Ultrasonic Neuromodulation By Brain Stimulation With Transcranial Ultrasound Yusuf Tufail Anna Yoshihiro Sandipan Pati Monica M Li William J Tyler
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- 5. © 2011 Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved. protocol nature protocols | VOL.6 NO.9 | 2011 | 1453 INTRODUCTION US is an acoustic wave (mechanical pressure wave) occurring at frequencies exceeding the range of human hearing (>20 kHz)1 . More than 80 years ago, it was first shown to be an effective neuro- modulation tool capable of enhancing neural activity in frog and turtle neuromuscular preparations2 . Nearly 30 years later,William Fry and colleagues3 showed that US transmitted to the lateral geniculate nucleus of craniotomized cats could reversibly suppress light-evoked potentials recorded in the visual cortex.Since then,US has been shown to be capable of differentially enhancing or sup- pressing neuronal activity in a variety of experimental preparations across a wide range of acoustic frequencies, intensities and modes of transmission (Table 1). Until recently, however, US had only been shown to be effective for modulating the amplitude,duration and/or conduction velocity of electrically evoked or sensory-driven neuronal activity. Using whole-cell electrophysiology and optical recording techniques in hippocampal slice cultures, it was recently shown that US is capable of directly stimulating action potentials, voltage-gated Na+ and Ca2+ transients and synaptic transmission in central neurons4 .Subsequently,these observations have been trans- lated into whole animal preparations, in which it was discovered that transcranial pulsed ultrasound (TPU) can directly stimulate intact brain circuit activity in mice5 . The major advantages of TPU for brain stimulation are that it offers a mesoscopic spatial resolu- tion of a few millimeters, while possessing the ability to remain completely non-invasive. Collectively, the above-described obser- vations have opened the rousing possibility of using US for neuro- modulation. On the basis of our previous in vivo studies designed to investigate the influence of US on mouse brain circuits5 , the protocol provided below describes how to directly stimulate brain activity using transcranial US. To convey the utility of UNMOD, we provide three basic proce- dures using pulsed US for the stimulation of intact mouse cortex. One procedure does not require surgical manipulation and details methods for implementing TPU in non-invasive brain stimulation. The second procedure involves a craniotomy such that extracellular recordings can be conducted in response to US stimulus waveforms. The third procedure is based on previous observations demonstrat- ing the effects of US in animal models of epilepsy6–9 ,and it provides a protocol using UNMOD to attenuate chemically induced seizure activity in a mouse model of status epilepticus (SE). These specific UNMOD protocols have been provided so that others may more easily implement and expand upon the many potential applications of US for brain stimulation. Brief overview of ultrasound Besides its global applications in diagnostic medical imaging, US has broad uses in nondestructive testing of materials, ultrasonic cleaning,chemical manufacturing,food processing,physiotherapy, personal hygiene, sonar and communications1 . For medical imag- ing, US has a frequency range from about 1 to 15 MHz, whereas therapeutic applications typically use a frequency of ~1 MHz or less10 . US can be transmitted as pulsed or continuous waves (CWs) through tissues, including bone, and can produce thermal and/or non-thermal (mechanical) bioeffects10–13 . Therapeutic US can be classified as low power (typically <0.5 W cm−2 ) or high power (>100 W cm−2 ) depending on its acoustic intensity12 . The thermal ablation of tissue is conducted with high-intensity US at power levels usually exceeding 600 W cm−2 , whereas therapeutic effects mediated by non-thermal actions of US can occur at power levels <0.5 W cm−2 (refs. 10–13). To gain additional insight into the biophysics of US, the reader is referred to recent reviews on the topic10,12,13 . Comparisonof UNMODwithmodernbrainstimulationmethods Methods and applications of intact brain circuit stimulation have been undergoing a continuous evolution since their first descrip- tion in the late nineteenth century14 . At present, neuroscience relies almost exclusively on electrical-, magnetic- and photonic- mediated approaches for modulating neural activity. Recent advances in molecular biology have enabled the use of genetically encoded light-activated sensor and actuator proteins in the study and control of brain circuits (‘optogenetics’)15,16 .In terms of spatial Ultrasonic neuromodulation by brain stimulation with transcranial ultrasound Yusuf Tufail1 , Anna Yoshihiro1 , Sandipan Pati2 , Monica M Li1 & William J Tyler3 1 Arizona State University, School of Life Sciences, Tempe, Arizona, USA. 2 Department of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute, St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA. 3 Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute and School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Roanoke,Virginia, USA. Correspondence should be addressed to W.J.T. ([email protected]). Published online 1 September 2011; doi:10.1038/nprot.2011.371 Brain stimulation methods are indispensable to the study of brain function. They have also proven effective for treating some neurological disorders. Historically used for medical imaging, ultrasound (US) has recently been shown to be capable of noninvasively stimulating brain activity. Here we provide a general protocol for the stimulation of intact mouse brain circuits using transcranial US, and, using a traditional mouse model of epilepsy, we describe how to use transcranial US to disrupt electrographic seizure activity. The advantages of US for brain stimulation are that it does not necessitate surgery or genetic alteration, but it confers spatial resolutions superior to other noninvasive methods such as transcranial magnetic stimulation. With a basic working knowledge of electrophysiology, and after an initial setup, ultrasonic neuromodulation (UNMOD) can be implemented in less than 1 h. Using the general protocol that we describe, UNMOD can be readily adapted to support a broad range of studies on brain circuit function and dysfunction.
