
household” (noun: oecos=household and verb: λέκω, nemo=manage or distribute).5
Xenophon
wrote 14 volumes on the management of the different sectors of the economy. One of the volumes was Ways and
Means (Πόξνη ἠ πεξὶ Πξνζόδωλ)6
and the Management of the Army (Ὁ Οἰθνλνκηθόο ηνῦ ΢ηξαηνῦ) This work
took place in Athens in the 5th
century B.C. (the Golden Century of Pericles),7
and continued in the first half of the
4th
century A.D.; but even from the Homeric period, we see good “economists” and their ability to manage
effectively their societies. Some consider Hesiod (Ἡζίνδνο; 750-650 B.C.) as the first economist.
In addition to economics, numismatics,8
and economic policy, we can see many political, military, cultural, and
futuristic events during that period and the Hellenistic era that followed. Economic history is necessary for all social
scientists (especially economists) because this past knowledge can help us to deal with the current complex global
economic and political problems. The contribution of Alexander the Great, with the spreading of the Greek
civilization, and the learning of the most advanced language, the Greek language by the known world was beyond a
human plan and offering. It was a divine plan for the preparation of the world to accept the unique event in human
history that followed three hundred years later, the coming of the Son of God (the revelation of the highest value, the
Truth) that Socrates and other moral philosophers were expected five centuries ago and he was punished with the
punishment of death (poison hemlock, θώλεηνλ) for his unconceivable moral and ethical philosophical conception of
“the Unknown God”.9
2. Alexander’s Expedition to Asia and its Expenditures
The major expenses (dapanae, δαπάλαη) of Alexander the Great were: (1) The compensation (salaries) of the
army. (2) Maintenance cost of armament, equipment, and siege machines. (3) The development and creation of the
navy. (4) Food and other provisioning of the huge army personnel. (5) Transportation of the soldiers and equipment.
(6) The healthcare of his personnel and soldiers. (7) The support of veterans and their families. The most costly
expenditures were the payroll of the army and especially, the expedition to the remote India. His army was
comprised, by Greek-Macedonians, who were serving their country, by allies from the Greek cities (especially
Thessalian cavalry), and by professional mercenaries (κηζζνθόξνη). More than a half of the army, for his planned
invasion to punish Persia and Hellenize Asia, came from outside the borders of Macedonia, from all over the Greek
world and the nearby barbarian tribes.
The army of Alexander the Great was created and made formidable by Alexander‟s father, King Philip II of
Macedon (Φίιηππνο Βʹ ὁ Μαθεδώλ; 382–336 B.C.). The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted and
refined by Philip II and then, by his son and they created a uniquely flexible and effective army. By introducing
military service as a full-time occupation, they were able to drill their men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in
their ranks. In a remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one of the finest military machines of the ancient
world and his military tactics and strategies are still studied in military academies, today.10
Unfortunately, most of
the primary historical sources for this period have been lost. As a consequence, scholarship is largely reliant on the
writings of Diodorus Siculus (1989)11
and Arrian,12
both of whom lived centuries later than the events they describe
and on a few other historians.
Alexander‟s army crossed the Hellespont (Ἑιιήζπνληνο) in 334 B.C. with approximately 48,100 soldiers, 6,100
cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38,000 (Table 2b),13
drawn from Macedon (Μαθεδνλία) and
various Greek city-states, mercenaries, and feudally raised soldiers from Thrace (Θξάθε), Paionia (Παηνλία), and
Illyria (Ἰιιπξία or Ἰιιπξίο).14
He showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the Persian Empire and punish them
for their invasions of Greece by throwing a spear into Asian soil and saying, he accepted Asia as a gift from the
gods. This also showed Alexander‟s eagerness to fight and the bravery of his character, in contrast to his father‟s
preference for diplomacy; but, it was his destiny (πεπξωκέλνλ), too.
5
Unfortunately, the West ignores history and mistakenly calls Adam Smith, who copied Xenophon, 21 centuries later, without making reference
to Xenophon, as the “father of Economics”. See, Kallianiotis,(2013a) .
6
See, Whitehead,(1977) .
7
Pericles (Πεξηθιῆο, “exceedingly glorious”; 495– 429 B.C.) was arguably the most prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator, and
general of Athens during the Golden Age (480-404 B.C.) specifically the time between the Persian (499-449 B.C.) and Peloponnesian (431-404
B.C.) wars. See, Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian War 1.117 Thucydides, 2.65. Available: History of the Peloponnesian War 1.117
Thucydides, 2.65 Also, Blois de, Lukas (1997). Unfortunately, there are no populist leaders in our days.
8
See, Kallianiotis (2015b). Economic Policy of Alexander the Great, Unpublished Manuscript, University of Scranton, June 2015, P. 72.
9
See, Ancient Greek prophesies regarding the True, but Unknown, at that time, God.
http://www.impantokratoros.gr/neopaganismos_filosofoi.el.aspx
10
See, Wasson (2014). The Army of Alexander the Great. Available: http://www.ancient.eu/article/676/.
11
See, Siculus, Diodorus; C.H. Oldfather (Translator). "Library". Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 9-17 only. Also, Siculus, Diodorus; C.H.
Oldfather (Translator). "Library". Theoi E-Texts Library. pp. Books 4-6 only. Further, Siculus, Diodorus. "Library" (in Ancient Greek). Perseus
Digital Library. pp. Books 9-17 only. And also, Siculus, Diodorus. "Library". Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 9-17 only.
12
The Anabasis of Alexander (Ἀιεμάλδξνπ Ἀλάβαζηο) is perhaps his best-known work, and is generally considered one of the best sources on the
campaigns of Alexander the Great. Arrian is also considered as one of the founders of a primarily military-based focus on history. See, Arrian; de
Sélincourt, Aubrey (1971). The campaigns of Alexander. Penguin Classics.
13
See, Roisman and Worthington (2010). The 38,000 crews is very large. These ships might were polyremes (πνιπήξεηο). Triremes (ηξηήξεηο) had
200 crews of which 170 were rowers.
14
See, Arrian (1976).

18
According to Arrian (1893) (Ἀξξηαλόο), when Alexander was in Asia, he used Arachosians (from Ἀξαρωζία),
Bactrians (from Βαθηξηαλή), Parapamisadae, Sogdians (from ΢νγδηαλή), Indians (‟Ηλδνί), and Scythians (΢θύζνη),15
as his army. They were all a part of the grand army revue Alexander assembled in 324 B.C. The army supposedly
reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did not include camp followers. The questions for us, here, are
related with the expenditures: How were soldiers and equipment (siege engines, etc.) of Alexander the Great paid?
What was the cost of his fleet? How much was the cost of food supplies, transports, and health care? What was the
compensation for the veterans and the cost of those who want to return home? What was the cost for the families of
his soldiers? How many short-term loans did he get in order to finance his military expeditions and why did he
forbid the women of Ephesus to wear jewelry? What kind of gifts did he offer the guests who attended his wedding
and what became of the huge storehouse of the Gaza perfumes? What was his tax system? What was his budget and
how he balanced it? What did he do with the budget surplus? What was Alexander‟s economic policy and how
effective was it?
Historical sources give the salary of a common soldier as 1-2 drachmas per day. Decadarches (dekaneis,
δεθαλεο, corporals) were receiving a monthly salary of 40 drachmas. The salary of dimirites (δηκνηξῖηαη, platoon
leader or troop commander) was twice the salary of corporals, and the salary of cavalries (horsemen) was twice the
salary of the infantries (foot soldiers). According to Diodorus Siculus (1963), cavalries (ἱππεο) were receiving
300 drachmas per month16
and the carriers of Macedonian phalanx (θαιαγγίηαη) were receiving 100 drachmas (Table
2a). For the professional mercenaries, there were extra economic incentives, as Kostopoulos (2012) mentions.
The total expenditures were enormous in 334 B.C. because of the size of his army that passed the Dardanelles
(Γαξδαλέιιηα) and went to Asia Minor. This military force was 35,000 men, plus another 10,000 people under
Parmenion (Παξκελίωλ), who had passed two years earlier in 336 B.C. and an extra army of 12,000 men that
Alexander was keeping in Macedonia.17
This army was a total of 57,000 men and their salaries are estimated to be
4,000-5,000 talents (ηάιαληα)18
during the first year of the expedition. The cost in the consecutive years increased to
7,000 talents [without including fleet (ζηόινο) wages] because Alexander hired more mercenaries from the
Greek cities in Asia Minor and he needed to put guards to the areas that he conquered (Table 2b).
Table-1. Attic or Athenian Talent (pure silver)
Note: Talents (ηάιαληα) and mnae (κλαί) were never minted; they represented weight measures; 1 talent = 26 kgs = 917.123 ozs and 1 mna =
0.43333 kgs = 15.28538 ozs. Price of gold is with December 22, 2014 ($1,174.80/oz) and Price of silver is with December 22, 2014 ($15.46/oz).
The last row of the Table shows the insignificant value of the dollar ($1) with respect the ancient currencies (the dollar is completely
undervalued). Ἡ ιέμηο δξαρκή πξνέξρεηαη ἀπό ηό ξῆκα δράηηω, ηό ὁπνῖνλ ζεκαίλεη ἁξπάδω (δράηηομαι = πηάλω ζθηθηά). Δἰο ηήλ ἀξραηόηεηα, κία
δξαρκή ἦην ἴζε πξόο ἕμη ὀβνινύο, λόκηζκα ηό ὁπνῖνλ εἰο ηήλ παιαηνηέξαλ κνξθήλ ηνπ εἶρε ζρῆκα ζηδεξέληαο ξάβδνπ. Σό πάρνο ηωλ ἦηαλ ηόζν,
ὥζηε ἟ θνύρηα ἑλόο ἀλδξηθνῦ ρεξηνῦ λά ἞κπνξῇ λά πηάζῃ ἕμη ἀπό αὐηνύο. Ἔηζη ἐθ ηνῦ δξάηηω (ὅζνπο ὀβνινύο ἞κπνξνῦζε λά ἀδξάμῃ ἟
παιάκε) πξνθύπηεη ἟ ιέμηο δξαρκή. The weight of the silver drachma (ἀξγπξά δξαρκή) was approximately 4.3 grams (γξακκάξηα), although
weights varied significantly from one city-state to another. It was divided into six obols (ὀβνινύο) of 0.72 grams, which were subdivided into four
tetartemoria (ηεηαξηεκόξηα) of 0.18 grams, one of the smallest coins ever struck, approximately 5 – 7 mm in diameter. Minae (κλαί) and talents
(ηάιαληα) were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold,
which help us, today, to make a comparison of these measures with ours. The New Testament mentions both didrachma and, by implication,
tetradrachma in context of the Temple tax. Luke‟s Gospel (Σὸ θαηὰ Λνπθᾶλ Δὐαγγέιηνλ) includes a parable told by Jesus of a woman with 10
drachmae, who lost one and searched her home until she found it. (Luke 15:8-10).
Source: British Museum Catalogue 11 - Attica Megaris Aegina; American Numismatic Society (1916). American Journal of Numismatics. 49-50.
American Numismatic and Archaeological Society.
Attic Talent, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_talent,
Talent (Measurement), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent_(measurement) ,
15
See, Davis-Kimball,(1995) .
16
This salary of 300 Drs seems very high. The most probable was twice the salary of the phalanx (2 x 100 Drs = 200 Drs).
17
The cost from 336 B.C. to 335 B.C. was 23,144,000 Drs [Table 2b (i)].
18
The talent (Latin: talentum, from Ancient Greek: ηάιαληνλ, talanton) was one of several ancient units of mass, a commercial weight, as well as
corresponding units of value equivalent to these masses of a precious metal. The talent of gold was known to Homer, who described how Achilles
(Ἀρηιιεύο) gave a half-talent of gold to Antilochus (Ἀληίινρνο) as a prize. It was approximately the mass of water required to fill an amphora
(`Ακθνξεύο). A Greek, or Attic talent, was 26 kilograms (57 lb) or 917.123 oz [1 Kilogram = 2.20462262 Pounds =35.2739619 Ounces] or 6,000
Drachmas [1 Dr = 0.15285 oz Gold or 1 oz of Gold = 6.54236 Drs.]. The value in dollars of an Attic talent of 26 kgs of gold in today’s
(12/22/2014) price of ($1,174.80/oz) will be $1,077,436.111 and the exchange rate between dollars and gold drachmas could be: e1 =
$1,174.80/6.54236 Drs = 179.573 $/Dr (a Greek Attic gold Drachma had a value of $179.573 in today‟ dollar value with respect the gold). The
price of silver on December 22, 2014 was $15.46/oz; then, the value in dollars of an Attic silver talent will be $14,178.722 and the exchange rate
between dollar and silver Drachmas: e2 = 2.363 $/Dr (Table 1). See, Engen,(2004) . Also,Torr (1906). Triremes. The Classical Review, 20(2).
Further, we can see their measures as follows: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent_(measurement) and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_talent

