The standard container securing
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The document provides basic advice for securing cargo containers on ships to prevent damage and loss overboard in heavy weather. It recommends checking stack weights, lashing plans, lashing equipment for defects, and container integrity. Additional lashings should be added for heavy stacks or expected bad weather. Isolated or uneven stacks should be avoided, as well as heavy containers above light ones. Lashing systems should be kept simple using high-rated components, and precise instructions given to shore lashing gangs.
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The standard container securing
- 1. A MASTER’S GUIDE TO Container Securing
- 2. A MASTER’S GUIDE TO CONTAINER SECURING IS THE FIFTH PUBLICATION IN THE MASTER’S GUIDE SERIES. The Standard P&I Club The Lloyd’s Register Group The Standard P&I Club’s loss prevention programme focuses on Lloyd’s Register is directed through its constitution to: ‘secure for best practice to avert those claims that are avoidable and that the benefit of the community high technical standards of design, often result from crew error or equipment failure. In its continuing manufacture, construction, maintenance, operation and performance commitment to safety at sea and the prevention of accidents, for the purpose of enhancing the safety of life and property both at casualties and pollution, the Club issues a variety of publications on sea and on land and in the air’, and to advance ‘public education safety-related subjects, of which this is one. For more information within the transportation industries and any other engineering and about these publications, please contact either the Managers’ technological disciplines’. London Agents or any Charles Taylor office listed in this guide. Authors Eric Murdoch BSc, MSc, MRINA, C.Eng David Tozer BSc, MSc, FRINA, C.Eng Director of Risk Management Business Manager Container Ships Charles Taylor & Co Limited Lloyd’s Register 1 St Katharine’s Way 71 Fenchurch Street London E1W 1UT London EC3M 4BS UK UK Telephone (44) 20 7522 7440 Telephone (44) 20 7709 9166 Email [email protected] Email [email protected] www.standard-club.com www.lr.org The authors acknowledge technical contributions from colleagues and associates. The authors express their particular thanks to: Bob Thompson, Principal Specialist, Lloyd’s Register EMEA; Colin Clifford-Smith, Lead Specialist, Lloyd’s Register EMEA; Tony Bowman, Managing Director, TMC (Marine Consultants) Ltd; Roy Smith, Safety Manager (Operations), Hutchison Ports (UK). Thanks also for assistance to: German Lashing Robert Bock GmbH; SEC - Ship’s Equipment Centre Bremen GmbH; Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A; Maersk Line Limited; MacGregor (DEU) GmbH.
- 3. CONTENTS 2 Introduction 3 Basic Advice 4 Do’s and Don’ts 5 Lashing Systems 7 Safe Working 8 Ships and Containers 13 Container Construction 17 Lashing Components 22 Principles of Stowage 31 Ships’ Behaviour
- 4. 2 INTRODUCTION The development of containerisation was a giant step forward in Lashing systems are only tested during bad weather; if they fail carrying general cargo by sea. At the time, it was correctly then containers may be lost. Indeed, the growing number of predicted that unit costs would fall and cargo damage become a containers lost overboard has caused concern throughout the thing of the past. This has been true until recently. marine industry. Cargo claims have increased and floating containers pose a hazard to navigation. Ship masters need to In the early days of containerised transport, ships carried containers understand the strengths and weaknesses of container securing stowed on hatch covers, three or four high. A variety of lashing systems. It is essential that masters be aware of what can be done systems were in use. However, the most reliable system consisted to prevent container loss. of stacking cones, twistlocks, lashing bars, bridge fittings and turnbuckles (bottle screws). These systems were effective in The purpose of this guide is to discuss container securing systems, lashing containers carried on deck to the third tier. the causes of lashing failure and to offer advice as to how losses can be minimised. Today, ships are bigger and a post-Panamax container ship will carry containers on deck stacked up to six, seven or eight tiers high. However, while the ships are able to carry containers stacked Eric Murdoch higher, the lashing systems are still only capable of lashing to the bottom of the third tier containers or the bottom of the fourth or fifth tier containers when a lashing bridge is fitted. Ship design has developed but container lashing systems have not. A classification society will approve a ship for the carriage of containers. Regulations stipulate that the ship must carry a cargo- securing manual. This will contain instructions as to how cargo should be secured. However, approval of the arrangements in the manual will not necessarily mean that cargo-securing arrangements will withstand foul weather. A ship sailing in a seaway has six degrees of freedom – roll, pitch, heave, yaw, sway and surge. The ship itself bends and twists as IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT waves pass. Hatch covers can move relative to the hatch opening MASTERS BE AWARE OF and a stack of containers can move as tolerances in lashing equipment are taken up. It is the lashing system alone that resists WHAT CAN BE DONE TO these movements and attempts to keep containers on board. PREVENT CONTAINER LOSS
- 5. 3 BASIC ADVICE There are certain actions which should always be taken to prevent • Check that all cell guides are clear of obstacles, are straight containers from being damaged or lost overboard. The following is and not buckled. considered best practice: • Check that turnbuckles are fully tightened. Loose lashings will • Check stack weights before stowage. It is important not to be ineffective. exceed allowable stack weights otherwise failure of the corner • Check lashing equipment for defects and discard worn or posts of the containers stowed at the bottom of the stack is damaged equipment. Avoid using left-hand and right-hand possible. If the stow is too heavy, the lashings may have twistlocks on the same ship. insufficient strength to hold the containers in place if bad weather is encountered. • Regularly examine lashing components, including ship fittings, for wear. Replace any worn or damaged fitting, repair any worn • Never deviate from the approved lashing plan except to add or damaged ship fitting. Check all equipment not just additional lashings. Calculate forces using the approved loading equipment in regular use. computer. • It is difficult to know when lashing components should be • Consult the lashing manual before applying lashings. replaced. Few organisations are confident to issue ‘criteria • If stack weights are high and bad weather is expected then fit for replacement’ which means that the company or individual additional lashings. master will need to exercise judgement. If in doubt, replace the equipment. Give special attention to dovetail or sliding • Try to avoid isolated stacks of containers when stowed on socket foundations. deck, especially if at the ship’s side. Where possible, load containers so they are evenly distributed. • To assist the shore lashing gang, give them precise instructions as to how containers should be secured. • Avoid loading heavy containers above light containers and at the top of a stack. • Remember that during ship rolling, forces on container corner posts can be up to three times greater than the upright • Keep your system of lashing simple using the highest rated compression force. Weather route in an attempt to avoid the components. worst of the meteorological systems or areas where high seas • Examine containers for physical defects – check the corner posts in winter are common. carefully. The corner posts have to resist high compression forces • Try to avoid loading ‘high cube’ containers on deck in the first as a result of static weights from containers stowed on top and or second tier. Lashing rods are more difficult to fit and special from dynamic forces that occur when the ship rolls, heaves and rods with extension pieces are often needed. Identify where pitches. Containers with damaged corner posts placed in the ‘high cube’ containers are to be stowed before loading. It may bottom of a stow are likely to collapse. Reject damaged be necessary to reposition them. containers.