- 6. © 2011 Nature America, Inc. All rights reserved. protocol 1454 | VOL.6 NO.9 | 2011 | nature protocols Table 1 | Summary of studies demonstrating neural circuit excitation or suppression using ultrasound. Preparation US mode Acoustic frequency Acoustic intensity Outcome Reference(s) In vitro frog and turtle muscle and heart CW 0.34 MHz Unknown Stimulation of nerve and muscle 2 Craniotomized cat LGN CW Unknown Unknown Reversible suppression of visually evoked responses in V1 3 Cat spinal cord PW 2.7 MHz Unknown Differential and reversible enhancement and suppression of mono- and polysynaptic spinal reflexes 78 Chemically induced epilepsy in cats PW 2.7 MHz 840 W cm−2 Attenuation of seizure activity monitored by EEG and decreased morbidity 6 Human somatosensory receptors in hand PW 0.48–2.67 MHz 8–3,000 W cm−2 Differential touch, pain and thermoreception 79 Human cochlea and auditory nerve PW; AM (125–8,000 Hz) 2.5 MHz 0.02–1.5 W cm−2 Auditory sensations even in deaf subjects 80 Cat cochlea and auditory nerve PW 5.0 MHz 30 W cm−2 Stimulation of cochlea and auditory nerve 81 Human brain (TCD of basilar artery) TCD; PW 2.0 MHz <0.5 W cm−2 Site-dependent stimulation of auditory sensations 82 Frog sciatic nerve CW 3.5 MHz 1–3 W cm−2 Increase of evoked CAP amplitude at 1 W cm−2 and decrease in CAP amplitude at 2–3 W cm−2 83 Frog sciatic nerve PW 2.0–7.0 MHz 100–800 W cm−2 Differential increase and decrease of evoked CAP amplitude 84 Rabbit sciatic nerve CW 3.2 MHz 1940 W cm−2 Suppression of activity; nerve block 85 Acute hippocampal slices PW 0.5–0.75 MHz 40–110 W cm−2 Suppression of evoked fiber volley and orthodromic population spikes, but enhanced dendritic field potential 86,87 Hippocampal slice cultures TB 0.44–0.67 MHz 2.9 W cm−2 Stimulation of action potentials and neurotransmitter release 4 Intact mouse cortex and hippocampus PW 0.25–0.5 MHz 0.75–0.229 W cm−2 Direct stimulation of action potentials in cortex and evoked synchronous oscillations and BDNF expression in the hippocampus 5 Craniotomized rabbit cortex TB/CW 0.69 MHz 3.3–12.6 W cm−2 Modulation of visually evoked functional MRI BOLD signals; stimulation of motor cortex 40 AM, amplitude modulated; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CAP, compound action potential; CW, continuous wave; EEG, electroencephalogram; PW, pulsed wave; TB, tone burst; TCD, transcranial Doppler sonography. BOLD, blood oxygen level–dependent.
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- 8. invariably been to compile a schedule covering the needs for six months of each branch of the service, and confine the stocks carried to these amounts. The amount of work discharged by Stores Depot has been probably not thoroughly appreciated, even by the various branches of the brigade. Records show an average receipt per week for the last year of some 250 shipments, or between thirty or forty a day. These shipments range from one case to seventy or eighty cases each, while from the commencement of Stores to November, 1918, there have been placed with the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board some 9,000 requisitions, each of which represents an average of ten different types of articles, each requisition in turn has been covered by from one to ten orders placed by the Munitions Board, while every order has been covered by from one up to as high as one hundred invoices. The responsibility of Stores Depot has involved not only receipt and distribution of all supplies required by the brigade, but also the maintenance of a form of record which will enable the government auditors to trace the entire history of any article which has passed through this organization, from the date of the order given for its purchase up to the point at which it has reached the end of its serviceable life and been written off. It will, of course, be understood that supplies have been sent to the various wings only upon a request being made by the latter, and it is furthermore necessary that the type and amount of the equipment which is being asked for coincide with the provision Stores Depot are authorized to make, and the rate of consumption which is laid down as being proper for the particular service involved. If, on the other hand, any purchase is necessary of articles not carried as standard, special authority is required to be granted before action is taken.