19
Talent (Weight), http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talent_(weight)
and author‟s calculations.
After an initial victory against Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus (Mάρε ηνῦ Γξαληθνῦ) in May 334
B.C., Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of Sardis (΢άξδεηο); he then
proceeded along the Ionia (Ἰωλία or Ἰωλίε) coast. Alexander was experiencing sorrow for the men, who fell in battle
and the families of those who died were rewarded generously: “To the relatives of his fallen, Alexander granted
immunity from taxation and public service.” Whether it was his own warriors or the Persian forces opposing him,
Alexander chose to respect those who died. He even went so far to set up statues to honor and respect these people.
At Halicarnassus (Ἁιηθαξλαζζόο), in Caria (Καξία), Alexander successfully waged the first of many sieges in 334
B.C., eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain Memnon of Rhodes (Μέκλωλ ὁ Ρόδηνο) and the
Persian satrap of Caria, Orontobates (Ὀξoληoβάηεο), to withdraw by sea.19
Alexander left the government of Caria to
Ada (Ἄδα; 377–326 B.C.), who adopted Alexander. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous
Lycia (Λπθία) and the Pamphylian (Πακθπιία) plain, asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the Persians
naval bases. From Pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and Alexander moved inland. At Termessos
(Σεξκεζζόο), Alexander humbled, but did not storm the Pisidian (Πηζηδία) city (333 B.C.). At the ancient Phrygian
(Φξπγία) capital of Gordium (Γόξδηνλ), Alexander “undid” the hitherto unsolvable Gordian Knot (γόξδηνο δεζκόο),
a feat said to await the future “king of Asia”. According to the story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter
how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword.20
The Persian Empire suffered a series of defeats from
the Macedonian forces at Issus (Μάρε ηῆο Ἰζζνῦ; November 5, 333 B.C.) and Gaugamela (Γαπγάκεια; October 1,
331 B.C.),21
and by the end of 331 B.C. Alexander had advanced to Babylon (Βαβπιώλ) and Susa (΢νῦζα). A Royal
Road connected Susa (the first Iranian capital city in Elam) with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis
(Πεξζέπνιηο) and Pasargadae (Παζαξγάδαη) in Persis (Πεξζίο),22
and was the natural venue for Alexander‟s
continued campaign. Meanwhile, King Darius was building a new army at Ecbatana (Ἐθβάηαλα). Ariobarzanes was
charged with preventing the Macedonian advance into Persis, and to this effect he relied heavily on the terrain
Alexander needed to pass through. According to historian Arrian (1893) (Anabasis 3.18.2), Ariobarzanes had a force
of 40,000 infantry and 700 cavalry, who faced a Macedonian force of over 10,000.
Table-2a. Salaries and Other Compensations (Γαπάλαη)
Daily Monthly Annually
Common soldier (ζηξαηηώηεο) 1-2 Drs 30 Drs 360 Drs
Decadarches (δεθαλεῖο) 1.33 Drs 40 Drs 480 Drs
Dimirites (δηκνηξῖηαη) 2.66 Drs 80 Drs 960 Drs
Cavalries (ἱππεῖο) 6.66 Drs 200 Drs10
2,400 Drs
Phalanx (θαιαγγῖηαη) 3.33 Drs 100 Drs8
1,200 Drs
Average wage/soldier (Alexander‟s)4
1.169–1.461 Drs 35.08-43.83 Drs 421-526 Drs
Sailors (Alexander‟s) 2.307 Drs 69.21 Drs 831 Drs
Skilled worker1
1.852 Drs 55.56 Drs 667 Drs
Skilled worker2
2.564 Drs 76.92 Drs 923 Drs
Sailor of trireme3
1 Dr 30 Drs 360 Drs
Mercenaries (Hellenistic period) 1 Dr 30 Drs 360 Drs
Common laborer: 1 Dr 30 Drs 360 Drs
Note: 1 Attic talent of silver = 6,000 Drs was the wage of 9 man-years of skilled work (360 days work) = 16.667 Drs/day (9 men) =
1.85185 Drs/day/skilled worker; or (if the work was 260 days/year) = 23.07692308 Drs/day (9 men) = 2.564102564 Drs/day/skilled
worker. During the Peloponnesian war: 1 Attic talent of silver (6,000 Drs) was 1 month wages of a trireme crew of 200 men = 200
Drs/day for 200 men = 1 Dr/day/man. 1 Dr/day = 4.3 grs of silver/day/rower = 0.151678028 ozs ($15.46/oz) = $2.344942313/day.
1
Assuming 360 days work/year, 2
Assuming 260 days work/year (by some other authors), 3
During the Peloponnesian war (431-404
B.C.), 4
We use for our budget, here, the higher wage (cost) = 1.442 Drs/day, 5
Assuming Parmenion had no ships (there are no
information regarding ships, his army went through land to Asia Minor), 6
The ship‟s provider (ρνξεγόο) was known as the trierarch
(ηξηήξαξρνο, triērarchos). He was a wealthy citizen (usually from the class of the pentakosiomedimnoi (πεληαθνζηνκέδηκλνη),
responsible for manning, fitting out and maintaining the ship for his liturgical year at least; the ship itself belonged to the city-state
(i.e., Athens). The trierarchy (ηξηεξαξρία, triērarchia) was one of the liturgies of ancient Athens; although it afforded great prestige,
it constituted a great financial burden, so that in the 4th century B.C., it was often shared by two citizens, and after 397 B.C. it was
assigned to special boards. The cost of the ship was one (1) talent or 6,000 Drs per annum. (For this reason, we do not have many
information on its cost of construction and maintenance). 7
The winner (Alexander‟s) casualty was about 15%. See,
http://www.quora.com/How-has-mortality-rate-per-battle-changed-throughout-history. 8
Diodorus. 9
The ancient Greek marriage
celebration consisted of a three part ceremony which lasted three days: the proaulia, which was the pre-wedding ceremony, the
gamos, which was the actual wedding, and the epaulia, which was the post-wedding ceremony.10
It seems a little high (it might
include the cost of the horse, too).
Alexander‟s conquests lasted for 13 years (336-323 B.C.); thus, the budget is for 8+5=13 years (total).
Source: Diodorus, Justin, Plutarch, Arrian.
19
The expenditures for 334 B.C. were 61,560,000 Drs [Table 2b (ii)].
20
Green,(2007).
21
See, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QEGO1V9d-Q
22
Fârs, or known in Old Persian as Pârsâ, is the original homeland of the ancient Persians. The native name of the Persian language is Pârsi.
Persia and Persian both derive from the Hellenized form Πεξζίο, Persis of the root word Pârs. The Old Persian word was Pârsâ.

20
After the occupation of Susa and Persepolis (330 B.C.) and the acquisition of the Darius‟ Treasure, the cost of
army wages skyrocketed.23
This is a little difficult to be explained; it seems that wages went up, due to an excess
supply of money (wealth). Thus, the Darius wealth caused inflation, which affected the labor cost, too. Then, after
328 B.C., Alexander continued for the expedition to India, for which he gathered an army of 140,000 men and his
expenditures went up.24
He constructed and used also a fleet of 150 ships for the same expedition with 3,000-5,000
sailors (Table 2b).25
Also, huge were the expenses for maintenance and new acquisitions of military equipment and material. His
army was followed by engineers, who repaired and maintained the different war machines (πεηξνβόινπο,
μπινζπλζέηνπο πύξγνπο, πξνβόινπο, ἑιεπόιεηο, θξηνύο, ρειώλαο θαί θάηνπηξα). Also, other technicians, like bridge
builders and men who built tents, beds, useful tools, and other constructions. Another major expense was the food
and transportation of the soldiers and of their families (wives and children). Medical services were also expensive
because he had doctors, herbalists, botanists, pharmacists, nurses, and other health personnel, who follow the
expedition. Diodorus Siculus26
mentions that for his expedition to India, Alexander spent for medicines 100 talents
(= 600,000 Drs = 91,712.28 ozs or $1,417,871.849 for silver talents or $107,743,800 for gold talents). (Table 2b).
Further, other expenses were the indemnities to the parents and families of the soldiers, who fell in the different
battles. Alexander was giving to them royal land (βαζηιηθά θηήκαηα) and also, tax exemptions. Justin (Ἰνπζηῖλνο, ὁ
ζπγγξαθεύο ηο Ἐπιηομς ηλ Φιλιππικν Ἱζηοριν)27
says that Alexander was continuing to pay the
orphans of the killed soldiers the salary of their father. Another expense was the feasts and celebrations for boosting
the confidence of the people and the morale of the army and these costs were enormous, too, due to the huge army
and their families. Also, he had to pay cooks, waiters, bakers, wheat growers, and for many other professions that are
unknown, today. In addition, he had to cover the cost of appeasers (θαηεπλαζηάο), mattress guards (θξνπξνύο
θιηλνζηξωκλῆο), billet orderlies (ζαιακνθύιαθαο), who were guarded Alexander and his generals during their sleep
at nights.
Table-2b. Expenditures (Γαπάλαη) of Alexander the Great Expedition
Α΄. The Expedition to Asia 336-328 B.C.
In 336-335 B.C. Parmenion with 10,000 people: cost = 5,260,000 Drs x 2 years = 10,520,000 Drs = 1,608,021.976 ozs
For 336-335 B.C.5
(We take the higher average annual wage of 526 Drs; where 10,000 soldiers x 526 Drs = 5,260,000 Drs)
In Macedonia 12,000 people: cost = 6,312,000 Drs x 2 years = 12,624,000 Drs = 1,929,626.371 ozs
(12,000 soldiers x 526 Drs = 6,312,000 Drs)
(i) Total Cost: 23,144,000 Drs =3,537,648.347 ozs
In 334 B.C. Alexander with 35,000 people
In Macedonia 12,000 people
Parmenion with 10,000 people
Total: 57,000 men x 526 Drs = 29,982,000 Drs = 4,582,862.632 ozs
Plus 120 ships with 38,000 crews x 831 Drs = 31,578,000 Drs =4,826,817.296 ozs
Grand Total: 95,000 men
(ii) Total Cost: 61,560,000 Drs = 9,409,679.928 ozs
Cost: 1st
year (334 B.C.): 4,000-5,000 talents/annum = 24,000,000-30,000,000 Drs/annum (421.053-526.316 Drs/annum/man) (from historians)
Plus sailors: 38,000 x 831 Drs = 31,578,000 Drs
Consecutive years (333-328 B.C.): 7,000 talents/annum = 42,000,000 Drs/annum = 6,419,859.6 ozs
Plus sailors: 38,000 crews x 831 Drs = 31,578,000 Drs =4,826,817.296 ozs
(iii) Total Cost: 73,578,000 Drs/annum = 11,246,676.9 ozs/annum
Alexander hired more mercenaries: 42,000,000 Drs : 526 Drs/man = 79,850 soldiers
Plus 120 ships with 38,000 sailors
Total: 117,850 men
After the victories of Issus (November 5, 333 B.C.) and Gaugamela (October 1, 331 B.C.): Alexander donated to his soldiers 3,000 talents
or 18,000,000 Drs = 2,751,368.4 ozs
Alexander advanced on Egypt (late 332 B.C.)
After the conquest of Ecbatana (330 B.C.): Alexander gave to his soldiers jewels and 13,000 talents or 78,000,000 Drs = 11,922,596.4 ozs
(iv) Total Bonuses: 96,000,000 Drs = 14,673,964.8 ozs
Total Cost: (336-335 B.C.): 23,144,000 Drs =3,537,648.347 ozs (i)
(334 B.C.): 61,560,000 Drs = 9,409,679.928 ozs (ii)
(333-328 B.C.): 73,578,000 Drs/annum = 11,246,676.9 ozs/annum; (iii) x 6 = 441,468,000 Drs = 67,480,061.4 ozs
(333, 331, 330 B.C.): bonuses 96,000,000 Drs = 14,673,964.8 ozs (iv)
1. Total Cost in Asia (336-328 B.C.): 622,172,000 Drs = 98,528,642.36 ozs = 95,101,354.48 ozs
Where, (1a) Salaries: 526,172,000 Drs = 80,427,389.68 ozs
and (1b) Bonuses: 96,000,000 Drs = 14,673,964.8 ozs
Β΄. The Expedition to India 328 B.C. until the Death of Alexander 323 B.C. (Cost went up for these 5 years)
From historic sources, we know that cost went up, let say to 8,000 talents/annum or 48,000,000 Drs/annum for the existing army of 79,850 men
(601 Drs/man). We have an increase in salary of 14.259% (from 526 Drs to 601 Drs). Alexander gathered an army of 140,000 men.
23
The cost from 333 B.C. to 328 B.C. was 441,468,000 Drs (Table 2b).
24
If the annual cost went up to 8,000 talents or 48,000,000 Drs/annum, the cost of (140,000) soldiers was: 117,894,736.8 Drs or $278,599,380.7 if
there were silver talents or $21,170,711,570 if there were gold.
25
The cost of sailors was between 2,526,315.789 Drs ($453,658,105.2 gold or $5,969,986.731 silver) and 4,210,526.316 Drs ($756,096,842.10
gold or $9,949,977.887 silver).
26
See, Siculus, Diodorus; C.H. Oldfather (Translator). "Library". Theoi E-Texts Library. pp. Books 4-6 only. Also, Siculus, Diodorus. "Library" (in
Ancient Greek). Perseus Digital Library. pp. Books 9-17 only.
27
Justin is the author of Historiarum Philippicarum libri XLIV, a work described by himself in his preface as a collection of the most important
and interesting passages from the voluminous Historiae philippicae et totius mundi origines et terrae situs, written in the time of Augustus by
Pompeius Trogus.

