Thu Dinh - CIE-RESEARCH-METHODS-SLIDES-sample-extract.pptx.pdf

Cambridge
International (CIE)
A-Level Psychology
Research Methods (Paper 2) Review

•Hands-up who likes
mathematics?
• You either love it or hate it!
•Why do we use
scientific methods in
psychology?
• Psychology is a science and
follows scientific
methodology
•Why does psychology
involve statistics?
• Because guessing and
subjective opinion, is not
scientific
Photos are licensed under CC BY-SA

First section, we look at:
An experiment in terms of cause and effect - Quality and Quantity data
IV’s, DV’s & EV’s [Variables] - Hypotheses [Directional & Non-directional]
Q. What is an experiment?
A. Where a researcher controls variables,
avoids biases and remains objective to
test an experimental hypothesis; to
determine cause and effect
Learning tip: To start with, just learn
rather than understand, understanding
comes over time with learning.. So just do
it

Types of experimental research
(quantitative methods): where
research takes place
Concepts:
1. Natural environment
Research takes place where
the behaviour naturally occurs,
however,
variables are sometimes difficult to
scientifically control
2. Controlled environment
Research takes place in a strictly
controlled (laboratory type)
environment where the
behaviour does not naturally
occur

Ecological
validity: A
measure of
how near to
real life an
experiment
is…
(+) High Ecological Validity
The experiment takes place in a natural
environment, where it naturally occurs
and therefore supports the validity of
any research claims
(-) Low Ecological Validity
The experiment takes place in an unnatural
environment, so it is potentially an unnatural
behaviour and therefore reduces the validity of
any research claims.

Different
types of
data can
be
collected
in
research
:
Quantitative Data
(Quantity: Numbers/Measurements)
Qualitative Data
(Quality: Thoughts/Opinions/Attitudes)
Primary Data (collected directly by
the researcher) and Secondary Data
(researcher collects from other people’s
research – second-hand)
Levels of Measurement : Interval
(data from a scale), Ordinal (rank ordered
data) and Nominal (individual categories)

Relationship
between the
words in the
glossary
What is an ‘Experimental
Investigation’? (Controlled environment to
demonstrate Cause & Effect)
Start with: Aim of research (To determine…
often called ‘a research question’)
Hypothesis (A testable statement of
predicted outcome)
Control the Independent Variables
(IV’s)- things the researcher deliberately
controls
Measure the Dependent Variable (DV)-
that which the researcher measures
Clear statement of how you
Operationalised the variables (how IV’s
manipulated & how DV measured)

I
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
:
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
i
s
a
t
i
o
n
IV’s [Independent Variable]
What the researcher manipulates
(often the difference between two
trials)
So:
Operationalisation = How you
manipulated the variables
DV [Dependent Variable*]
That which the researcher
measures , so wording must
indicate that numerical data is
collected
So:
Operationalisation = How you
measured the variable
* aka… responding variable

What is an experiment?
•A procedure to investigate
‘cause and effect’
•Where the ‘cause’ is the IV
•…and the ‘effect’ is the DV
•Consider two pot plants
•Only water one of
them… explain result in
terms of IV’s, DV and
Cause and effect:

Glossary:
Extraneous Variables (EV’s)
What are they? “Uncontrolled Variables”
Why are they a problem?” Influences
outcome, and can cause/modify ‘effect’
rather than the experimental IV”
Some possibilities:
Individual Differences eg. natural
memory, left or right-handed (handedness),
sex, age, natural athleticism (or any naturally
occurring individual variable)
Uncontrolled situational effects eg.
time of day, available sunlight

Concepts
•An uncontrolled
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
(variable other than the IV
causing the DV) can become a
SYSTEMATIC CONFOUNDING
VARIABLE and systematically
affects the outcome of
research (reduced
generalization)
•Cause and effect: The IV
(cause) determines the DV
(measured responding
variable) if all other variables

“You are investigating
relationship between
hours spent on social
media sites each
week (+/- 7 hours)
and attainment at
school”
1. Name a potential
EV’s
2. How might you reduce
the effect of this
variable
A. Maybe what you use social media
for: communication or gaming
A. Maybe using participant characteristics convert to a matched pairs design,
covering: gender and why use social media [we cover this design later]

Hypothese
s:
concepts
Hypothesis (pl. Hypotheses):
Directional (IV-direction-DV)
Non-directional (IV-effects-DV)
Null Hypothesis (IV-no effect on-DV)
When the hypothesis suggests a difference between
two groups in the predictive statement eg. There will
be a difference in the scores between Group A and
Group B
When the hypothesis suggests a direction in the
predictive statement eg. Group A will score
significantly higher than Group B
A predictive statement which suggests the IV will have
no effect on the measured outcome (DV) eg. The style
of learning will not have an effect on measured recall
(Note: not the opposite, but rather no effect)