- 6. 4 DO’S AND DON’TS ALWAYS: NEVER: • Reject a container found overweight and likely to give rise • Mix left-hand and right-hand twistlocks; to the permissible stack weight being exceeded; • Apply fully automatic twistlocks without first checking the • Reject a buckled, twisted or damaged container; manufacturer’s instructions for use; • Arrange stowage so that containers do not need to be • Use corroded or buckled lashing rods; unloaded at a port other than the designated discharge • Use twistlocks that are not certified; port; • Use improvised equipment to secure containers; • Regularly check lashing components for condition and discard components that appear worn or are damaged; • Load containers of a non-standard length except when the ship is designed and equipped for the carriage of • Inspect D rings, ring bolts, cell guides and sliding socket non-standard length containers; foundations for wear or damage before containers are loaded, and arrange for the necessary repairs; • Use twistlocks for lifting containers except where the twistlocks are specifically approved for this purpose; • Regularly check lashings during the voyage; • Open containers after they have been loaded; • Inspect and tighten lashings before the onset of bad weather; • Connect reefer containers to damaged or broken electrical sockets; • Take care when handling container fittings because they are heavy. Avoid dropping them; • Load containers in a con-bulker that requires fitting a buttress, unless the buttress is already fitted; • Stow loose lashing components, twistlocks and lashing rods safely in designated baskets or racks; • Drop or throw fittings, especially twistlocks, from a great height onto a steel deck or other hard surface; • Buy components that are supported by a test certificate. The strength of equipment without a test certificate may • Lash to the top of a container; always lash to the bottom be unpredictable; of the next tier above wherever possible; • Have more securing equipment than necessary; • Work dangerously with containers. Never stand or climb onto them, or under or between them. • Avoid extreme values of GM, whether high or low; • Avoid geographical areas where conditions for parametric rolling exist; • Look for indications of water leakage into the container.
- 7. 5 LASHING SYSTEMS Common False Beliefs • Lashing rods should be tightened as tight as possible – False In theory, excessive tightening of lashing rods will result in the rods P&I club investigations into container loss indicate that the loss taking additional strain, which can cause rod failure during loading. often occurs because an apparent weakness has not been identified. The following points are worth noting: • It is not necessary to adjust the tension in lashings while at sea – False • Once containers have been loaded and secured, the stow remains in a tight block and does not move – False Movement of containers will result in some lashing rods becoming slack. Air temperature differences will cause the tension in the Twistlock and sliding socket clearances will allow containers to lashings to change. Lashings should be checked and tightened move before the twistlocks engage. The clearance will permit within 24 hours after leaving port and regularly thereafter. This is movement of the stow. Wear inside the corner fitting can cause especially true before the onset of bad weather. additional movement. • Container strength is equal throughout the container – False • Containers can be stowed in any order and/or combination/mix of weights – False Although strength standards are met, a container is more flexible at the door end and may be more vulnerable in this area. The most common mistake made when stowing and lashing containers is to load heavy containers over light and to load so • All twistlocks can be used to lift containers – False that the maximum permissible stack weights are exceeded. Twistlocks can be used for lifting containers only when they have • Lashings applied from a lashing bridge behave in the same been approved and certified for that purpose. manner as those applied at the base of a stow – False • Twistlocks are all rated to the same strength – False A lashing bridge is a fixed structure while a hatch cover will move Twistlocks can be rated for different tensile loads up to 20 or 25 when a ship rolls and pitches. The resulting effect could be that a tonnes. It is important not to use a mix of twistlocks that have lashing from a lashing bridge becomes slack or takes excessive load. different strength ratings. • Containers loaded on a pedestal and a hatch cover do not • All containers have the same strength – False suffer additional loading – False Container strength can vary. There are two ISO standards (pre- and A hatch cover is designed to move as the ship bends and flexes. post-1990). Some owners have their own standards and containers A container stowed on a pedestal, a fixed point, will attempt to can be worn or damaged. resist hatch cover movement if also secured to a hatch cover.
- 8. 6 LASHING SYSTEMS Common False Beliefs continued • Horizontal lashings to lashing bridges are an alternative to vertical cross lashings – False Crossed horizontal lashings from lashing bridges will hold a container. However, the container will be held rigidly to the fixed lashing bridge. When a ship bends and twists, the base of a container attached to a hatch cover will move, but container ends held firmly to a lashing bridge with horizontal lashings will not move. The effect will be to put strain on the lashings and even break the bars or damage the container corner castings. Horizontal lashings should not be used unless specifically permitted in the approved lashing plan. • Parametric rolling will not occur on ships with a high GM – False Parametric rolling occurs because of the fine hull form of large post-Panamax container ships. The large bow flare and wide transom increases the effect. The phenomenon occurs because of changes in the waterplane area, which can cause large changes in GM as waves pass. At times, GM can become negative. A large initial GM will provide large righting levers that can lead to violent rolling. • Provided stack weights have not been exceeded, the distribution of containers in a stack on deck is not important – False It is essential to avoid loading heavy containers over light, and at the top of a stack in a deck stow. This is because the securing system would have been designed on the assumption that light containers are stowed on top. If stowage allows for ‘heavy’, ‘heavy’, ‘light’, then loading ‘heavy’, ‘medium’, ‘medium’, will place different strains on the securing system, even if the stack weight is the same.
- 9. 7 SAFE WORKING Working With Containers The decks, hatch covers and holds of a container ship can be • Take care when fixing penguin hooks or lashing rods as these extremely dangerous places to work. To avoid accidental injury, can slip and strike someone. exercise care and follow these rules: • Close access gratings after passing through. They are there to • When working on deck, always wear high visibility clothing, protect you. safety shoes and a hard hat. • Never allow fittings to be thrown onto the ship’s deck from a height. • Check that sliding sockets and stacking cones are removed from hatch covers before opening. • When working in the vicinity of moving containers, never work with your back towards a container or stand where a swinging container could strike you. • Never stand under a raised container. • When working on the top or side of a container, use safe access equipment and never climb containers. • If working from a ladder, secure the ladder properly and wear a safety harness. Attach the line from the harness to a secure point. • Take care climbing onto a lashing bridge. There could be loose items of equipment that can fall or the safety bar could be across the opening. • Tidy loose equipment that is lying on decks, hatch covers and coamings. These are trip hazards. • Never climb up the side of a stack of containers. Use an access cradle.