21
Then, 140,000 soldiers x 601 Drs/man/annum = 84,140,000 Drs/annum = 12,861,118.73 ozs (v)
He constructed and used, Ships 150 with 3,000-5,000 sailors (historical sources). The construction [shipbuilding of triremes (ηξηήξεηο) was from
pine, oak, fir, and cedar trees] had the cost of timber and the labor one. The labor cost was 6,000 man-days x 2.564 Drs = 15,384 Drs (ancient
sources) plus the cost of timber (assumption)6
5,000 Drs. Total cost/trireme = 20,384 Drs. Then, 150 ships x 20,384 Drs = 3,057,600 Drs =
467,365.779 ozs. The number of sailors is too small; a trireme had 170 oars and a total of 200 sailors at least. Thus, 150 ships x 200 silors =
30,000 men.
Total army: 140,000 soldiers plus 30,000 sailors =170,000 men
Construction of 150 ships: Cost 150 x 20,384 Drs = 3,057,600 Drs = 467,365.779 ozs (vi)
Sailors 3,000-5,000, total cost: By taking the 30,000 sailors x 831 Drs/annum = 24,930,000 Drs /annum= 3,810,645.234 ozs (vii)
Total Cost : (327 B.C.): 112,127,600 Drs = 17,139,129.74 ozs (v)+(vi)+(vii)
Total cost (army and sailors): (327-323 B.C.): 109,070,000 Drs; (v)+(vii) x 5 = 545,350,000 Drs or 16,671,763.96 x 5 = 83,358,819.82 ozs
2. Total cost in India (327-323 B.C.): 548,407,600 Drs = 83,826,185.61 ozs.
Acquisitions and maintenance of military equipment and material: average army =130,000 men x 12 Drs (assumption 1 Dr/month) =
1,560,000 Drs/annum = 238,451.928 ozs/annum.
3. Total material cost for 13 years: 1,560,000 x 13 = 20,280,000 Drs = 238,451.928 x 13 = 3,099,875.064 ozs
Cost of engineers, technicians, bridge builders, carpenters, etc.: (Assumption 10% of the average army = 13,000 people). Cost: 13,000 x 923
Drs (skilled workers) = 11,999,000 Drs/annum = 1,834,092.746 ozs/annum
3. Total engineers cost for 13 years: 11,999,000 x 13 years = 155,987,000 Drs = 1,834,092.746 x 13 = 23,843,205.7 ozs
Food and transportation (soldiers and their families): (Assuming an average of 130,000 soldiers + 70,000 family members =200,000 people)
with a cost of 0.5 Drs/day x 360 days =180 Drs/annum. Then, 200,000 x 180 Drs/annum = 36,000,000 Drs/annum.
4. Total food and transportation cost for 13 years: 36,000,000 Drs/annum x 13 = 468,000,000 Drs = 5,502,736.8 x 13 = 71,535,578.4 ozs
Medical services (doctors, health personnel, etc.): (Assumption 1% of the total soldiers and their families of 200,000 = 2, 000 doctors) with 923
Drs/annum (skilled workers) = 1,846,000 Drs/annum = 282,168.115 ozs/annum
5. Total medical service cost for 13 years: 1,846,000 Drs/annum x 13 = 23,998,000 Drs = 282,168.115 ozs/annum x 13 = 3,668,185.495 ozs
Medicines: 100 talents or 600,000 Drs or 91,712.28 ozs
5. Total cost of medicines: 600,000 Drs x 13 years = 7,800,000 Drs or 91,712.28 ozs x 13 years = 1,192,259.64 ozs.
Indemnities to the families of the soldiers, who fell in battle7
(orphan children were receiving the salary of their father): Maximum number
of soldiers 170,000 x 15.299% = 26,000 casualties with 2 children/soldier =52,000 orphans. 26,000 deaths x 1 talent (6,000 Drs) = 156,000,000
Drs. Orphans compensation: 52,000 children in 13 years, about 4,000/anum x 526 Drs/annum x 12 years = 25,248,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x
11 years = 23,144,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 10 years = 21,040,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 9 years = 18,936,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 8
years = 16,832,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 7 years = 14,728,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 6 years = 12,624,000 Drs +4,000 x 526 Drs x 5 years
= 10,520,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 4 years = 8,416,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 3 years = 6,312,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 Drs x 2 years =
4,208,000 Drs + 4,000 x 526 x 1 year = 2,104,000 Drs. Total 164,112,000 Drs.
6. Thus, Indemnities to families and salaries to children: 156,000,000 Drs + 164,112,000 Drs = 320,112,000 Drs or 48,930,335.63 ozs.
Feasts and celebrations: About 9 feats plus 1 other celebration, total 10/annum x 13 years = 130 feasts. About 200,000 participants x 2 Drs =
400,000 Drs.
7. Then, cost 400,000 Drs x 130 feasts = 52,000,000 Drs = 7,948,397.6 ozs.
Cooks, bakers, wheat growers, etc.: (Assuming 10% of the total people of 200,000 = 20,000 cooks, etc.). Cost: 20,000 x 667 Drs/annum =
13,340,000 Drs.
4. For 13 years the cost of cooks and others was: 173,420,000 Drs = 26,507,906 ozs.
Appeasers, guards, etc.: (Assumption: these were soldiers and there was no extra compensation).
Royal Meals: 600 talents per annum or 3,600,000 Drs
4. Total royal meals: 3,600,000 Drs x 13 years = 46,800,000 Drs = 7,153,557.84 ozs.
To the relatives of his fallen soldiers, Alexander granted immunity from taxation and public service.
For soldiers, who want to return to their native country, Alexander gave: 2,000 talents or 12,000,000 Drs
[Assumption: the Macedonia soldiers were 45,000 (Parmenion‟s 10,000 and Alexander‟s 35,000) and about 9% (4,000 soldiers wanted to leave
and each one received 0.5 talent)]
6. Total cost for returning soldiers: 2,000 talents or 12,000,000 Drs = 1,834,245.6 ozs.
Soldiers, who decided to stay received: 3 talents each or 18,000 Drs/soldier
(Assuming that 50% of them (4,000) decided to stay, which is 2,000 soldiers).
6. Total cost of staying soldiers: 2,000 x 3 talents = 6,000 talents = 36,000,000 Drs = 5,502,736.8 ozs.
Macedonians, who became unable for war (veterans): They were receiving their salaries plus 1 talent or 6,000 Drs
plus the travel cost to return home
(We assume 10% veterans of 45,000 Macedonians, which means 4,500 soldiers became unable and received each: salary of 526 Drs/annum for an
average of 5 years = 2,630 Drs, plus 6,000 Drs, plus 3,000 Drs travel expenses = 11,630 Drs)
6. Total cost for unable veterans: 4,500 soldiers x 11,630 Drs = 52,335,000 Drs = 7,999,603.623 ozs.
Great banquet of Opis (324 B.C.):
(Assuming 200,000 people with an average cost of 5 Drs per person)
7. Total cost for the great banquet: 200,000 x 5 Drs = 1,000,000 Drs = 152,853.8 ozs.
Mass marriage between Macedonians and Persians at Susa (324 B.C.)
(Assumption: 10,000 marriages with a cost of 10 Drs each.).9
7. Total cost of mass marriage: 10,000 x 10 Drs = 100,000 Drs = 15,285.38 ozs.
Expensive Funeral for Hephaestion (324 B.C.) in Babylon
(Assumption: Tomb = 50 Drs, monument = 6,000 Drs, funeral rites = 1,000 Drs, and perideipnon for 200,000 people x 2 Drs = 400,000 Drs)
7. Total cost for Hephaestion’s funeral: 407,050 Drs = 62,219.139 ozs.
Financial Scandals (Harpalus, 3 times; 324 B.C.) of 700 talents.
8. Total cost (loss): 700 talent x 6,000 Drs = 4,200,000 Drs = 641,985.96 ozs.
Total cost (Γαπάναι) of Alexander’s campaign for 13 years: 2,545,018,650 Drs = 389,015,771.7 ozs
or (x $15.46 = $6,014,183,830).
Note: See, Table 2a.
Source: Diodorus, Justin, Plutarch, Arrian.
Furthermore, royal meals were also a big expense with the cost of food, its preparations, and all the required
personnel. Plutarch (Πινύηαξρνο)28
says that their annual cost was 600 talents or 3,600,000 Drs or 550,273.68 ozs or
$8,507,231.093 (silver) or $646,462,800 (if it was gold), even though that Alexander did not care for any luxurious
28
Plutarch (Πινύηαξρνο; 46–120 A.D.), was a Greek historian, biographer, and essayist, known primarily for his Parallel Lives (Βίοι
Παράλληλοι) and Moralia (Ἠθικά). Plutarch‟s Life of Alexander, written as a parallel to that of Julius Caesar, is one of only five extant tertiary
sources on the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great. See, “Plutarch”. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.