- 10. PART OF STORES DEPOT. The move to Texas of a section of the Corps in October, 1917, and the return of that section to Canada in April, 1918, threw additional responsibility on Stores Depot organization, and shipments which involved as many as twenty carloads per day were frequently sent out, the total value of articles thus forwarded being over $2,000,000. It was also of extreme importance that on the return of the Aerial Gunnery School to its permanent quarters at Beamsville, this unit should find itself equipped with the involved and often highly technical scheduled supplies required for its special duty, and it is to be recorded that this provision was admirably foreseen and supplied. In the Stores Depot, as well as in all other units, excellent service has been rendered by lady civilian subordinates, and in October no less than 184 were on the strength of this unit. There was required, of course, the special training of those hitherto unskilled in these particular duties, but the result has amply justified the trouble taken. Over and above the civilian subordinates, there were on the strength 17 officers and 217 other ranks. All have contributed to a notable
- 11. degree to the success of the work of other units, which without a constant dependable supply of necessary equipment would have been soon rendered ineffective.
- 12. THE PAY OFFICE. The Pay Officer arrived in Canada on the 11th February, 1917, with four non-commissioned officers of the Imperial Army Pay Corps and eight boxes of army books and forms, the latter, however, being practically useless. Canadian conditions were vastly different from those in England. A suitable office was located at 20 Victoria Street. The Pay Officer then immediately notified the press of his arrival and address, and work began on February 17th, necessary funds being drawn from the War Office through the British Remount Commission in Montreal. Owing to values in Canada varying widely from those prevailing in England, it was essential to tread very warily regarding the fixing of rates of pay and allowances and innumerable other points known only to those who have experience in an Army Pay Office. Once in the swing, and after numerous conferences and interviews with Imperial and Canadian authorities, the department became a hive of industry. Its extraordinary growth may be seen from the following table: Total Cash Total Cash No. of No. of Month expended on issued to Sub- cheques all services Sub-accountants accountants issued February, 1917 $ 2,000.00 $ 1,500.00 2 26 July, 1917 236,572.90 152,812.14 19 1354 January, 1918 588,610.97 375,164.47 19 2926 July, 1918 782,383.76 469,291.57 18 4036 The number of claims for separation allowance to wives of cadets, warrant officers and other ranks paid in February, 1917, was fifteen. At present 1,579 claims are issued every month. Similarly the payments to dependents have increased during the same period
- 13. from 2 to 1,684. The expenditure incurred for the above services to the end of November, 1918, is approximately $1,200,000.
- 14. PAY OFFICE STAFF. 90TH SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN. The total number of cadets, warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and airmen who have been dealt with through the Department has reached the total of 18,232. The total expenditure by the Pay Officer on all services from February, 1917, to December 31, 1918, has been $12,555,000. For the reader’s further information, all units hold sub-accounts with the Pay Officer for the payment of their personnel, each sub- accountant rendering a monthly statement, properly vouched, to show how the money advanced has been disposed of. The Pay Officer’s further duties involve also the keeping of each man’s account on a ledger sheet, showing clearly by monthly periods the credits due and the debits made against each account. In addition, a ledger account is kept of the amounts due and paid to the wives and dependents of airmen. The Pay Office also assumes
- 15. the payment and examination of all railway warrants, and all rations in kind issued to all ranks. This includes the adjustment between the Imperial and U.S. Governments for rations and supplies issued in Canada and Texas under the reciprocal training agreement. The examination and payment of all accounts from civilian authorities for damage to private property on account of crashes and breakdowns of aircraft and mechanical transport falls to this department. The Victory Loan of 1917, was by arrangement with the Pay Officer, inasfar as the R.A.F. was concerned, paid for by instalments through allotment from the men’s accounts. The total of $350,000 was subscribed in this manner. As to the staff, one officer and four non-commissioned officers were responsible for the training of an ever-increasing personnel, and the effort was made to utilize each man’s civilian experience to the utmost. Bank clerks and accountants who enlisted into the R.A.F. were, upon request, usually allotted for duty with this department, thus ensuring efficient ground work. Each was thoroughly schooled, promotion by merit being the incentive. This practice has always been adhered to, and has been found most satisfactory. The total of men clerks is now 38, in charge of a flight clerk. There are but two officers. The female subordinates were mostly obtained from the public schools and colleges, and, after training, their work has been as duly recognized as that of the men. Most have been with the department for more than twelve months. This speaks well for their work and efficiency. The female staff numbers 41, with one lady superintendent in charge. It is desired in conclusion to point out that the demobilization of the Force in Canada has seriously taxed the efforts of this office, but, taking past experience as a guide, no trouble is being experienced in disposing of the tremendous detail involved in returning the corps to civil life.