- 10. 8 SHIPS AND CONTAINERS A ship is only designated as a container ship when it is designed trade. This means that hatch covers and container landing points exclusively for the carriage of containers. Other ship types that are approved for the particular stack weight and the lashing carry containers as part of a mixed cargo are often categorised as system satisfies classification society design criteria. ‘suitable for the carriage of containers in holds xxxx,…’. Containers can be carried on many ship types – cellular container P&I clubs provide cover for the carriage of containers on deck only ships, con-bulkers, bulk carriers and general cargo ships. The when the ship is especially designed, fitted or adapted for the following is a brief description of the ships and their features. Ship Types Container Ships • Designed exclusively for the carriage of containers. • Containers in holds are secured by cell guides. • Containers on deck are secured by portable lashing components, often rods and twistlocks. Container Ships – Hatchcoverless • Designed exclusively for the carriage of containers. • No hatch covers. • Bridge may be located fully forward to provide protection. • If the bridge is not sited forward, it is common for the forward two or three holds to be fitted with hatch covers, especially if dangerous goods are to be carried. • All containers are secured in cell guides.
- 11. 9 SHIPS AND CONTAINERS Con-Bulkers • A ship with hold arrangements suitable for the carriage of both containers and bulk cargoes. • Various configurations, including: • Bulk cargoes carried in designated holds, containers in other holds; • Containers carried above bulk cargo; • Containers carried only on deck. Ro-Ro Cargo Ships • Various configurations, including: • Ro-Ro cargo aft and containers in conventional holds forward; • Containers loaded by fork lift trucks in Ro-Ro decks; • Containers on deck and Ro-Ro cargo in the Ro-Ro deck. General Cargo Ships • Containers in holds, secured by traditional wire lashings. • Containers on deck secured by container-securing equipment. • Containers may be carried athwartships. Only possible when cargo is carefully stowed within the container. • Containers loaded on dunnage and carried as general cargo. Ships’ Structure The combined weight of a stack of containers may amount to a the strength of the tank top, the cell guides and, on deck, the total downward force on the tank top, through each container strength of the hatch covers, lashing bridges, pedestals and the corner casting, of up to 100 tonnes. Where four container corners fixed fittings associated with the container stow. are placed close together, such as at the mid-hold position when It is important to carry containers within the loading conditions carrying 20-foot containers, the total local load on the tank top imposed by the classification society. Container loads should never may be four times this. exceed the permitted stack weights as set down in the ship's During classification, the strength of the ship's structure to support loading manual. containers is verified and approved. This includes assessment of
- 12. 10 SHIPS AND CONTAINERS Container Sizes Containers are standardised cargo units. They are manufactured in The castings are the only points at which a container should be a large variety of sizes and types, each designed to meet specific supported, and are used to attach securing fittings, such as lashing cargo and transportation requirements. Their length is usually 20 or rods and twistlocks. The position and spacing of corner castings 40 feet, although longer containers are used, principally in the US are carefully controlled. trade; these containers are 45, 48 and 53 feet long. Their width is always 8 feet although their height can vary. The term ‘high cube’ Containers that are longer than 40 feet usually have additional container usually refers to a standard-sized container that has a support points at the 40-foot position so that they can be stowed height of 9 feet 6 inches. Container heights can be 8 feet, 8 feet 6 over a standard 40-foot container. Standard sizes for ISO Series 1 inches, 9 feet 6 inches or 10 feet 6 inches. freight containers include those shown in the table below. The ISO standard for containers defines dimensions, both internal 20-foot containers are actually a little shorter than 20 feet, so that and external, and load ratings. All containers have a framework two 20-foot containers can be stowed in a 40-foot bay. The actual and corner posts fitted with corner castings. The castings at each dimensions are 12192mm for a 40-foot container and 6058mm for a corner of the container support the container’s weight. 20-foot container. Thus, two 20-foot containers are 76mm shorter than a 40-foot container. ALLOWANCE Standard Sizes for ISO Series 1 Freight Containers IN MILLIMETRES DESIGNATION LENGTH WIDTH HEIGHT 1AAA 9’6” 1AA All at 40’0” All at 8’0” 8’6” 1A 8’0” 1AX <8’0” 1BBB 9’6” 1BB All at 30’0” All at 8’0” 8’6” 1B 8’0” 1BX <8’0” 1CC 8’6” 1C All at 20’0” All at 8’0” 8’0” 1CX <8’0” 1D All at 10’0” All at 8’0” 8’0” 1DX <8’0” APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS, IN FEET AND INCHES. MOST COMMON SIZES HIGHLIGHTED. SUFFIX ‘X’ MEANS THE CONTAINER HEIGHT IS LESS THAN 8 FEET.
- 13. 11 SHIPS AND CONTAINERS Container Types There are a number of types of container in common use. They all have basically the same frame, and the differences relate to what they can be used for and access. Dry Van Boxes • The most common type. • They have corrugated steel walls, timber base, steel or glass reinforced plastic (GRP) top. • Corrugated walls can be made from plate from as little as 1.6mm (1/16 inch) in thickness. • Their frame consists of side and end rails and corner pillars, fitted with corner castings. • The closed end is approximately 4.5 times more stiff, in racking strength, than the door end. Curtain wall containers • Curtain wall containers are similar to dry van boxes, but have fabric side walls that can be opened to facilitate easy cargo handling. Refrigerated Containers • General construction as for dry van boxes. • They usually have their own refrigeration unit, with an air or a water-cooled heat exchanger. • A small number of CONAIR boxes use close-coupled ventilation. • They have their own data logger to record temperature.
- 14. 12 SHIPS AND CONTAINERS Tank Containers • Steel skeletal framework within which the tank is housed. • Steel framework must have equivalent strength to a dry van box. • The tank has its own design and strength criteria and it may be a pressure vessel. Flat-rack Containers • The container frame can be folded flat for ease of transportation when empty. • The structure must have equivalent strength to a dry van box. • P&I cover may not extend to cargoes carried on deck in a flat-rack container.