22
life. Alexander was utterly generous regarding the rewards as bonuses to men, who distinguished themselves in
battles and sieges. According to Diodorus, after the victories at Issus (Μάρε ηο Ἰζζν) and Gaugamela
(Γαπγάκεια) donations of 3,000 talents (18,000,000 Drs or 2,751,368.4 ozs or $3,232,314,000) were made to his
soldiers,29
while for the conquest of Ecbatana (‟Δθβάηαλα) jewels and 13,000 talents (78,000,000 Drs or
11,922,596.4 ozs or $14,006,694,000) were distributed.30
According to Arrian (1976), a lot of money (ρνξεγίαη)
were offered to the soldiers that want to return to their native country. Greek allies, who wished to repatriate were
given to them 2,000 talents (12,000,000 Drs or 1,834,245.6 ozs or $2,154,876,000) as salaries and expenses for
returning home, while those who decided to stay after all received 3 talents (18,000 Drs or 2,751.368 ozs or
$3,232,314) each soldier. Alexander was also generous towards veterans. According to Arrian (1976) Macedonians
who became unable for war, due to old age or illness, received their salary and one extra talent [6,000 Drs or
917.123 ozs or $14,178.718 (silver) or $1,077,438 (gold)], as well as the costs of the journey, the travel expenses to
return home.
Lastly, as a gesture of thanks, Alexander paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send
over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia, led by Craterus (Καξηεξόο). His troops misunderstood his
intention and mutinied at the town of Opis (Ὦπηο).31
They refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of
Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.32
The
Macedonians quickly begged forgiveness, which Alexander accepted, and held a great banquet33
for several
thousand of his men at which he and they ate together. (See, Table 2b). In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony
between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, Alexander held a mass marriage34
of his senior officers to Persian and
other noblewomen at Susa. Also, Hephaestion‟s death and funeral had a cost of 407,050 Drs (Tables 2b, 7).
However, financial scandals did occur, like that of Harpalus (Ἅξπαινο),35
who absconded large amounts of money
of 4,200,000 Drs (Tables 2b and 2c). A summary of all the expenses is presented in Table 2c, which were a total of
2,545,018,650 Drs ($6,014,183,830).
Table-2c. Summary of Cost of Alexander the Great Expedition (Table‟s 2b)
1. The Expedition to Asia (336-328 B.C.) Total
1a. The Expedition to Asia (336-328 B.C.) Salaries
1b. The Expedition to Asia (336-328 B.C.) Bonuses
622,172,000 Drs
526,172,000 Drs
96,000,000 Drs
95,101,354.480 ozs
80,427,389.680 ozs
14,673,964.800 ozs
24.447%
20.675%
3.772%
2. The Expedition to India (327-323 B.C.) Salaries, etc. 548,407,600 Drs 83,826,185.610 ozs 21.548%
3. Military Equipment and Constructions 176,267,000 Drs 26,943,080.760 ozs 6.926%
4. Food and Transportation 688,220,000 Drs 105,197,042.200 ozs 27.042%
5. Medical Expenses 31,798,000 Drs 4,860,445.135 ozs 1.249%
6. Indemnities and Veterans 420,447,000 Drs 64,266,921.650 ozs 16.520%
7. Feasts and Social Events 53,507,050 Drs 8,178,755.919 ozs 2.102%
8. Financial Scandals 4,200,000 Drs 641,985.960 ozs 0.165%
Total 2,545,018,650 Drs 389,015,771.700 ozs 100%
Note: See, Table 2a.
Source: See, Table 2a.
3. Alexander’s Budget Management, his Revenue, and Tax System
The revenue (poroe, πόξνη) needed for covering all these expenses was coming from different sources. At the
beginning of the campaign (ἐθζηξαηεία) the money came mainly from the royal treasure (βαζηιηθόο ζεζαπξόο) of
Philip, while a very important source of income were the Macedonian mines (κεηαιιεῖα),36
producing gold and
silver for the minting of coins (money). Incomes also came from customs, tariffs (δαζκνί) and taxes (θόξνη) of the
royal land (βαζηιηθαί γαῖαη). Another source of revenue was borrowing through loans. According to Plutarch,
Alexander borrowed short-term 1,460 talents (8,760,000 Drs or 1,338,999.288 ozs).37
The costs for professional
mercenaries (κηζζνθόξωλ) were covered exclusively from the royal treasure and the cost of the Macedonian army
29
The donation per soldier was: 18,000,000 Drs : 117,850 men = 152.74 Drs/soldier.
30
The bonus per person was: 78,000,000 Drs : 117,850 men = 661.86 Drs/soldier.
31
Opis ( Ὦπηο) was an ancient Babylonian city near the Tigris, not far from modern Baghdad.
32
See, Ian Worthington,(2003) .
33
With an estimated cost of 1,000,000 Drs (Table 2b, 7).
34
The cost of marriages is estimated to be 100,000 Drs (Table 2b, 7).
35
Harpalus (Ἅξπαινο), son of Machatas (Μαράηαο), was an aristocrat of Macedon and boyhood friend of Alexander the Great in the 4th century
B.C. Harpalus did not follow Alexander in his advance within the Persian Empire, but received nonetheless a post in Asia Minor. In 324 B.C.
Harpalus found refuge in Athens. Ecclesia after a proposal of Demosthenes (Γεκνζζέλεο; 384–322 B.C.) decided the guarding of Harpalus‟
money, which were entrusted to a committee led by Demosthenes himself. When the committee counted the money, they found 350 talents,
although Harpalus had declared that he had 700 talents. See, Badian (1961). Harpalus. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 81: 22. Available:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/628074?origin=crossref&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents. Also, Kingsley (1986). Harpalos in the Megarid (333-331
B.C.) and the Grain Shipments from Cyrene (S.E.G. Ix 2 + = Tod, Greek Hist. Inscr. Ii No. 196). Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 66:
165. Further, Hypereides, Against Demosthenes, 1
36
These mines exist even today and the controlled Greek government of Memorandum by the EU is offering them at a very low price to a
Canadian quest to mine for gold in the lush forests of northern Greece is testing the government‟s desperation to sell off every public wealth to
satisfy the Troika‟s demands for globalization. See, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/13/us-greece-gold-insight-
idUSBREA0C0DG20140113 . In addition, see, http://www.mindat.org/loc-14183.html
37
In current dollars, this loan is $20,700,928 (silver) or $1,573,059,480 (if the talents were gold).

23
partly was covered from aristocracy grants (ρνξεγίαη ηλ εὐγελλ, ιεηηνπξγίαη) and partly from the royal
treasure. The costs for the navy (ζηόινπ) were covered from the trierarchy (ζεζκόο ηῆο ηξηεξαξρίαο).38
Some cities
had undertaken to offer a number of triremes (ηξηήξεηο) and the expenses for their crew (Table 3a).
Regarding the tax system of Alexander; he did not impose taxes to the Greek cities of Asia Minor and declared
them ἀζπδόηνπο (= enjoying immunity) because his campaign had as objective to liberate the Greek cities from a
subjection tax (θόξνο ὑπνηειείαο) that they were paying to Darius. The non-Greek cities who did not resist the
conqueror had to pay a certain amount of money (tax), in order to contribute to the “common cause”, which was the
punishment of Darius. Taxes were imposed to foreign cities, who showed a hostile attitude towards Alexander, and
the people of Ephesus (Ἔθεζνο, Ephesos), who put up a sturdy resistance to the conqueror. Also, other revenues
came from plundering (ιάθπξα), during seizes of hostile cities.
Table-3a. Revenue (Πόξνη)
1. Royal Treasury (covered mercenaries) (amount unknown)
2. Gold and silver coins from the Macedonian mines (amount unknown)
3. Revenue from customs, tariffs, and taxes on royal lands (amount unknown)
4. Loan (short-term):1
1,460 talents or 8,760,000 Drs or 1,338,999.288 ozs
5. Aristocracy grants (covered Macedonian army) (amount unknown)
6. Cost of navy was covered from the trierarchy (about 1 talent): 2,310 talents or 13,860,000 Drs or 2,118,553.668 ozs
(120 ships x 1 talent x 13 years = 1,560 talents or 9,360,000 Drs or 1,430,711.568 ozs)
(Plus 150 ships x 1 talent x 5 years = 750 talents or 4,500,000 Drs or 687,842.1 ozs)
7. Taxes (to non-Greek cities in Asia Minor and to foreign cities with hostile attitude) (amount unknown)
8. Plundering (ιάθπξα) by seizing hostile cities (334 B.C.) in Asia Minor (amount unknown)
9. Darius ransom (ιύηξα) for his family (333 B.C.): 10,000 talents (60,000,000 Drs), which was not accepted and he gave a
colossal ransom of 30,000 talents or 180,000,000 Drs or 27,513,684 ozs
10. Darius treasure in Susa in 331 B.C. (amount unknown)
11. In 330 B.C., at Ecbatana, Alexander had the amount of 180,000-190,000 talents2
or 1,080,000,000-1,140,000,000 Drs or
165,082,104-174,253,332 ozs
12. In 330 B.C., at Persepolis (a very prosperous city) that it had a lot of gold and silver, he got: 2,500 tons of gold,3
which was
96,153.84615 gold talents or 961,538.4615 silver talents or 5,769,230,769 Drs or 881,848,846.1 ozs
(2,500,000 kgs : 26 kgs = 96,153.84615 talents of gold x 10 = 961,538.4615 silver talents x 6,000 Drs = 5,769,230,769 Drs)
13. Other sources tell that the total amount of silver bullion captured between 333-330 B.C. was between 180,000 and 400,000
talents of silver (1,080,000,000-2,400,000,000 Drs).
14. Tax and administration reforms to control the vast empire (amount unknown)
15. Alexander retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure from Ecbatana (324 B.C.) (amount unknown)
Total: (4)+(6)+(9)+(11)+(12) 7,051,850,769 Drs 1,077,902,187 ozs
Note: 1
Plutarch; 2
Diodorus Siculus 17.80.3, Strabo 15.3.9, and Justin 12.1.1; 3
The gold/silver ratio was 1/13 and due to this
huge amount of gold (excess supply) its price fell to 1/10.
Source: Diodorus (17.80.3), Strabo (15.3.9), Justin (12.1.1), Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch.
Alexander journeyed south and was met by Darius‟ significantly larger army, but Darius was easily defeated,
causing him to panic. Although he was chased by some troops, he did not captured, but Alexander took many
prisoners of war and even Darius family. “Alexander treated them (Darius‟ family) with the respect out of
consideration”, which demonstrated his continued generosity and kindness towards those he conquered during his
entire campaign. Darius fled the battle, causing his army to collapse, and left behind his wife, his two daughters, his
mother Sisygambis,39
and a fabulous treasure. Darius offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already
lost, and a ransom (ιύηξα) of 10,000 talents (ηάιαληα) or 60,000,000 Drs or 9,171,228 ozs ($141,787,215.8 silver
talents or $10,774,361,000 gold talents) 40
for his family (Table 3a). Alexander replied that since he was now king of
Asia, it was he alone who decided territorial divisions.41
Alexander the Great realized that he had control and could receive much more. Darius was thus forced to come
back. “This time the offer was impressive. Darius offered all territory as a far the Euphrates… a colossal ransom of
30,000 talents42
for his family…invited to marry his eldest daughter”. Alexander proceeded to take possession of
Syria, and most of the coast of the Levant. In the following year, 332 B.C., he was forced to attack Tyre (Σύξνο),
which he captured after a long and difficult siege. When Alexander occupied Tyre, most of the towns on the route to
Egypt quickly capitulated, with the exception of Gaza (Γάδα). The stronghold at Gaza was heavily fortified and built
on a hill, requiring a siege. After three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold fell, but not before Alexander had
38
The cost of a whole Trierarchy was not less than forty (40) minas (κλᾶ) nor more than a talent (ηάιαληνλ), 60 minas, with the average being 50
minas (50 minae x 100 Drs = 5,000 Drs). The responsibility of the Trierarchy as a liturgy was so great that during some eras no other liturgy could
be assessed in the same or the following year.
39
Sisygambis was the mother of Darius III of Persia. After she was captured by Alexander at the Battle of Issus (November 5, 333 B.C.), she
became devoted to him, and Alexander referred to her as “mother”.
40
For the Attic talent (the Athenian talent or Greek talent; ηάιαληνλ, talanton), calculations by the author are in Table 1. See, Herodotus et al.
(1998). Hypereides, against Demosthenes, 1. Available:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0140%3Aspeech%3D5&redirect=true#anch4 Also, Talent (Biblical
Hebrew), Unit of Measure, unitconversion.org. Further, Torr (1906). In addition, Engen, D., The Economy of Ancient Greece. Furthermore,
Calculated from Robert Allen‟s "Wages New", p. 36.
41
See, Arrian (1976).
42
Which was 180,000,000 Drs or 27,513,690 ozs of silver = $425,361,647.4 (today) or $32,323,082,400 (if they were gold talents).