- 18. CADET BARRACK BLOCKS—LONG BRANCH.
- 20. MECHANICAL TRANSPORT SECTION. This organization came into official existence on March, 17th, 1917, with a strength of one officer, fifteen non-commissioned officers and airmen, and some fifteen vehicles which had been brought out from England by the advance party of the wing. By October, 1918, the number of vehicles had grown to about 400 (exclusive of side cars) these being looked after by a staff of some two hundred and thirty non-commissioned officers and airmen, thirty lady drivers, and a clerical staff of thirty-six. The vehicles were distributed throughout the various sections of the brigade, all major sections being so organized as to make their own repairs without reference to the central establishment in Toronto. Housed at first in rented premises in the Wolseley Garage, Toronto, the headquarters establishment was moved early in August, 1917, to its new building in Dupont Street. This structure was approximately 180 ft. × 150 ft., being laid out in bays, and so arranged as to afford both the maximum storage space and the best possible accommodation for repair work. The latter in turn was subdivided into branches, each taking over its special duty as applied to various features of repair work, thus ensuring that a car which came in for overhaul moved constantly forward until, on completion, it had passed through the hands of every section concerned. Arrangements were so perfected that a complete overhaul could be completed by noon on the third day from commencement, and three days later the vehicle, completely painted and varnished, stood ready for either storage or reissue. The salvage of spare or worn parts proved, of course, to be a point demanding special attention, inasmuch as a great portion of the expense connected with overhaul is invariably to be found in such replacements. Under the arrangements made, all worn parts
- 21. were classified and, wherever possible, repaired and stored so as to be ready for re-issue when needed. It is reported by the officer in charge of this section that the average repair output per week was some nineteen vehicles of all descriptions, heavy and light, this work being accomplished in addition to maintenance, washing, etc., of all the other vehicles in the headquarters section. The transport purchased locally proved most efficient, and in the Toronto section 1,200-miles-run was averaged per day. Every vehicle carried a log book, in which its duty was carefully detailed, and all vehicles were completely rebuilt twice a year. In October, 1918, the section, again expanding, occupied large premises on Avenue Road, reserving the former building for repair work only. The duties of various units of the brigade called for transportation work of a widely varying nature, so it came that the fleet of official vehicles presented an extreme variety, ranging from Packard ambulances—admirable vehicles specially constructed for hospital work at high speed over rough ground—to repair lorries and motorcycles. Gasoline tanks for service on aerodromes proved invaluable, and fire protection was distinctly aided by the purchase of chemical trucks which were stationed at various units. The work of the section was extended to the carrying of local mails between the various units in Toronto. This proved to be most advantageous. No record of the section would, furthermore, be complete without some reference to the duties performed by the lady drivers who patriotically volunteered for this service. Their history is one of entire success, both as to the duty performed collectively and individually, and also having in view the all-important fact that by the acceptance of service so finely offered the brigade was able to release many men for other and imperative work in all sections of its operations.
- 23. ASSISTANT PROVOST-MARSHAL, OFFICERS AND STAFF.