- 15. 13 CONTAINER CONSTRUCTION Construction and Strength The strength of a container is provided principally by the outer The position of corner fittings must be carefully controlled during framework, side rails and corner posts, together with the corner the manufacture of containers to ensure that they fit together castings. The side and end panels provide racking strength. properly and to ensure that the fittings work effectively. • Corner Posts • Forklift Pockets Effective stacking of containers relies on the strength of the corner Not so common today, these can be cut into the bottom side rail posts to support the weight of the containers above. Damage to a and are used when the containers are lifted by a forklift truck. corner post, in particular buckling, can seriously degrade its Forklift pockets are a discontinuity in the side rail that could compressive strength and lead to collapse of a container stack. weaken the container if contact damage occurs. • The Outer Frame It is important to note a container that has suffered damage Horizontal forces on the container, such as those caused by roll and to a corner casting or end pillar will not be serviceable because: pitch motions, are resisted by the shear strength of the container. This is provided by the frame and also by the plate walls. Of course, • a damaged container may be unable to bear the weight of soft-walled containers rely totally on the shear strength of the frame. those stowed above; • Corner Castings • a damaged container may render lashings ineffective; A container’s corner castings hold twistlocks or stacking cones • a damaged container is dangerous to lift. when containers are connected to each other or to the ship’s If one container in a stack fails, it is likely that the entire stack deck/hold. Lashing rods attach to corner castings and, during will collapse. lifting, a spreader bar. While compressive loads can be carried by the direct contact between the containers, tensile and shear loads are resisted by the loose fittings. It is important for the corner castings to be in good condition if the fittings are to work effectively and perform their IF ONE CONTAINER IN A intended function. STACK FAILS, IT IS LIKELY THAT THE ENTIRE STACK WILL COLLAPSE
- 16. 14 CONTAINER CONSTRUCTION Container Certification Certification is then issued by the classification society for containers of similar design, constructed by production methods New designs of container are prototype tested to ensure that and quality control procedures that are agreed and verified by they have sufficient strength. If tests prove satisfactory, then survey. Changes in the method of construction may nullify the the container design may be certified by a classification society. certification, unless the changes are approved by the classification society. Corrugated top panel 2mm thick (min) Closed end header Top side rail HOLES CAN ALLOW WATER VULNERABLE TO BUCKLING TO ENTER THE CONTAINER DAMAGE DUE TO EXCESSIVE AND DAMAGE CARGO COMPRESSION LOAD Door end header Corner casting SIDE AND END PANELS VULNERABLE TO EXCESSIVE BOTTOM SIDE RAIL COMPRESSION LOAD VULNERABLE TO DAMAGE Corner post FROM A FORK LIFT TRUCK Corrugated side panel 1.6mm thick (min) JOINTS VULNERABLE TO RACKING DAMAGE AND Main strength members EXCESSIVE PULL-OUT FORCES Areas easily damaged Door end sill This end of the container is more flexible CONTAINER CONSTRUCTION
- 17. 15 CONTAINER CONSTRUCTION The Lloyd’s Register Certification Scheme covers three general ISO Series 1 – Freight Containers categories of container: The primary documents for the design of ISO Series 1 containers • ISO Series 1 Containers – all types, including: are: dry van boxes, reefer containers, open top containers, ISO 668 Series 1: Freight Containers, Classification Dimensions non-pressurised dry bulk containers, platform based containers and Ratings and tank containers. ISO 1161 Series 1: Freight Containers, Corner Fittings, Specification • Swap Body Containers. ISO 1496 Series 1: Freight Containers, Specification and Testing. • Offshore Containers. The scheme ensures that each container complies with the ISO 1496-2:1996 : Series 1: Freight Containers - Specification and appropriate ISO standard, covering, for example: Testing. Part 2: Thermal Containers • dimensions. ISO 1496-2:1996/Amd.1:2006 : Series 1: Freight Containers, • strength of walls, floor and roof. Specification and Testing. Part 2: Thermal Containers. Amendment 1. • strength of corner posts. Ship Classification • rigidity (longitudinal and transverse). The ship classification process ensures that the ship’s hull, • weathertightness. hatch covers, lashing bridges, cell guides and fixed fittings have sufficient strength. Loose fittings such as container securing • number of other features as appropriate to the type of components may be excluded from this certification process. container, such as strength of forklift pockets. Although a classification society may assess the adequacy of loose When containers are strength-tested it is important to remember fittings and assign a class notation, this examination is additional that they are not tested for tandem lifting and that the corner posts to the ship classification process. P&I clubs provide cover for the are only tested for compressive strength. In addition, it is only the carriage of containers that generally require the ship to be top corner fittings that are tested for lifting; the bottom fittings are approved for the carriage of containers by a classification society never tested. and the container securing arrangements to at least meet the classification society design requirements. A container that has satisfactorily passed the Lloyd’s Register container certification scheme will bear the LR logo.
- 18. 16 CONTAINER CONSTRUCTION Certification of Reefer Containers The ability of a reefer container to maintain a given temperature when using its integral refrigeration unit is tested in accordance with ISO 1496-2. This consists of two tests, one to determine the heat loss through the envelope of the container, and the other to ensure the refrigeration unit can operate with a specific internal load. These tests are arranged during type approval. The amount of electrical power required to maintain a reefer container at a given temperature depends on the size of the container (TEU or FEU), the required cargo temperature, the cargo being carried and the ambient air temperature. For example, 9kW of electricity is needed to maintain a temperature of -18°C in a 40-foot container carrying frozen meat, while a container carrying fruit at 2°C requires approximately 11kW. Certain cargoes, for example bananas, may require even more power. There is a high electrical load on ship’s generators when reefer containers are carried.
- 19. 17 LASHING COMPONENTS There are a variety of lashing components available to secure twistlocks, lashing rods, turnbuckles and lashing plates. The table containers, the majority of which are listed below. For some time, below shows the locations where components are commonly used. P&I clubs have recommended the use of a system based on Fixed Fittings (attached to ship) DESCRIPTION PURPOSE IMAGE NOTES Flush Socket Locating of base twistlocks Normally fitted over a small or stacking cones in the recess to ensure cargo hold. watertightness. Clean and remove debris before use. Raised Socket Locating of base twistlocks Clean and remove debris or stacking cones on deck. before use. Lashing Plate or ‘Pad-eye’ Tie down point for turnbuckle Designed only for in-plane on deck or hatchcover. loading. An out-of-plane load could bend the plate and may crack the connecting weld. D Ring Alternative tie down point for Corrosion of the pin ends can a turnbuckle. weaken a D Ring. Suitable for in-plane and out-of-plane loading. Dovetail Foundation Base for sliding twistlock. Clean before use. Check for damage or wear. Fixed Stacking Cone To prevent horizontal Often found at the base of a movement of 20-foot cell guide. containers in 40-foot cell guides. Mid-bay Guide To prevent transverse Does not interfere with general movement of 20-foot stowage of 40-foot containers containers in 40-foot guides. Fitted at tank top level.