24
received a serious shoulder wound. Jerusalem opened its gates in surrender, according to Josephus (Ἰώζεπνο).43
Alexander advanced on Egypt in later 332 B.C., where he was regarded as a liberator.44
There, he was pronounced
the new “master of the Universe” and son of the deity of Amon (Ἄκκωλ) at the Oracle (καληεῖνλ) of Siwa Oasis in
the Libyan Desert.45
Henceforth, Alexander often referred to Zeus-Ammon (κκωλνο-Γηόο) as his true father, and
subsequent currency depicted him adorned with ram‟s horn as a symbol of his divinity [see, Alexander‟s coins in
(Kallianiotis J.N., 2015b)]. During his stay in Egypt, he founded Alexandria-by-Egypt, which would become the
prosperous capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom (Πηνιεκαϊθὴ βαζηιεία )46
after Alexander‟s death.
Table-3b. Summary of Revenue (Πόξνη)
1. Loan (short-term) (4): 8,760,000 Drs 1,338,999.288 ozs 0.124%
2. Cost of navy was covered from the trierarchy (about 1 talent) (6): 13,860,000 Drs 2,118,553.668 ozs 0.197%
3. Darius ransom (ιύηξα) for his family (333 B.C.) (9): 180,000,000 Drs 27,513,684 ozs 2.553%
4. In 330 B.C., at Ecbatana, Alexander had the amount (11): 1,080,000,000 Drs 165,082,104 ozs 15.315%
5. In 330 B.C., at Persepolis (a very prosperous city) that it had (12): 5,769,230,769 Drs 881,848,846.1 ozs 81.812%
Total 7,051,850,769 Drs 1,077,902,187 ozs 100%
Leaving Egypt in 331 B.C., Alexander marched eastward into Mesopotamia (Μεζνπνηακία, now northern Iraq)
and again defeated Darius, at the Battle of Gaugamela (Γασγάμηλα, on October 1, 331 B.C.).47
Darius once more fled
the field, and Alexander chased him as far as Arbela (ρβηλα). Gaugamela would be the final and decisive
encounter between the two. Darius fled over the mountains to Ecbatana (Ἐθβάηαλα, modern Hamedan in Iran), while
Alexander captured Babylon (Βαβπιώλ). By the autumn of 330 B.C., Alexander was able to assemble at a central
treasury at Ecbatana some 180,000-190,000 talents (Table 3a) From Babylon, Alexander went to Susa (΢νῦζα), one
of the Achaemenid (δπλαζηείαο ηῶλ Ἀραηκεληδῶλ) capitals, and captured its legendary treasury. He sent the bulk of
his army to the Persian ceremonial capital of Persepolis (Πεξζέπνιηο) via the Royal Road.48
Alexander himself took
selected troops on the direct route to the city. He had to storm the pass of the Persian Gates (in the modern Zagros
Mountains, now known as Tang-e Meyran), which had been blocked by a Persian army under Ariobarzanes
(Ἀξηνβαξδάλεο) and then hurried to Persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury.
Ancient sources tell that Alexander was facing financial difficulties until 333 B.C. Later, and above all after the
Battle of Gaugamela (Γασγάμηλα) in 331 B.C., fabulous riches of the treasuries of Darius in Susa (΢νῦζα) at the end
of 331 B.C. and Persepolis (Πεξζέπνιηο) in January 330 B.C. were turned over to Alexander.49
Persepolis had
surpassed all other Persian cities in prosperity.50
Alexander went up to the citadel and took possession of the
treasures stored there. They were full of gold and silver, with the accumulation of revenue from Cyrus (Κῦξνο Β΄ ὁ
Μέγαο, ἤ Κῦξνο ὁ πξεζβύηεξνο), the first king of the Persians (559-530 B.C.), down to that time. Reckoning gold in
terms of silver, 2,500 tons were found there. (Table 3a).51
Alexander wanted to take part of the money with him, for
the expenses of war and to deposit the rest at Susa under close guard. From Babylon, Mesopotamia and Susa, he sent
for a crowd of mules, partly pack and partly draught animals, as well as 3,000 dromedaries (δξνκάο θάκεινο), and
with these he had all the treasure conveyed to the chosen places.52
After conquering the Persian Empire, Alexander
proceeded to tax and administration reforms, in order to control the vast empire.
The Achaemenid Empire is normally considered to have fallen with Darius. But, Spitamenes (Σπιηαμένης), who
held an undefined position in the satrapy of Sogdiana (΢νγδηαλή), in 329 B.C. betrayed Bessus (Βῆζζνο) to Ptolemy
43
Titus Flavius Josephus (Ἰώσηπος Φλάβιος ἤ Γιοσέυ μπέν Μαθιά; 37–100 A.D.), who wrote that Alexander was shown the Book of Daniel's
prophecy, presumably chapter 8, which described a mighty Greek king who would conquer the Persian Empire. He spared Jerusalem (another
sign of its future role that Alexander was a contributor) and pushed south into Egypt.
44
See, Ring et al. (1994). International Dictionary of Historic Places. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1994–1996.
45
The tomb of Alexander the Great and, particularly, its exact present location has been a recurring conundrum. Shortly after Alexander‟s death
(in the evening of June 10, 323 B.C. in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II; Ναβνπρνδνλόζωξ) in Babylon the possession of his body became a
subject of negotiations between Perdiccas (Πεξδίθθαο), Ptolemy I Soter (Πηνιεκαῖνο Α΄ ΢ωηήξ), and Seleucus I Nicator (΢έιεπθνο Α΄ Νηθάηωξ).
According to Saunders,(2007) , while Babylon was the “obvious site” for Alexander‟s resting place, some favored to inter Alexander in the
Argead (Ἀξγεάδαη) burial at Aegae (Αἰγαὶ), modern Vergina (Βεξγίλα). Aegae was one of the two originally proposed resting places, according to
Saunders, the other being Siwa Oasis and in 321 B.C. Perdiccas presumably chose Aegae. The body, however, was hijacked en route by Ptolemy I
Soter. According to Pausanias (Παπζαλίαο; 110 –180 A.D. a Greek traveler and geographer) and the contemporary Parian Chronicle (Σό “Πάριον
Χρονικόν”,  Χρονικόν τς Πάροσ is a Greek chronology, covering the years from 1582 B.C. to 299 B.C.) records for the years 321–
320 B.C., Ptolemy initially buried Alexander in Memphis (Μέκθηο), Egypt. In the late 4th or early 3rd century B.C. Alexander‟s body was
transferred from Memphis to Alexandria (Ἀιεμάλδξεηα), where it was reburied. See, Leana Souvaltzi, http://www.souvaltzi.gr/ekdoseis_eng.htm ;
also, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/06/world/greek-team-doubts-site-holds-alexander-s-tomb.html and Souvaltzi Liana (΢νπβαιηδῆ (2002). Ὁ
Σάθνο Σνῦ Μεγάινπ Ἀιεμάλδξνπ ΢ηήλ Ὄαζε ΢ίνπα, Γεωξγηάδεο, Ἀζῆλαη. Furthermore, Grimal,(1992) . Also, Saunders, N., Alexander's Tomb:
The Two-Thousand Year Obsession to Find the Lost Conquerer.
46
The Ptolemaic Kingdom (Πηνιεκαϊθὴ βαζηιεία) was a Hellenistic kingdom based in Egypt. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was founded in 305 B.C.
and it was ruled by the Ptolemaic dynasty, which started with Ptolemy I Soter‟s (Πηνιεκαῖνο Α΄ ΢ωηήξ) accession after the death of Alexander
the Great in 323 B.C. and which ended with the death of Cleopatra VII (Κιενπάηξα Φηινπάηωξ) and the Roman conquest in 30 B.C.
47
Arrian (1976).
48
The Royal Road was an ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius I the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th
century B.C. Mounted couriers could travel 1677 miles (2699 km) in seven days; the journey from Susa to Sardis took ninety days on foot. The
Greek historian Herodotus (Ἡξόδνηνο, 484-425 B.C.) wrote, “There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers.” See,
Speck (2002). Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography. American Journal of Ancient History, 1(1): 15-234.
49
See, Diodorus Siculus 1963, 17.39.1. Also, Diodorus Siculus 1963, 17.48.2–17.49.2. Further, Arrian 1893, 3.1.
50
See, Foreman,(2004) . Also, Hammond,(1983) .
51
Which make up 96,153.84615 gold talents or 576,923,076.9 Drs or 88,184,903.84 ozs of gold or $103,599,625,000. (Table 3a).
52
See, http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t12.html