Formulating
an
Hypothesis
❑ First work out the IV’s and DV
❑ Operationalise the variables (how
manipulated/how measured)
❑ Include all variables in the hypothesis
❑ Always indicate that the DV results in a
measurement
Q. Translate these aims (note, they are
questions) into hypotheses:
1. Does having breakfast over not having
breakfast improve learning?
2. If you are enjoying a lesson, does time go
quicker, that if you are bored?
Answer:
1. A person who had breakfast will
show higher measured learning,
compared with a person who did
not have breakfast.
2. A person who is enjoying a lesson
will express a quicker measure of
time, compared with a person who
finds the lesson boring.

So far:
•An experiment in terms of
cause and effect
•Types of data
•IV’s & DV’s (variables)
•EV’s
•An Experimental Hypothesis
•Directional & Non-directional
Hypotheses

Glossary:
from your
workbook
and
textbook
define
•Hypothesis (pl. Hypotheses)
•Directional Hypothesis
•Non-directional Hypothesis
•Null Hypothesis
•Variables
•IV (Independent Variable)
•DV (Dependent Variable)
•Operationalization of variables
•EV (Extraneous Variable and if
not controlled can become a
Confounding Variable)
•CV’s (Co-Variables)

Types of experimental
research methods
and how to get
participants
for an experiment

research methods
Laboratory experiments
Take place in an environment that is strictly
controlled and where the behaviour does not
normally occur (does not need to be a
traditional science laboratory).
(+) Good control (IV’s, DV’s & EV’s),
good for scientific
measurements, testing hypo’s
and good replication
(-) Low ecological validity
NB. Laboratory = Variables in a controlled
environment
Photos
are
licensed
under
CC
BY-SA

research methods
Field experiments
Experiments where the behaviour would naturally
occur, but the variables only occur because the
researcher has set them up
(+) High Ecological Validity, takes place in the real world
(-) Hard to control, measure and replicate
NB. Field = Out in the real world

research methods
Naturalistic experiments
Experiments with naturally occurring IV’s (eg Sex
or those involved in a train crash) and usually take
place in the ‘field’.
(+) High Ecological Validity, IV is natural as in the real
world
(-) Hard to control especially who
takes part… self-selecting so biased, measure,
replicate, and problem with IV’s
(Naturally occurring so open to bias)
and can raise ethical issues…
• NB. Regarded as being Quasi-experimental (it may
appear to be empirical but is lacking in control etc)

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
In an exam if you are asked
what is an experiment, it
could be more specific (type
of experiment) or difference
between: laboratory, field or
naturalistic.
You should always start your
answer by describing the IV’s
and DV.
If the experiment is about
gender (eg. are males more
intelligent than females).
Then this is a naturalistic
experiment and
quasi-experimental because
you can only be male or
female (self-selecting IV)
and this reduces
experimental control of
variables

How to tell the difference between the
experimental methods
•The measured behaviour:
Was set up by the
researcher in a
Would have
happened anyway
Controlled
environment
Natural
environment
Natural environment
Fit in the words: Laboratory Naturalistic Field
Controlled
environment
Natural
environment
Natural environment
Laboratory Field Naturalistic

Do exercise: Which experimental
method?

Researching the effect violent movies have on
later aggressive feelings
Event:
Watch violent movie
and then complete a
‘measured
aggressive attitude’
scale
1) Wait
outside a
cinema
and catch
people
coming out
2) Invite
volunteers to
a cinema to
watch a
movie
3) Get
students to
watch a
movie in
class
Which
Research
Method?
1) 2) 3)
Naturalistic Field Laboratory

Sampling Procedures
Research requires participants (PPT’s) and
there are various way to recruit. Two
important concepts:
The Target Population
Who you wish to generalise (apply) your
research findings to…
The Sample Population
Target populations are usually very large. So
you need a small representative sample, from
which you can generalise findings to the
target population
SAMPLING

Sampling Techniques (1) … how to get people to take part in your research
Random Sampling +/-
Opportunity Sampling +/-
Volunteer/Self-Selecting Sampling +/-
Where you recruit a group of participants (ppt’s) and each one has an equal chance of
taking part or not taking part [usually achieved by random selection using a computer
program]. (+) Removes experimenter bias on ppt selection. (-) Uneconomic, as you only use
half of the people recruited.
Where you approach people and ask would you like to take part in my research. (+) Quick,
easy way to recruit ppt’s. (-) Is open to experimenter bias on selection, who you approach to
take part in your research.
Where you advertise (media, posters etc) for people to volunteer to take part in your
research. Important: avoid the word Voluntary. (+) Quick easy way to recruit, especially
targeted recruitment. (-) Extroverts more likely to volunteer than introvert [excludes half of
any population] and more likely to volunteer if interested in the nature of the research.