- 20. 18 LASHING COMPONENTS Loose Fittings Loose fittings are those that are not permanently attached to surveys. When using loose fittings, it is essential the the ship. Loose fittings must be certified. However, they are not manufacturer’s instructions are followed at all times, especially normally surveyed by the class society surveyor during regular ship when using fully automatic and semi-automatic twistlocks. Loose Fittings in Common Use DESCRIPTION PURPOSE IMAGE NOTES Lashing Rod To provide support for Resists tensile loads. Very container stacks on deck. long lashing bars can be Used in conjunction with a difficult to handle and difficult turnbuckle. to locate in a container corner casting. They can have eyes at each end. Extension Piece To extend a lashing rod when Fit at the base of a lashing securing ‘high cube’ rod and connect to the containers. turnbuckle. Turnbuckle To connect a lashing rod to a Resists tensile loads and is (Bottle screw) lashing plate or D ring. used to keep the lashing tight. Tightening puts tension into a Regularly grease its threads. lashing rod. Ensure the locking nut or tab is locked. Penguin Hook Used as a supporting device Likely to be put in place when in conjunction with a special container on shore because lashing rod with an eye-end. of difficulty in fitting when on board. Risk of injury if it falls out when container is lifted onboard.
- 21. 19 LASHING COMPONENTS Loose Fittings in Common Use DESCRIPTION PURPOSE IMAGE NOTES Stacking Cone Placed between containers Resists horizontal forces. Many in a stack and slots into types exist. May be locked into corner castings. bottom corner castings prior to lifting a container on board. Twistlock Placed between containers As above but also resists in a stack and slots into separation forces. Each fitting corner castings. requires locking after fitting. Left and right-hand types exist, causing uncertainty whether a fitting is locked or open. Semi-automatic Twistlock Placed between containers in As above. Can be fitted on a stack and slots into corner shore and automatically locks castings. into the lower container when placed on top. It is easier to determine whether it is locked or not when compared to manual twistlocks. Unlocked manually. Fully automatic Twistlock Placed between containers in A new and innovative design. a stack and slots into corner Automatic unlocking during castings. lifting. Usually opened by a vertical lift, with a twist/tilt. Sliding Twistlock To connect bottom containers Fits into a dovetail foundation. to the ship. Used on hatch covers and in holds when a raised socket can cause an obstruction.
- 22. 20 LASHING COMPONENTS Loose Fittings Less Commonly Used DESCRIPTION PURPOSE IMAGE NOTES Bridge Fitting To link top containers of two Resists tensile and adjacent stacks together. Can compressive forces. Potential be used on deck or in a hold. fall hazard for stevedores during placement. Mid-Lock Placed between containers in Resists lateral and separation a stack, and slots into corner forces. Fitted to underside of castings. Used on deck container on shore and between 20-foot containers in automatically locks into lower 40-foot bays at mid-bay container when placed on position. board. Buttress External support for container Can resist compressive and stacks in a hold. tensile forces. Must be used in conjunction with higher strength double stacking cones or link plates and aligned with side support structure. Double Stacking Cone To link adjacent stacks, Resists horizontal forces. particularly those in line with More commonly used on buttresses. con-bulkers below deck. Load Equalising Device To balance the load between Enables two connections to two paired lashings. two containers with both lashing rods being fully effective. Can only be used with designated lashing rods.
- 23. 21 21 LASHING COMPONENTS 1 Twistlock 2 Turnbuckle 2 3 3 Lashing Rod 4 1 4 Single Raised Socket 5 Double Raised Socket 6 Lashing Plate 6 5 1 D Rings 2 Dovetail Foundation 3 Turnbuckle 3 2 1 1 2
- 24. 22 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE Containers are rectangular box-shaped units of cargo. It is easy to In the early days of containerisation, lashings were fitted vertically stow them in classical block stowage both on and below deck. to resist tipping. However, it soon became clear that it is more effective to arrange the lashings diagonally, so that the container When containers are carried on deck, the ship is required to be and the lashings work together to resist racking. approved for that purpose and the containers themselves are secured with twistlocks and lashings. These usually consist of steel The usual arrangement is to fit one tier of lashings, placed rods and turnbuckles. diagonally within the width of the container with the tops of the lashing rods placed in the bottom corner castings of the When containers are carried below deck, the containers are slotted second-tier containers. into cell guides on a cellular container ship, or sit on the tank top, joined together with stacking cones, in the holds of a dry cargo To enable the fitting of twistlocks, a twistlock is designed with a ship. Containers can easily be stowed in box-shaped holds; it is vertical and horizontal gap between it and a container’s corner more difficult to carry them in the holds of a dry cargo ship fitted casting. This becomes important when considering how lashings with side hopper tanks, in which case buttresses may be fitted. behave during ship roll, pitch and heave. Lashing rods are always fitted tight and kept tight by adjusting the turnbuckle. When force When carried within a cell guide framework, no further external is transmitted to securing equipment during ship rolling, it is the support is generally required. When 20-foot containers are stowed lashing rods that bear the force first. It is only after the stack of below deck in 40-foot cell guides it may be necessary to overstow containers has deflected and the gap at the twistlock ‘taken up’ the 20-foot containers with a 40-foot container. The container that twistlocks become tight. For this reason, it is important to securing manual should be consulted before loading. only use lashing rods that are in good condition and to apply Containers carried on deck may be secured by twistlocks alone them correctly. provided the stack is not more than two containers high. When containers are carried three high, twistlocks alone may be sufficient depending on the weight of the containers. Horizontal movement of a deck stow is resisted by the twistlocks or cones. Lifting of containers, in extreme seas, is prevented by the pull-out strength of the twistlocks. The limitation of a twistlock only stow is often the racking strength of the containers. For stows of more than three containers high, lashing rods are fitted because they provide additional racking strength.