25
(Πηνιεκαῖνο ΢ωηήξ), one of Alexander‟s trusted generals, and Bessus was executed. However, when, at some point
later, Alexander was on the Jaxartes (Ἰαμάξηεο) dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army, Spitamenes raised
Sogdiana in revolt. Alexander personally defeated the Scythians at the Battle of Jaxartes (Μάρε ην Ἰαμάξηε) in
329 B.C. and immediately launched a campaign against Spitamenes, defeating him in the Battle of Gabai, in 328
B.C. After the defeat, Spitamenes was killed by his own wife, who then sued for peace. Following the death of
Spitamenes (΢πηηακέλεο) in 328 B.C. and his marriage to Roxana (Ρωμάλε) to cement relations with his new
satrapies, Alexander turned to the Indian subcontinent. Omphis (Ὤκθηο, Indian name Ambhi Kumar), the ruler of
Taxila (Σάμηια  Σαμάζηια), whose kingdom extended from the Indus (Ἰλδόο Πνηακόο) to the Hydaspes
(Ὑδάζπεο Πνηακόο; Jhelum), assisted Hephaestion (Ἡθαηζηίωλ; c. 356 B.C.–324 B.C.)53
and Perdiccas (Πεξδίθθαο;
died 321/320 B.C.) in constructing a bridge over the Indus where it bends at Hund, supplied their troops with
provisions, and received Alexander himself, and his whole army, in his capital city of Taxila, with every
demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality.
After Aornos (἟ Ἄνξλνο Πέηξα  ἁπιῶο Ἄνξλνο),54
Alexander crossed the Indus and fought and won an
epic battle against King Porus (Πῶξνο), who ruled a region in the Punjab (Πεληαπνηακία), in the Battle of the
Hydaspes (἟ Μάρε ην Ὑδάζπε Πνηακν) in 326 B.C. Alexander was impressed by Porus‟s bravery, and
made him an ally. He appointed Porus as satrap, and added to Porus‟ territory land that he did not previously own.
Choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from Greece. Alexander founded two cities on opposite
sides of the Hydaspes River, naming one Bucephala (Bνπθεθαιία),55
in honor of his horse, who died around this
time. The other was Nicaea (‟Aιεμάλδξεηα Νίθαηα; Victory), thought to be located at the site of modern day Mong,
Punjab. Thus, Hydaspis (Ὑδάζπεο) River (Beas), marks the easternmost extent of Alexander‟s conquests.
In addition, Alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther, but his general Coenus (Koῖλνο; died 326
B.C.) pleaded with him to change his opinion and return. “The men”, he said, “longed to again see their parents, their
wives and children, their homeland”. Alexander eventually agreed and turned south, marching along the Indus
(Ἰλδόο Πνηακόο). Along the way his army conquered the Malhi (in modern day Multan in Pakistan) and other Indian
tribes and sustained an injury during the siege. Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran)
with general Craterus (Κξαηεξόο; c. 370–321 B.C.), and commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore
under his admiral Nearchus (Νέαξρνο; c. 360–300 B.C.), while he led the rest back to Persia through the more
difficult southern route along the Gedrosian Desert (Γεδξωζία; is the Hellenized name of an area that corresponds to
today‟s Balochistan; Map 1) and Makran (Μαθξαλία; is a semi-desert coastal strip in the south of Sindh and
Balochistan, in Pakistan and Iran, along the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman). Alexander reached
Susa in 324 B.C., but not before losing many men to the harsh desert.56
After Alexander traveled to Ecbatana to
retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend, Hephaestion (Ἡθαηζηίωλ; c. 356–324 B.C.), died of
illness or poisoning.57
Hephaestion‟s death devastated Alexander, and he ordered the preparation of an expensive
funeral58
pyre (ππξά) in Babylon, as well as a decree for public mourning.59
Back in Babylon, Alexander planned a
series of new campaigns, beginning with an invasion of Arabia, but he would not have a chance to realize them, as
he died shortly thereafter.
53
Hephaestion (Ἡθαηζηίωλ), the son of Amyntor (Ἀκύληωξ), was a Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Graet. He
was “... by far the dearest of all the king‟s friends; he had been brought up with Alexander.” This friendship lasted throughout their lives, and was
compared, by others as well as themselves, to that of Achilles (Ἀρηιιεύο) and Patroclus (Πάηξνθινο). See, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae
Alexandri Magni, 3.12.16. Ancient Greeks considered friendship as one of the highest values in a person‟s life. For this reason, we see to exalt
these famous friendships in history, like Achilles and Patroclus (Ἀρηιιεύο-Πάηξνθινο), Hercules and Iolaos (Ἡξαθιῆο-Ἰόιανο), Armodius and
Aristogeiton (Ἀξκόδηνο-Ἀξηζηνγείηωλ), Damon and Phidias (Γάκωλ-Φεηδίαο), Pylades and Orestes (Ππιάδεο-Ὀξέζηεο), Theseus and Peirithoos
(Θεζεύο-Πεηξίζνπο or Πεξίζννο or Πεηξίζννο), Alexander and Hephaestion (Ἀιέμαλδξνο-Ἡθαηζηίωλ). It is true that the Greeks rendered more
significance to friendship in general than any other people. Thus, these pairs of friends were not without heirs in historical times. This is the sense
of << Ὃκνηνο ὁκνίῳ ἀεί πειάδεη>> (omoios omoio aei pelazei; a similar always approaches a similar). Most of these heroic friends have similar
likes that stretch to sharing the same beliefs, the same problems and of course, the same causes, and give their life in case that it is necessary to
save their friend. These friendships were moral and ethical relationships; there are no abnormal, shameful, and against human nature relationships
between people of the same sex in Ancient Greece, as some ignorant and perverse pseudo-authors are writing. These lies have been spread to
justify the current perversions of our declining immoral and unethical civilization. Of course, Christianity came in Greece in year 50 A.D. and
these moral and ethical values of the past became much stronger, due to the Revealed Truth, which classifies homosexuality as the deadliest sin
for the human soul. Thus, homosexuality had and has no place in the Greek culture and value system. All the other are myths from ignorant or
suspicious for their behavior people. These groups of friends were representing the beauty, the bravery, and the moderation of the entire
Hellenism. The virtues for Hellenes are the same today: Strictness (αὐζηεξόηεο) towards themselves, leniency (ἐπηείθεηα) towards the others, and
moderation (κέηξνλ) for everything. See also, Varnakos (1997). Ἀιέμαλδξνο Αἰγέο Ἐζηε: Ὁ Ἐπαλαπαηξηζκόο Καί Ἡ Σαθή Σνύ Ἀιεμάλδξνπ ΢ηά
Ἀλάθηνξα Σώλ Αἰγώλ, Ἐθδόζεηο Πειαζγόο, Ἀζῆλαη, Ἑιιάο. In addition, see, Kallianiotis (2013b). << Ἡ Γηά Νόκνπ Ἐπηβνιή Σῆο
Ὁκνθπινθηιίαο Καί Ἡ Ἐπεξρνκέλε Ὀξγή Σνῦ Θενῦ Καηά Σόλ Ὃζηνλ Νεῖινλ Σόλ Μπξνβιύηελ>>, Christian Vivliografia, July 11, 2013, Pp. 1-
9. . Also, 86.1% of Greeks are against the marriage of homosexuals (e-grammes.gr). See also, Kallianiotis (2015a). <<Ὁκνθπινθηιία: Ἡ Ἐζράηε
Καί Αἰζρἰζηε Ννκηκνπνηεζεῖζα Ἁκαξηία>>, Christian Vivliografia, December 31, 2015, Pp. 1-2.
54
See, Lane Fox,(1973) . Also, Arrian, Anabasis IV, Chapters 28.1-30.4.
55
See, Lendering (2007). Alexander the Great: His Towns. Livius.Org. Available: http://www.livius.org/articles/misc/alexander-s-city-
foundations/.
56
See, Morkot,(1996) . The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece. Penguin.
57
See, Arrian (1976).
58
With an estimated cost of 407,050 Drs (Table 2b, 7).
59
All these expenditures appeared in Table 2b.

26
4. The Unexpected Death of Alexander and His Succession
On June 11, 323 B.C., ca. 4:00-5:00 p.m., Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II
(Ναβνπρνδνλόζωξ B΄), in Babylon, at age 33.60
Diodorus, Plutarch, Arrian and Justin all mentioned the theory that
Alexander was poisoned. Justin stated that Alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy, Plutarch dismissed it
as a fabrication,61
while both Diodorus and Arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness.62
The accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating Antipater (Ἀληίπαηξνο, Antipatros; c. 397–319 B.C.),
recently removed as Macedonian viceroy (ἀληηβαζηιεύο), and at odds with Olympias (Ὀιπκπηάο),63
as the head of
the alleged plot.
Alexander‟s body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus (ἀλζξωπνεηδήο ζαξθνθάγνο) that was filled with
honey, which was in turn placed in a gold casket.64
According to Aelian (Αἰιηαλόο), a seer called Aristander
(Ἀξίζηαλδξνο ὁ Σεικεζζεύο) foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest “would be happy and
unvanquishable forever”.65
Perhaps more likely, the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of
legitimacy, since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative.66
While Alexander‟s funeral cortege was on its way
to Greece (Macedonia), Ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to Memphis (Μέκθηο). His successor, Ptolemy II
Philadelphus (Πηνιεκαῖνο B΄ Φηιάδειθνο; 309–246 B.C.), transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where it
remained until at least Late Antiquity. Ptolemy IX Lathyros (Πηνιεκαῖνο Θ΄ ΢ωηήξ Λάζπξνο; 116 B.C.-81 B.C.) one
of Ptolemy‟s final successors, replaced Alexander‟s sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to
coinage.67
Alexander‟s death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached Greece, they were not immediately
believed it. Alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir, his son Alexander IV by Roxane was born after
Alexander‟s death.68
According to Diodorus, Alexander‟s companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he
bequeathed his kingdom; his laconic reply was «ηῷ θξαηίζηῳ» (“tô kratistô”, “to the strongest”, δειαδή, «εἰο ηόλ
ἰζρπξόηαηνλ, εἰο ηόλ ἱθαλώηαηνλ, εἰο ηόλ ἄξηζηνλ»).69
Arrian and Plutarch claimed that Alexander was speechless by
this point, implying that this was an apocryphal story. Diodorus, Curtius and Justin offered the more plausible story
that Alexander passed his signet ring (ζθξαγῖδα) to Perdiccas (Πεξδίθθαο), a bodyguard and leader of the
companion cavalry, in front of witnesses, thereby nominating him. Perdiccas initially did not claim power, instead
suggesting that Roxane‟s baby would be king, if male; with himself, Craterus (Κξαηεξόο), Leonnatus (Λενλλάηνο),
and Antipater (Ἀληίπαηξνο) as guardians. However, the infantry, under the command of Meleager (Mειέαγξνο),
rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion. Instead, they supported Alexander‟s
half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus (Φίιηππνο Γ΄ ὁ Ἀξξηδαῖνο).70
Eventually, the two sides reconciled, and after the birth of Alexander IV (Ἀιέμαλδξνο Γ΄),71
he and Philip III
(Φίιηππνο Γ΄ ὁ Ἀξξηδαῖνο) were appointed joint kings, albeit in name only. Dissension and rivalry soon afflicted the
Macedonians, however. The satrapies handed out by Perdiccas at the Partition of Babylon became power bases each
general used to bid for power. After the assassination of Perdiccas in 321 B.C., Macedonian unity collapsed, and
40 years of war between “The Successors” (Diadochi, Διάδοτοι) ensued before the Hellenistic world settled into four
stable power blocks: Ptolemaic (Πηνιεκαϊθὴ Bαζηιεία) Egypt, Seleucid (Αὐηνθξαηνξία ηλ ΢ειεπθηδλ)
Mesopotamia and Central Asia, Attalid (Γπλαζηεία ηλ Ἀηηαιηδλ) Anatolia, and Antigonid (Ἀληηγνλίδαη)
Macedon. In the process, both Alexander IV and Philip III were murdered.72
5. Historic Lessons for Today’s Economy and Society
As we saw above, these Greek (Hellen) Macedonians had greatly contributed to the civilization of the entire
world of their times. Contemporary historians, Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Polybius, Justin, Diodorus, Plutarch,
60
See, Depuydt (1997). The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 Bc, Ca. 4:00–5:00 Pm. Die Welt des Orients, 28: 117–35. .
61
See, Plutarch (1919). Perrin, Bernadotte, Ed. Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project. .
62
See, Diodorus Siculus,(1989) . Arrian,(1976) .
63
Olympias (Ὀιπκπηάο, c. 375–316 B.C.) was a princess of Epirus, daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus (Νενπηόιεκνο Α' Ἠπείξνπ) (370–
357 B.C.), the fourth wife of the king of Macedonia, Philip II (Φίιηππνο Βʹ ὁ Μαθεδώλ; 382–336 B.C.), and mother of Alexander the Great
(Ἀιέμαλδξνο ὁ Μέγαο).
64
See, Kosmetatou (1998). The Location of the Tomb: Facts and Speculation. Greece.Org. Archived from the Original on 31 May 2004.
Available: http://web.archive.org/web/20040531025749/http:/www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/pages/location.html.
65
See, Aelian, "64", Varia Historia XII.
66
See, Green (2007).
67
The recent (in 2014) discovery of an enormous tomb in northern Greece, at Amphipolis (Ἀκθίπνιηο), dating to the time of Alexander the Great
has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of Alexander. This would fit with the intended destination of
Alexander‟s funeral cortege. But, something strange happened and they did not publicize the findings. There are dark powers that they control
even the historic truth. See, http://www.interalex.net/2014/12/amphipolis-greece-tomb-news-dec-10-2014.html . Also,
http://greece.greekreporter.com/2014/12/04/lingering-mysteries-of-the-amphipolis-tomb/ . Further,
http://en.protothema.gr/pres-pavlopoulos-only-fools-may-doubt-that-macedonia-is-greek/
68
Green, P., A Lexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age..
69
Siculus, Diodorus (1989).
70
Philip III Arrhidaeus (Φίιηππνο Γ΄ ὁ Ἀξξηδαῖνο; c. 359 B.C. – December 25, 317 B.C.) reigned as king of Macedon from after June 11, 323
B.C. until his death. He was a son of King Philip II of Macedon (Φίιηππνο Βʹ ὁ Μαθεδώλ) by Philinna (Φίιηλλα or Philine Φηιίλε) of Larissa, and
thus an elder half-brother of Alexander the Great. Named Arrhidaeus at birth, he assumed the name Philip when he ascended to the throne.
71
Alexander IV (Ἀιέμαλδξνο Γ΄; 323–311 B.C.), erroneously called sometimes in modern times Aegus, was the son of Alexander the Great
(Alexander III of Macedon) and Princess Roxana (Ρωμάλε) of Bactria.
72
See, Green (2007).