Sampling Techniques (2) … how to get people to take part in your research
Alternatives:
Stratified Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Online Sampling
A. 20 names in hat, draw 1 name at
a time, so 1st
name 1:20 chance
and 2nd
1:19 chance and so on… so
not equal chance
Where you match the internal dynamics of a population in proportion. EG. Research with
year 12 at a school [made up of 60 boys and 30 girls], so use a ratio of 6 boys to 3 girls in
that proportion.
Where you use a system to select participants, but that system is not truly random.
Q. Why is drawing names out of a hat NOT necessarily random sampling?
A relatively new way to collect data, getting ppt’s to
complete online surveys. Often referred to as ‘convenience
sampling’. It is a quick easy way to recruit, but it does raise
the issue of who is the sample representative of…

Important
In an exam you must avoid
referring to the sampling
procedure as voluntary .
It can only be VOLUNTEER
sampling or
SELF-SELECTING sampling
Also, volunteer they come to
you and opportunity, you go to
them.

“Student participants are invited to a room to try
a memory strategy vs no memory strategy and
measured recall as an experiment.”
Name:
1. Aim of research:
2. How might you recruit participants?
3. IV & DV:
4. Directional Hypothesis:
5. Non-Directional Hypothesis:
6. Null Hypothesis:
7. Type of research method:

To consider how
psychologists
design empirical
research

Experimenta
l Design
• How the researcher
organise their
participants
• NOT to be confused
with Experimental
Method (lab-field etc)

(1) Independent
Group Design
•Looks for differences between
groups
•So each participant only takes
part in one of the
trials/conditions

(2) Repeated
Measures Design
•Looks for changes within a
person
•So each participant takes
part in all the trials/
conditions

(3) Matched-Pairs Design
•The internal make-up of two
groups are matched across
participant to participant, eg.
gender, age, experience etc
•Calculate differences between the
pairs and then mean difference
between the groups

Evaluating
Research
Design :
Independent Design
(+) No order effect* (aka practice or
fatigue effect) and both groups use
the same stimuli
(-) Possible ‘Individual differences’**
effect. To deal: maybe employ a
‘Matched Pairs’ Design
Repeated Measures Design
(-) Risk of ‘order effect’ To deal employ
counterbalancing [ABBA***] if
suitable) and you need 2 sets of
stimuli (so are they even?)
(+) No ‘Individual differences’
*Order effect = Doing something twice can be
boring / tiring or induce ‘carry over’, you learn from
first trial and carry over to the next.
**Individual differences = How one person can be
individually different to another and this difference
may impact on performance
*** ABBA = A type of counterbalancing to guard
against order effect. The 1st ppt does Trial A then Trial
B and then the 2nd
ppt does Trial B then Trial A and so
on… (Hence ABBA and nothing to do with the pop
group)

Important
Examiners often like to ask one of two
questions (in full knowledge that 50% of
students will give the wrong answer):
In an experiment, you may be asked to
name the research method (eg.
experimental laboratory) or name the
experimental design (eg.
independent groups).
Make sure you are in the 50% who give
the correct answer!
Also you must use the word:
‘ORDER EFFECT’,
carry-over effect is an order
effect, but is incorrect if used
on its own.

Glossary:
Pilot Studies (What
and Why?)

Pilot Studies
•What
“A study on a small
scale performed prior
to the main study”,
so a small pre-study,
study.
•Why
“The main purpose is to test the
procedures”
• Pilot studies look at issues such as:
Are the stimuli suitable? Are the
timings suitable? Is the data
collected suitable for testing the
hypothesis? Are there any EV’s which
need controlling?
• Avoid talking too much about ethics
(that should have been sorted by an
ethics committee prior to the pilot
study)

Overview, RM’s so far….. Use your notes and
textbook to define the following:
1. Empirical 5. Hypotheses
(Directional &
non-directional
2. Experimental research
methods
6. IV’s, DV’s & EV’s
3. Experimental research
design
7. Sampling techniques
4. Ecological validity 8. Pilot studies

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