- 25. 23 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE A second pair of lashings may be fitted, reaching to the bottom of the third tier of containers, as shown in the diagram opposite. If additional lashing strength is required, parallel lashings may be used. With this arrangement, lashings are arranged in parallel, one fitted to the top of the first tier and one to the bottom of the second tier. The effectiveness of parallel lashings is taken as 1.5 times` that of a single lashing, unless a load-equalising device is fitted, in which case it is twice. For ease of loading and discharge, bridge fittings that link adjacent stacks of containers together are not commonly fitted. However since the force distribution and the response of adjacent container stacks will be similar, there is, in general, negligible load transfer between the stacks when linked together. Upper and Lower Parallel Parallel Crossed Lashing Lashing Rods Lashing Rods Bridge fittings tend to only be used on isolated, adjacent stacks of Rods with Equalising containers or when containers are loaded in the holds of a dry Device cargo ship. The ship’s approved cargo-securing manual contains information on how to stow and secure containers, and on any strength or stack weight limitation. The most common mistakes made are to exceed the permissible stack weight, to incorrectly apply lashings and to place heavy containers in the top of a stow. SECURING WITH PARALLEL LASHING RODS AND SEMI- AUTOMATIC TWISTLOCK
- 26. 24 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE Containers Carried Below Deck in Containers Carried Below Deck Without Cell Guides Cell Guides The cargo holds of most container ships are designed for the Containers are generally stowed in the fore and aft direction, carriage of 40-foot containers, with the containers held in place with the containers secured using locking devices only or by a by cell guides. The cell guides are generally steel angle bars combination of locking devices, buttresses, shores or lashings. orientated vertically with entry guides at the top to assist with The aim is to restrain the containers at their corners. Twistlocks locating the container – the clearances, and hence construction are very good at preventing corner separation. tolerances, are very tight. When carrying containers in the hold of a bulk carrier or general The cell guides provide adequate longitudinal and transverse support cargo ship, base containers are secured with twistlocks or cones. to the 40-foot containers and no further securing arrangements are Buttresses should be fitted to provide lateral support, and a necessary. The lowest container in each stack sits on a pad which platform, with sockets for cones or twistlocks, may be fitted is supported by stiffened structure below the tank top. in the forward and after holds. This forms the basis for block stowage of containers when combined with cones, twistlocks 20-foot containers may be stowed in 40-foot bays. This and bridge fittings. arrangement requires longitudinal and transverse support for the containers where they meet at the mid-length position. Various designs of portable buttress are available. This is achieved by mid-bay guides at the tank top, placing Aim for a tight block when loading containers below deck on a stacking cones between tiers of containers and possibly con-bulker. During loading, check to make sure that means are overstowing the 20-foot containers with a 40-foot container. applied to ensure that the lowest tier does not slide horizontally Before loading containers in cell guides it is important to make sure when the ship rolls. that the guides are not bent or deformed.
- 27. 25 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE Typical Arrangements for Containers Stowed Below Deck 40-FOOT CONTAINERS IN 40-FOOT CELL GUIDES Cell guides Deck line No portable securing equipment is needed Cell guides 20-FOOT CONTAINERS IN 40-FOOT CELL GUIDES Cell guides Deck Line Cell guides Stacking cones Stacking cone Mid-bay guide Fixed stacking cone
- 28. 26 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE 20-FOOT CONTAINERS IN 40-FOOT CELL GUIDES WITH 40-FOOT CONTAINERS STOWED ABOVE 40-foot containers No stacking cone in mid-bay Deck Line position when 40-foot container is overstowed Cell guides Cell guides Stacking cone Stacking cones Mid-bay guide Fixed stacking cone 20-foot containers TYPICAL BULK CARRIER STOWAGE ARRANGEMENT WITH BUTTRESSES, USING SINGLE/DOUBLE STACKING CONES AND BRIDGE FITTINGS Bridge fitting Buttress Stacking cones Double stacking cones at buttress level Buttress Containers Carried on Deck Lashings are applied so that each container stack is secured independently. In theory, the loss of one stack should not affect Containers are usually stowed longitudinally in vertical stacks. its neighbour. Containers within each stack are fastened together with twistlocks. Transverse stowage, although possible, is uncommon, mainly The bottom corners of each base container are locked to the deck, because cargo could move or fall out of the container when the hatch cover or pedestal with a twistlock. When stacked in multiple ship rolls, but also because transverse stowage requires rotation tiers, the containers are usually lashed to the ship’s structure by of the spreader bar of the shore gantry crane. diagonal lashing rods. In some cases, containers are carried on deck in cell guides, in The lashing rods are usually applied to the bottom corners of which case, the principles on page 24 apply. The same principles second or third-tier containers. On ships fitted with a lashing also apply to hatchcoverless container ships. bridge, the lashing rods may be applied to the bottom corners of fourth or fifth-tier containers.
- 29. 27 LASHING BRIDGE PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE Typical Arrangements for Containers Carried on Deck CONTAINERS SECURED BY TWISTLOCKS. Usually for two Twistlocks tiers only. Deck line Typical stowage with Typical stowage parallel lashings without parallel lashings CONTAINERS SECURED BY TWISTLOCKS AND LASHING RODS. Lashing rods to Twistlocks bottom of second tier. Wind lashings to bottom of Wind lashings third tier. Twistlocks Deck line
- 30. 28 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE CONTAINERS SECURED BY TWISTLOCKS AND LASHING RODS. Lashing rods to bottom of third tier. Twistlocks Parallel lashings Twistlocks Deck line AS ABOVE BUT LASHINGS ORIGINATE FROM A LASHING BRIDGE. Lashing rods to bottom of fifth tier. Twistlocks Parallel lashings Lashing bridge Twistlocks Deck Line
- 31. 29 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE WHEN STOWING AND SECURING CONTAINERS, THE FOLLOWING • 45-foot containers fitted with additional corner posts at 40-foot POINTS SHOULD BE BORNE IN MIND: spacing can be stowed on top of 40-foot containers. Lashings can be applied in the normal way. • A deck stack of containers is only as strong as the weakest • 40-foot containers may be stowed on top of 45-foot containers. component in that stack. Premature failure of a component can However, this arrangement of stowage will present difficulties cause loss of an entire stack. During loading, containers should in fastening/unfastening twistlocks, and it will not be possible be inspected for damage and, if damaged, they should be to apply lashings to the 40-foot containers. rejected. • Twistlocks should always be locked, even when the ship is at • Twistlocks limit vertical and transverse movement. Diagonal anchor, except during container loading and unloading. Lashing crossed lashing rods, placed at the ends of a container, can rods should be kept taut and, where possible have even withstand large tensile loads. tension. Lashing rods should never be loose nor should they be • Outside lashings are sometimes used. These are lashings that over-tightened. Turnbuckle locking nuts should be fully lead away from a container. However, although this arrangement tightened. provides a more rigid stow than a combination of crossed • As a ship rolls, pitches and heaves in a seaway, tension, lashings and twistlocks, it is generally not as practical or strong compression and racking forces are transmitted through the and is not commonly used. container frames, lashings and twistlocks to the ship’s • Containers exposed to wind loading need additional or stronger structure. However, clearances between securing components lashings. When carried in block stowage, it is the outer stacks and the elasticity of the container frame and lashing equipment that are exposed to wind loading. However, when carried on a produce a securing system that forms a flexible structure. Thus, partially loaded deck, isolated stacks and inboard containers a deck stow of containers will move. can also be exposed to wind, in which case additional lashings • Containers can be held by only twistlocks when two or three need to be applied. tiers are carried on deck, depending upon container weights. • If containers of non-standard length, i.e. 48 or 53-feet, are • Arrangements with automatic and semi-automatic twistlocks carried, the ship arrangement will need to be specially adapted. are used to reduce time spent securing the stow.