27
and other sources write for these Greeks (Hellenes) and their King, Alexander the Great. These Macedonians by
themselves were declaring since these ancient times that they were Greeks (<<Μαθεδόλεο ἀεί ιελεο>>) and
they were proud for their descent. Alexander by addressing the people of Southern Greece was saying “my fellow
Greeks”.
For those, who do not know the Greek (Hellenic) language, which was also the language of all Greek city-states
and regions, like the Ancient Macedonia; the names of Macedonians are all Greek and their culture, faith, and race,
were Greek, too. The name Alexander (Ἀιέμαλδξνο)73
is Greek and it is composed by the two words, ALES (ΑΛΔ΢)
and ANDROS (ΑΝΓΡΟ΢). The first (ΑΛΔ΢) renders the meaning of assembly of the same race overtime,74
i.e.,
Greeks. (Α=gathering, Λ=similar-same race, Δ=chronic, through time, ΢=humans). Where the second (ΑΝΓΡΟ΢)
explains by whom all these people are brought together, namely by a man, who has indeed, high spirituality,
strength, vision, energy, fighting power.75
Everything is Greek in Macedonians, from language to their entire
civilization;76
and this Greek language (Ἑιιεληθά) was used to write the Gospels (New Testament). The full name of
Alexander the Great was Greek and it was, Ἀιέμαλδξνο Φηιίππνπ Μαθεδώλ. This language has a continuity from
Ancient Greece (Ἀξραία Ἑιιάο) to Hellenistic period (Ἑιιεληζηηθή πεξίνδνο) and from Byzantium (Romania,
Ρωκαλία) to today Greeks (Hellenes, Ἕιιελεο).77
This is God‟s Providence and we cannot change it, even though
that there are many, who try with all their means to counterfeit the historic truth and the Revealed Truth; but,
<<καηαηόηεο καηαηνηήηωλ>>, they will never succeed.
According to Plutarch,78
among Alexander‟s traits were a strong temper and rash, impulsive nature, which
undoubtedly contributed to some of his decisions as a leader. Alexander was open to reasoned debate. He also had a
calmer side (perceptive, logical, and calculating). He had a great desire for knowledge, a love for philosophy, and
was an avid reader. These were no doubt in part, due to Aristotle‟s tutelage; Alexander was intelligent and quick to
learn. His intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general. He had great
self-restraint in “pleasures of the body”, necessary abilities (ἀξεηαί) for a wise and true man. Alexander was erudite
and patronized both arts and sciences. He was seeking the Homeric ideals of honor (ηηκή, timê) and glory (δόμα,
θιένο, θῦδνο = kudos).79
He had great charisma and force of personality, characteristics which made him a great
leader. His unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite Macedonia and
retain the Empire after his death; only Alexander had the ability to do so.
His mother, Olympias (Ὀιπκπηάο), always insisted to him that he was the son of Zeus (Εεύο), a theory
apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of Amun at Siwa (an oasis in Egypt).80
He began to identify himself as the
son of Zeus-Ammon. However, Alexander also was a pragmatic ruler, who understood the difficulties of ruling
culturally disparate peoples, many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was “divine”. Thus, rather than
73
The letters of Α-Λ-Δ-Ξ-Α-Ν-Γ-Ρ-Ο-΢ represent the numbers of the Greek alphabet, 1-30-5-60-1-50-4-100-70-200 = 521 (their sum) = 8, which
symbolize a new beginning. The harmony in the Greek language is amazing. Ancient Greeks believed that these words (the names of everything
was the absolutely correct name) in the Greek language had been given by the gods. See, <<Δἶλαη Πξνλόκην λά Μηιᾶο Ἑιιεληθά>>, schizas.com,
September 7, 2015, pp. 1-4.
74
The Greek nation, according to Herodotus (Ἡρόδοτος, a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria and lived in the fifth
century B.C., c. 484–425 B.C. referred as “The Father of History”), was <<ὁκόαηκνλ, ὁκόγιωζζνλ, ὁκόζξεζθνλ, ὁκόηξνπνλ>> (omoemon =
same blood, omoglosson = same language, omothriskon = same religion, omotropon = same ways, behaviour), but with any Greek City State
maintaining its independent leadership and rulers, with their own alliances and their own civil wars in the Greek region. From Homer up to
Herodotus who also mentions that, <<ηό Ἑιιεληθόλ γιώζζῃ αἰεί ηῇ αὐηῇ δηαρξᾶηαη>> (“the Greek language has always been spoken”), but in the
pass of time, in this long Greek history (7 thousands years), the Greeks were calling themselves with a variety of names. See,
http://hellinon.net/EllinismosMakedonia.htm
75
See, Varnakos (1997, pp. 49-50).
76
See, John N. Kallianiotis, “The Unholy Alliance and Historical Hellas: The Fabricated Macedonian Question (An Archaeological Perspective
of the Problem)”, Antibaro, September 6, 2010-22:55, pp. 1-24.
http://www.antibaro.gr/print/node/1939. Also, Kallianiotis (2010). An Archaeological Perspective of the Macedonian Question.
Υξηζηηαληθή Βηβιηνγξαθία (Christian Vivliografia), Ηζηνξηα, October 11, 2010, Pp. 1-7. Further, John N. Kallianiotis, “Historical
Evidence on the Greekness of Macedonia(1)”, Christian Vivliografia, January 25, 2011, pp. 1-6.
http://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2011/01/25/historical-evidence-on-the-greekness-of-macedonia-1/ and “Historical Evidence on
the Greekness of Macedonia (2)”, Christian Vivliografia, January 30, 2011, pp. 1-19.
http://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2011/01/30/historical-evidence-on-the-greekness-of-macedonia-2/ Also, John N. Kallianiotis,
“Skopjeans‟ Delusion on the Macedonian Issue: Some Linguistic Evidence”, Antibaro, May 6, 2011, pp. 1-12.
http://www.antibaro.gr/node/3003. Further, John N. Kallianiotis, “Linguistic Evidence on the Macedonian Question”, Christian
Vivliografia, May 28, 2011, pp. 1-21.
http://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2011/05/28/linguistic-evidence-on-the-macedonian-question/
Also, John N. Kallianiotis, “Christian Evidence for the Greekness of Macedonia”, Christian Vivliografia, October 8, 2011, pp. 1-14.
http://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2011/10/08/christian-evidence-for-the-greekness-of-macedonia/ Furthermore, John N. Kallianiotis,
“Some Christian Evidences on the Invented Macedonian Question”, Antibaro, November 7, 2011, pp. 1-19. http://www.antibaro.gr/node/3467
77
See also, «Α ΜΠΔ ΜΠΑ ΜΠΛΟΜ, ΣΟΤ ΚΔΗΘΔ ΜΠΛΟΝ»! ΢ΤΓΚΛΟΝΗ΢ΣΗΚΖ (γιωζζηθή) ΓΗΑΥΡΟΝΗΚΟΣΖ΢;
https://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2012/10/11/%e1%bc%84-%ce%bc%cf%80%ce%ad-%ce%bc%cf%80%e1%bd%b0-
%ce%bc%cf%80%ce%bb%cf%8c%ce%bd-%cf%84%ce%bf%e1%bf%a6-%ce%ba%ce%b5%e1%bf%96%ce%b8%ce%b5-
%ce%bc%cf%80%ce%bb%cf%8c%ce%bd/
78
Plutarch, 'Perrin, Bernadotte, Ed. Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project', ( and Plutarch (1936). Babbitt, Frank Cole, Ed. On the Fortune of
Alexander Iv. Loeb Classical Library. Pp. 379–487. “Plutarch”. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy.
79
Κῦδνο = δόμα (θπξίωο πνιεκηθή), θιένο, θήκε, εὔθιεηα, θαύρεκα, ηηκή, ἐγθώκηνλ. In English, Κῦδος must be “Kydos” and not the wrong one,
kudos that is used.
80
See, Liana Souvaltzi. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/some-talk-of-alexanders-tomb-starts-to-ring-hollow-1571876.html. Souvaltzi
did the excavation at Siwa, Egypt, but some dark powers did not allow the continuation of her work to bring her findings to the light.
http://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/06/world/greek-team-doubts-site-holds-alexander-s-tomb.html See also, ΢νπβαιηδῆ (2002).

28
megalomania, his behavior may simply have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his
empire together with the introduction of the Greek moral and ethical value-oriented system. Another oracle was
found in pseudo-Callisthenes‟ biography of Alexander the Great.81
In addition, there were many finds in Vergina (Βεξγίλα) or Aegae (Αἰγαί)82
and Dion (Γίνλ) of tombstones that
bear only Greek names. These tombstones provide strong evidence of the Hellenic origin of the Macedonians.83
Alexander‟s expedition was a Greek campaign to civilize the barbarian world of that period and offer its language
and paideia to Middle East, Asia, and Africa that all these people to be ready to accept the Revealed Truth that was
coming three centuries later.84
This civilization has contributed greatly to our socio-economico-political system from
these distant times up to now.
Thus, Alexander‟s legacy to Hellenism and to humanity extended beyond his military conquests. His campaigns
greatly increased contacts and trade between East and West, and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to
Greek civilization and influence. Some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers, many surviving into
the 21st century.85
His chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched, while
the Greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the Mediterranean. Actually, he prepared the
ground for the “Unknown God”86
to become known to humanity with Alexander‟s Hellenistic language and
civilization.87
Undoubtedly, Alexander‟s most immediate legacy was the introduction of Macedonian (Hellenic) rule to the
huge new boundless extensions into Asia. At the time of his death, Alexander‟s Empire covered some 5,200,000 km2
(2,000,000 square miles), and was the largest state not only of its time, but in the entire human history. Many of
these remote areas remained in Greek (Hellenic) hands or under Greek influence for the next 300 years. The
successor states that emerged were dominant forces, and these 300 years are often referred to as the Hellenistic
period (Ἑλληνιζηική Περίοδος), which was from 323 B.C. until the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by
the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C. He managed his wars, their economy, and the economy of his empire by exercising
an efficient and effective public policy with a surplus at the end of 4,506,832,119 Drs (Tables 2c and 3b). Also, he
was generous in his payments. He was paying his soldiers more than 1 Dr/day = 0.1528538 ozs/day or $7.612/day
(Table 2a, Figure 1).
Over the course of his conquests, for thirteen years (336-323 B.C.), Alexander founded some twenty cities that
bore his name, most of them east of the Tigris (Σίγξεο πνηακόο).88
The first, and greatest of all, was Alexandria
(Ἀιεμάλδξεηα) in Egypt, which would become one of the leading Mediterranean cities.89
These cities‟ locations
reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions. A century or so after Alexander‟s death, many of the
Alexandrias were thriving, with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both Greek90
and local peoples.
Lastly, Alexander was the only civilizer in human history, a great leader, an excellent general, and a very
good economist (νἰθνλνκνιόγνο), who was managing this vast empire, his enormous campaign, his huge army and
personnel, and their expenses; but also he was administrating the different sources of revenue not only to balance the
empire‟s budget, but he had surpluses, too. Greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during Alexander‟s
campaign in Asia.91
Alexander sent back vast sums of money and other valuables from his conquest; his wages and
81
See, Kallianiotis, J. N., 'Economic Policy of Alexander the Great, Unpublished Manuscript, University of Scranton, June 2015, P. 72', (.
Ancient Greek oracles were talking about the True God. See,
http://friendshipiseverything.blogspot.com/2011/03/blog-post_9878.html
82
Vergina = Aegae (Βεξγίλα =Αἰγαί) means water and coastal land, from which we have the name Aegean (correct, Aegaeon) Sea (Αἰγαῖνλ
Πέιαγνο). Also, it was found in the Palace of Vergina, on the floor, the inscription: << Ἡξαθιῇ Παηξώω>> (=Hercules the Head of the Race).
This is an amazing history that we can derive lesson even today, but it is difficult to do the appropriate connections.
83
An inscription of a damnation (=θαηάδεζκνο), which was revealed in Pella (Πέιια), was also written in this superior Greek language. See, I. N.
Kallianiotis, “An Archaeological Perspective of the Macedonian Question”, Χριζηιανική Βιβλιογραθία (Christian Vivliografia), Η΢ΣΟΡΗΑ,
October 11, 2010, pp. 1-7.
http://christianvivliografia.wordpress.com/2010/10/11/an-archaeological-perspective-of-the-macedonian-question/
84
Apostles traveled to all these Hellenized regions to preach the New Gospel, mostly in the Greek (Hellenistic) language. Matthias went to Syria;
John to Ephesus and Patmos; Paul to Asia Minor, Greece, and Rome; Peter went to Babylon, Mesopotamia, Britain, and Rome (??? Many authors
write that St. Peter never went to Rome); Andrew to Greece, Black Sea, and Denmark; Thomas went to India; Matthew went to Parthia, Ethiopia,
and near India; Philip to North Africa; Bartholomew to India with Thomas, to Armenia, Ethiopia, and South Africa; James the son of Alpheus
went to Syria; Simon the Zealot to Persia; and Mark went to Africa and found the Church of Alexandria. See,
http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1-300/whatever-happened-to-the-twelve-apostles-11629558.html . Also,
http://www.christianity.com/church/church-history/timeline/1-300/whatever-happened-to-the-twelve-apostles-11629558.html
85
We see ISIS, today, destroying the Hellenic exhibits in museums in Iraq and other areas in the Middle East. See,
http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/26/isis-fighters-destroy-ancient-artefacts-mosul-museum-iraq. Also, they blew up the Hellenistic
city of Palmyra (Syria) in August 2015 and the West was watching with apathy. See,
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/24/world/middleeast/islamic-state-blows-up-ancient-temple-at-syrias-palmyra-ruins.html?_r=0
86
See, Apollo‟s prophesies. http://www.apologitis.com/gr/ancient/profiteies.htm#ΔΛΛΖΝΔ΢
87
See, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mXeMU4c140
88
See, Arrian 1976, IV, 5–6, 16–17.
89
Greeks are in Alexandria, Egypt, since those days up to now. The Greek community, there, with the Patriarchate of Alexandria and the Greek
Patriarch are thriving and contribute to the life of the city and the entire Africa even, today.
90
Also, these Greeks in the Palestine region went to meet Jesus, as we see in the Bible: “Now there were certain Greeks among those who came
up to worship at the feast. Then they came to Philip, who was from Bethsaida of Galilee, and asked him, saying, „Sir, we wish to see Jesus‟. Philip
came and told Andrew, and in turn Andrew and Philip told Jesus. Jesus answered them, saying, „The hour has come that the Son of Man should be
glorified‟ [by these Greeks]”. (John 12: 20-23). During that period, there were 115 Greek cities in Palestine. See, Ληαθόπνπινο (2000).
91
See, Roisman and Ian Worthington,(2010) .

29
all his compensations were very generous, which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire.
However, Alexander‟s constant demands for troops and the migration of Macedonians throughout his empire
depleted Macedonia‟s manpower,92
greatly weakening it in the years after Alexander, and ultimately led Greece to
its subjugation by Rome in 146 B.C.
Figure-1. Minimum Wage/Median Wage for Developed Economies,2011
6. Conclusion
Alexander III Macedon (Ἀιέμαλδξνο Γ΄ Μαθεδώλ; July 20, 356-June 11, 323 B.C.) earned the epithet, “the
Great” (Μέγαο), due to his unparalleled success as a king, a military commander, and a civilizer of the known world
at that time.93
He never lost a battle, despite typically being outnumbered. This was due to use of terrain, phalanx
(θάιαγμ) and cavalry tactics, bold strategy, and the fierce loyalty of his troops. He always was personally involved
in battles, in the manner of a Macedonian king. Greek biographer Plutarch (Πινύηαξρνο; c. 45–120 A.D.) describes
Alexander‟s appearance as a model.94
Greek historian Arrian (Ἀξξηαλόο; c. 86–160 A.D.) described Alexander as:
“[T]he strong, handsome commander with one eye dark as the night and one blue as the sky.”95
Ancient authors
recorded that Alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by Lysippos (Λύζηππνο) that he forbade
other sculptors from crafting his image. Lysippos‟ sculpture, famous for its naturalism, as opposed to a stiffer, more
static pose, is thought to be the most faithful depiction.
Some of Alexander‟s strongest personality traits formed in response to his parents.96
His mother had huge
ambitions, and encouraged him to believe it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire.97
Olympias‟ influence
instilled a sense of destiny in him; of course, without preventing God‟s Providence. Plutarch tells us that his
ambition “kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years”.98
However, his father Philip II (382-336 B.C.)
was Alexander‟s most immediate and influential role model, as the young Alexander watched him campaign
practically every year, winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds.99
Alexander‟s relationship with
his father forged the competitive side of his personality; he had a need to out-do his father,100
illustrated by his
reckless behavior in battle. While Alexander worried that his father would leave him “no great or brilliant
achievement to be displayed to the world”,101
he proved that there were greater than his father‟s achievements, with
his unique campaign as far as to India.
Alexander married twice. First, Roxana (Ρωμάλε), daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes (‟Ομπάξηεο)
and Stateira II (΢ηάηεηξα Β΄), a Persian princess and daughter of Darius III of Persia (Γαξεῖνο Γ΄ ηο Πεξζίαο
92
<<Οὐδέλ θαιόλ ἀκηγέο θαθνῦ.>>
93
Roisman, J. and Ian Worthington, A Companion to Ancient Macedonia..
94
“The outward appearance of Alexander is best represented by the statues of him which Lysippus made, and it was by this artist alone that
Alexander himself thought it fit that he should be modelled. For those peculiarities which many of his successors and friends afterwards tried to
imitate, namely, the poise of the neck, which was bent slightly to the left, and the melting glance of his eyes, this artist has accurately observed.
Apelles, however, in painting him as wielder of the thunder-bolt, did not reproduce his complexion, but made it too dark and swarthy. Whereas he
was of a fair color, as they say, and his fairness passed into ruddiness on his breast particularly, and in his face. Moreover, that a very pleasant
odor exhaled from his skin and that there was a fragrance about his mouth and all his flesh, so that his garments were filled with it, this we have
read in the Memoirs of Aristoxenus.” See, Plutarch, 'Perrin, Bernadotte, Ed. Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project'.
95
See, "Alexander the Great". Mithec.
96
See, Green, P., A Lexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age.
97
Greeks are saying, even today, that “behind a saint, there is always a holy mother”. The right family is the cornerstone of a healthy society.
98
See, Plutarch, 'Perrin, Bernadotte, Ed. Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project'.
99
See, Roisman, J. and Ian Worthington, A Companion to Ancient Macedonia..
100
From what was the belief in Ancient Sparta: <<ἄκκεο δέ γ' ἐζόκεζα πνιιῷ θάξξνλεο>> [we shall become better (than you)].
101
Plutarch, 'Perrin, Bernadotte, Ed. Plutarch, Alexander. Perseus Project'.

30
 Γαξεῖνο ὁ Κνδνκαλόο). He apparently had two sons, Alexander IV of Macedon of Roxana and, possibly,
Heracles of Macedon (Ἡξαθιῆο ὁ Μαθεδώλ) from his mistress Barsine (Βαξζίλε). He lost another child when
Roxana miscarried at Babylon. Apart from wives, Alexander had many more female companions.102
Alexander
accumulated a harem in the style of Persian kings, but he used it rather sparingly; showing great self-control in
“pleasures of the body”. Nevertheless, Plutarch described how Alexander was infatuated by the pretty Roxana.
Alexander‟s economic abilities were also excellent. He managed the economy of his wars; an enormous
campaign from Greece to India with success and very efficiently. His public policies [revenue, (πόξνη, poroe) and
spending (δαπάλαη, dapanae)] were very effective not only balancing his budget, but generated a surplus, which was
sent back to Macedonia. The cost (δαπάλαη) of Alexander‟s expedition from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. was
2,545,018,650 Drs, which was 389,015,771.7 ozs of silver ($6,014,183,830 in today‟s silver price). The revenue
(πόξνη) from different sources was 7,051,850,769 Drs, which was 1,077,902,187 ozs of silver ($16,664,367,810).
Then, his surplus was 7,051,850,769 – 2,545,018,650 Drs = 4,506,832,119 Drs or 688,886,415.3 ozs or
$10,650,183,980. (Tables 2a, 2b, 2c, 3a, and 3b). He was compensating very well his soldiers and all his personnel,
as Table 2a shows. His social policies were also excellent, as Table 2c reveals. Table 2a gives salaries from 1 Dr to
6.66 Drs per day (0.1528538-1.018006308 ozs) or $2.363119748 - $15.73837752 per day, which were much better
than today‟s minimum wages. (Figure 1). From the economic point of view, this is a good lesson for our politicians,
today, who have generated an unsustainable national debt and the countries are facing bankruptcies. Our social
policies are very insignificant and the workers are extremely exploited by businesses that make enormous profits,
create inflation, and avoid paying taxes, too. Then, we need to learn from the past history.
Further, with the word Hellenization we denote the spread of Greek language, culture, and population into the
former Persian Empire after Alexander‟s conquest. That this export of Greek civilization took place is undoubted,
and can be seen in the great Hellenistic cities of, for instance, Alexandria, Antioch, and Seleucia (south of Baghdad).
Alexander sought to insert Greek elements into Persian culture and attempted to hybridize Greek and Persian culture.
This culminated in his aspiration to homogenize the populations of Asia and Europe. Thus, Hellenization occurred
throughout this vast region. The core of this Hellenistic culture was essentially Athenian (from the “golden age” of
the city). The close association of men from across Greece in Alexander‟s army directly led to the emergence of the
largely Attic-based “koine” (θνηλή), or “common” or Hellenistic (Ἑιιεληζηηθή) Greek dialect or the language of the
New Testament (Ἑιιεληθή ηο Καηλο Γηαζήθεο).103
Koine spread throughout the Hellenistic world,
becoming the lingua franca104
of Hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of Modern Greek. Furthermore, town
planning, education, local government, and art current in the Hellenistic period were all based on Classical Greek
ideals, evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as Hellenistic. Aspects of Hellenistic culture were
evident in the traditions of the Byzantine (Medieval Greek) Empire in the mid-15th century and they are still present
even in today‟s Greece. The entire of long duration Greek culture is based on tradition, which is preserved and is
transferred from one generation to the other.
Lastly, Alexander the Great was a gifted man by God (God‟s Providence is in control of His entire creation). His
role in history is unique and he had all these talents to pursue this historic objective, the preparation of the known
world to accept the Revealed Truth, the Messiah, the Son of God, “the Unknown God” of Socrates and of the other
Greek philosophers.105
Actually, Alexander was the Greek (ἐθ ηῶλ ἐζληθῶλ) “social forerunner” of the Lord. The
divine plan was successful in only twelve (12) years (335-323 B.C.) and was preserved with Alexander‟s successors.
Alexander‟s short life for only 33 years (356-323 B.C.) was enough to accomplish God‟s plan for humans‟
salvation.106
He was successful in all his tasks and of course, in his economic policy and triumphant in his social,
foreign, and global policies. It is obvious that if a leader has God‟s Providence because he labors for God‟s work, he
will be very successful for his people and the world. The problem, today, is that our leaders do not receive and do
not accept God‟s Providence because they do not believe in the True God and their people are paying the cost by
accepting them.
102
As we see, Alexander had been married twice and had many other women companions, which shows his relationships with women. Of course,
no ancient sources stated that Alexander had homosexual relationships and we do not see this perversion anywhere in ancient Greece. This was a
big lie by some contemporary homosexuals to justify their anomaly (their deadly sin). But, the knowledge in depth of the Greek language is
necessary for someone to read ancient Greek and understand the meaning of their life. The vice of homosexuality existed in Sodom and Gomorrah
and God burnt them with fire and brimstone.
103
Koine Greek displayed a wide spectrum of different styles, ranging from more conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of the
time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire (Romania, Ρωκαλία, Ρωκενί), it developed further into Medieval Greek, the main
ancestor of Modern Greek. Literary Koine was the medium of much of post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of
Plutarch and Polybius. Koine is also the language of the Christian New Testament, of the Septuagint (the 3rd-century B.C. Greek translation of
the Hebrew Bible, “Old Testament”), and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers. (St. Basil the Great and St. Gregory
the Theologian studied in Athens in the 4th
century A.D.). In this context, Koine Greek is also known as “Biblical”, “New Testament”,
“Ecclesiastical” or “Patristic” Greek (and as a good American friend is saying, “this is the language that is spoken in Paradise”). It also continues
to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church.
104
A lingua franca, also known as a bridge language, trade language or vehicular language, is a language systematically (as opposed to
occasionally, or casually) used to make communication possible between persons not sharing a native language, in particular when it is a third
language, distinct from both native languages, as it is the English language, today.
105
See, http://www.sakketosaggelos.gr/Article/172/
106
Also, 33 years was the earthy life of the Son of God, Jesus Christ.

31
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Map-1.The Empire of Alexander the Great

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