- 32. 30 PRINCIPLES OF STOWAGE CHECKS AND TESTS DURING DISCHARGE AND LOADING CHECKS AND TESTS AT SEA • Regularly examine lashing components, looking for wear and • 24 hours after sailing, examine, check and tighten turnbuckles. tear, damage or distortion. Check that left-hand and right-hand Check that lashings are applied in accordance with the cargo locking twistlocks are not being mixed in the same storage bin. securing manual and that twistlocks have been locked. Remove from the ship any lashing component found to be • Examine lashings every week. Check that they have not worn, damaged or distorted. become loose and tighten turnbuckles as necessary. • Make arrangements for some damaged or distorted lashing • Before the onset of bad weather, examine lashings thoroughly components to be sent for non-destructive testing. This will and tighten turnbuckles, being careful to keep an equal tension determine their strength and help to establish replacement in individual lashing rods. If necessary, apply additional lashing criteria. rods to the outboard stacks and to stacks with 20-foot • Carefully check twistlocks that stevedores return to the ship containers in 40-foot bays. as the locks might not originate from your ship; their strength • Recheck lashings after passing through bad weather. and locking direction could differ. • Make sure that lashing equipment that is not in use is correctly • Discourage stevedores from treating lashing equipment roughly stored in baskets or racks. as this can induce weakness. • Make an inventory of lashing equipment and order spares • Examine dovetail foundations, D rings and pad-eyes for before they are needed. damage. Repair if damage is found. • Check that refrigerated boxes remain connected to the ship’s • Observe the loading of containers to determine if stowage is power supply. in accordance with the stowage plan and that best practice is always followed. • Observe the application of lashings to make sure that they are correctly applied in accordance with the requirements set out in the cargo-securing manual.
- 33. 31 SHIPS’ BEHAVIOUR Container ships, due to the nature of their trade, are required to keep Wind is assumed to act athwartships and to affect only the to very tight operating schedules. Maintaining the schedule is an exposed stacks on the windward side of the ship. The magnitude important part of the liner trade. As a result, these ships have of wind force, for a wind speed of 78 knots, is about 2 tonnes on powerful engines, not only to provide the high speeds required, but the side of a 20-foot container and about 4 tonnes on a 40-foot. also to enable speed to be maintained during bad weather. The vertical component of wind on the top of the uppermost inclined container is ignored. The consequence is that, at times, container ships can be driven hard. When ships are driven hard in bad weather, the loads on the The assessment of the effect of green seas on exposed container lashings can be severe. stacks is by necessity empirical. The general principle is to require the container securing arrangement in the forward quarter of the There are many load components arising from a ship’s motion. ship to be suitable for forces increased by 20%, except when the These will be discussed below. ship has an effective breakwater or similar. Container Strength and Ship Motion Calculations of forces acting on a container assume three combinations of the individual components of motion. These are: Although a ship has six degrees of freedom, it is only roll, pitch and heave that are taken into account during the calculation of • Rolling. Roll and heave acting together. forces on a container stow. Surge is important for road and rail • Pitching. Pitch and heave acting together. transportation and containers are designed with this in mind. • Combined. Roll and pitch acting together. In this condition, it The motion of a ship in irregular seas is itself irregular and is is assumed that the roll angle and the pitch angle are each 0.71 impossible to accurately predict. Consequently, when calculating times the calculated maximum angle of roll and pitch respectively. accelerations on a stack of containers, regular cyclic response is assumed in association with an assumed maximum amplitude. Within each of these three conditions, it is necessary to define the Empirical formulae for maximum amplitude and period of response instantaneous positions in the cycle of motion at which the are defined in the Rules and Regulations for the calculations are made. Classification of Ships by Lloyd’s Register. Rolling published There are four limiting positions within each cycle which, for the motion is dominant in the calculation of forces and a roll amplitude rolling condition, are: of 22 to 30 degrees is generally used. • Bottom of roll – bottom of heave. For calculation purposes, the forces acting on a container may be resolved into components acting parallel to, and normal to, the • Top of roll – bottom of heave. vertical axis of the container stack. Gravity acts vertically downwards • Bottom of roll – top of heave. and, therefore, when the stack is inclined at maximum roll or pitch, there are force components of static weight acting both parallel to, • Top of roll – top of heave. and normal to, the vertical axis of the stack. The dynamic Of course, in an actual seaway, all components of motion act components of force are vectors. These are combined algebraically simultaneously to a greater or lesser extent. with the static components.
- 34. 32 Heave SHIPS’ Vertical Roll Pitch BEHAVIOUR Compression 86.4t Tensile 25t Transverse & compressive Racking 15t reaction force 34t Lloyd’s Register Rules allowable forces on an ISO container (ISO 1496-1:1990) Lashing rod 30t Wind Transverse & compressive reaction force 50t Racking 15t Tensile 25t Lashing rod 30t The calculation of the forces in the lashing arrangements is thus a structural damage, and even capsize. very complex matter. This is further exacerbated by the deflections Parametric roll is a threshold phenomenon. This means that a of the hull, for example: combination of environmental, operational and design parameters • The cross-deck structure may move by as much as 50mm as need to exist before it is encountered. These are: the containers surge forward and aft. • The ship would be travelling with a small heading angle to the • As the ship makes its way through a head or stern quartering predominant wave direction (head or stern quartering sea). sea, the hull twists, distorting the hatch openings. • Wavelength of the predominant swell would be comparable to ship’s length. Parametric Rolling • Wave height would be fairly large. The term parametric roll is used to describe the phenomenon of • The ship’s roll-damping characteristic would be low. large, unstable rolling, which can suddenly occur in head or stern If resonance occurs between the wave encounter period and the quartering seas. Due to its violent nature and the very large natural, or twice natural, roll period of the ship, then parametric roll accelerations associated with the onset of parametric rolling, there motion can be experienced. is widespread concern for the safety of container ships. Possible consequences include loss of containers, machinery failure,
- 35. 33 SHIPS’ BEHAVIOUR • WHY ARE LARGE CONTAINER SHIPS VULNERABLE? The extreme roll angles reached during a parametric roll usually exceed those adopted during machinery design. Indeed, it would Fine hull forms with pronounced bow flare and flat transom stern be very difficult to bench test a large marine diesel engine at are most vulnerable to parametric roll. 40-degree angles. Possible consequences on machinery operation of the ship heeling to these very large angles include loss of Such features contribute to the variation of the ship’s stability cooling water suction, exposure of lubricating oil sumps and, characteristics due to the constant change of the underwater hull for resiliently mounted engines, problems with connection of geometry as waves travel past the ship. services – and hence shutdown of the main engine. Although this phenomenon has been studied in the past, it has only The following points should be borne in mind: come to prominence with the introduction of the larger ships. Until the 1990s, it was considered critical only for ships with marginal • Parametric roll is a relatively rare phenomenon occurring stability and fine-lined warships. in head or following seas, which is characterised by rapidly developed, large, unstable ship rolling. • CONSEQUENCES OF A PARAMETRIC ROLL • Risk control options exist in both design and operation of container ships that can effectively reduce the likelihood A parametric roll can have dire consequences for container securing of a parametric roll occurring. and for operation of machinery. • Reducing the likelihood of its occurrence is considered a It is an extreme condition for container securing since it combines more effective approach than mitigating the consequences. the effect of large roll and pitch amplitudes. This scenario imposes significant loads on container securing systems. • Compliance with Lloyd’s Register current requirements for container securing systems reduces the risk of In theory the container securing system could be designed to container losses. withstand such extreme motions. The consequence would be a significant reduction in the number of containers that could be • Masters should be aware that, when conditions for parametric carried on deck. So, essentially, there is a balance between rolling exist, the action of putting the ship’s head to the sea and increased container security and limitations imposed by securing reducing speed could make rolling worse. requirements. • The North Pacific in winter is known to be an area where conditions for parametric rolling exist.
- 36. 34 FURTHER INFORMATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM CHARLES TAYLOR, THE STANDARD CLUB’S MANAGERS OR THEIR PRINCIPAL OFFICES AROUND THE WORLD, OR FROM LLOYD’S REGISTER AT THE FOLLOWING ADDRESSES: CHARLES TAYLOR P&I OFFICES UK (London) Singapore USA (New York) Charles Taylor & Co. Limited Charles Taylor Mutual Management Charles Taylor P&I Management International House (Asia) Pte. Limited 40 Exchange Place, 1 St. Katharine’s Way 140 Cecil Street New York London E1W 1UT 10-02 PIL Building NY 10005-2701 England Singapore 069540 Telephone (1) 212 809 8085 Telephone (44) 20 7488 3494 Telephone (65) 6221 1060 Emergency mobile (1) 646 321 2146 Emergency mobile (44) 7932 113573 Facsimile (65) 6221 1082 Facsimile (1) 212 968 1978 Facsimile (44) 20 7481 9545 E-mail p&[email protected] E-mail p&[email protected] E-mail p&[email protected] Japan(Tokyo) Greece (Piraeus) Charles Taylor Consulting Charles Taylor & Co. Limited (Japan) Ltd. c/o Richards Hogg Lindley (Hellas) Ltd. 3/Fl., Parkside 7 Bldg 85 Akti Miaouli 2-10-12 Kanda Tsukasa-Cho Piraeus 185 38 Chiyoda-Ku, Greece Tokyo 101-0048 Telephone (30) 210 429 0733 Telephone (81) 3 3255 8640 Emergency mobile (30) 6944 761 147 Facsimile (81) 3 3255 8642 Facsimile (30) 210 429 0818 E-mail p&[email protected] E-mail p&[email protected] Australia (Sydney) Bermuda (Hamilton) Charles Taylor P&I Management Charles Taylor & Co. (Bermuda) (Australia) Limited Level 10 Dallas Building 8 Spring Street 7 Victoria Street Sydney Hamilton NSW 2000 Australia Bermuda PO Box 1743 HMGX Telephone (61) 2 9252 1599 Facsimile (61) 2 9252 9070 Telephone (1) 441 292 7655 E-mail p&[email protected] Facsimile (1) 441 292 8992 E-mail p&[email protected] Telex 3343 BA
- 37. 35 LLOYD’S REGISTER Europe, Middle East and Africa Lloyd’s Register EMEA 71 Fenchurch Street London EC3M 4BS Telephone: (44) 20 7709 9166 Facsimile: (44) 20 7488 4796 Email: [email protected] Americas Asia Lloyd’s Register Americas, Inc. Lloyd’s Register Asia 1401 Enclave Parkway Suite 200 Suite 3501 China Merchants Tower Houston, TX Shun Tak Centre, 168-200 Connaught Road 77077 USA Central Hong Kong, SAR of PRC Telephone: (1) 281 675 3100 Telephone: (852) 2287 9333 Facsimile: (1) 281 675 3139 Facsimile: (852) 2526 2921 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]
- 38. NOTICE AND TERMS OF USE NOTICE AND TERMS OF USE All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recorded or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher and copyright owner. While the principles discussed and the details given in this book are the product of careful study, the authors and the publisher cannot in any way guarantee the suitability of recommendations made in this book for individual problems, and they shall not be under any legal liability of any kind in respect of, or arising out of, the form or contents of this book or any error therein, or in the reliance of any person thereon. Neither the Standard P&I Club, its managers or Lloyd’s Register nor any of their officers, employees or agents shall be responsible or liable in negligence or otherwise howsoever in respect of any inaccuracy or omission herein. Without derogating from the generality of the foregoing, the Standard P&I Club, Lloyd’s Register nor any of their officers, employees or agents shall be liable for any indirect or consequential loss caused by or arising from any information, advice or inaccuracy or omission herein. Services are provided by members of the Lloyd's Register Group. Lloyd’s Register, Lloyd’s Register EMEA and Lloyd’s Register Asia are exempt charities under the UK Charities Act 1993. A Master’s Guide to Container Securing is jointly published by Lloyd’s Register and the Standard P&I Club, by the Managers’ London Agents, Charles Taylor & Co Limited, International House, 1 St Katharine’s Way, London E1W 1UT. Telephone (44) 20 7488 3494, Fax (44) 20 7481 9545, Email p&[email protected] Charles Taylor & Co Limited is a Charles Taylor Consulting company. www.standard-club.com The information and commentary herein are not intended to amount to legal or technical advice to any person in general or about a specific case. Every effort is made to make them accurate and up to date. However, no responsibility is assumed for their accuracy nor for the views or opinions expressed, nor for any consequence of or reliance on them. You are advised to seek specific legal or technical advice from your usual advisers about any specific matter.