- 24. THE ASSISTANT PROVOST MARSHAL An Assistant Provost Marshal was appointed on February 1st, 1918. This was deemed advisable owing to the large number of men enlisted in the Royal Air Force, Canada. It further relieved the Canadian Military Police Corps of the extra work of supervising airmen in the streets of Toronto. On the formation of this office there were approximately thirty enlisted men to carry out the duties of Royal Air Force policemen. The number has since been increased to fifty, whose duties consist of patrolling the streets of Toronto, and generally supervising the discipline and movements of airmen when on leave in the city. They have also carried out all necessary escort duties in bringing absentees back to their units. A city guard room was opened in April, 1918, situated at the corner of Church and Wellington Streets, and later moved to the basement of the Records building, at the corner of Duke and George Streets. In July, 1918, the Royal Air Force detention rooms and police barracks were opened at 1322 Dufferin Street, for the dual purpose of receiving airmen sentenced to undergo detention and to accommodate the personnel of the Assistant Provost Marshal’s staff. These barracks are under the supervision of an officer specially detailed for the duty. Since July of 1918, three men have been continually on duty in New York City, under the direction of an officer of the Royal Air Force, to supervise the discipline of airmen when on leave in that city. In the above connection it will be seen that considering the many thousands of men on the strength of the brigade, the staff of the
- 25. A.P.M. was extremely small. No better evidence could be given of the excellent discipline and behavior of the Force.
- 26. ROYAL ENGINEERS’ SECTION. Early in 1917 two engineer officers were appointed to the staff of the Officer Commanding, R.F.C., Canada, for technical duty in the selection of aerodrome sites and construction work generally. The former occupied the initial period of their service, but with the enlargement of the Corps came the necessity of a Royal Engineers section to deal with affairs of maintenance and repair. It was considered that the best results would be secured by posting detachments of this unit to various stations, etc., to which, under an R.E. non-commissioned officer, they were attached for discipline, pay, rations, etc. Under these arrangements, the R.E. section carried out its obligations until the end of August, 1918, when on account of the shortage of men who were both of military age and of required trades, it was decided that the maintenance work performed up to this time by the various subdivisions of the R.E. section, should be taken over by the construction section of the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board. The method of carrying out maintenance work was thus changed, but the responsibility for inspection and general supervision still devolved upon the headquarters branch of the R.E. section. The strength of the latter was reduced from an authorized establishment of 135 to a staff of four officers, four or five draughtsmen and a sufficient number of clerks. The duty performed by the unit still covered, as before, the general design of all buildings whether technical, instructional or barracks, coöperation with the construction section of the Munitions Board in the securing of service of water, power, light, etc., and, in general, such responsibilities as fall upon a firm of consulting engineers. To these must be added the fact that this section was responsible to the General Officer Commanding, and
- 27. acted as technical go-between and adviser between him and the Munitions Board in all constructional and in many technical matters. OFFICERS AND STAFF, ROYAL ENGINEERS’ SECTION.
- 28. “CHURCH UNION” AT CAMP BORDEN. In retrospect it appears that the arrangement worked exceedingly well. The coöperation of the Munitions Board relieved the unit of all except very minor construction. During the period of this coöperation, some 400 buildings were specially erected by the former, some 40 other existing buildings altered and fitted, together with the provision of innumerable services of varied nature. Records show the completion of six aerodromes with accommodation for 22 squadrons, and the establishment of an Armament School at Hamilton and a Cadet Wing at Long Branch. The average cost for barrack accommodation was approximately $235 per man. In this connection it is interesting to note that at a time when men were becoming extremely scarce owing to the annulment of transfer from R.F.C. to the R.A.F., the employment and accommodation of women on a fairly large scale was discussed. Analysis of building costs showed that barrack accommodation would in this case cost some $430 per head, owing to the necessity of special provision. The scheme was not unnaturally abandoned.
- 29. CAMP BORDEN. This camp, the summer home of the 44th Wing for the year 1918, represented the first structural activities of the unit in Canada. By most energetic methods it was transformed from a sandy desert, and became probably the finest flying camp in North America, the Department of Militia and Defence having put at the disposition of the unit approximately 1,000 acres adjoining the C.E.F. camp of a similar name. The work of construction, which began at the end of January, 1917, progressed so fast that flying began early in April. Never probably in the history of Canadian construction has a scene of greater activity been presented than was observed at Borden during this period under the direction of the late Colonel Low, backed up by an R.E. officer lent by the Department of Militia and Defence. Work progressed unceasingly in a temperature often 20° to 30° below zero. Buildings sprang up at night under the glare of arc lamps, and physical difficulties one after the other were met only to be conquered. Within two weeks 1,700 men and 200 teams had been transported and were at work. Hundreds of acres of sandy soil were sown with grass seed, thousands of stumps were uprooted and numberless hillocks levelled. An excellent road system, a first rate water supply and electrical system were all provided, together with special telephone communication to Toronto and neighboring towns. The type of building adopted was retained for all subsequent construction, and has proved to give a maximum of comfort with a minimum of expense.
- 30. OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.
- 31. OFFICERS, 44TH WING, CAMP BORDEN.
- 32. At the close of hostilities, Camp Borden had accommodation for 122 officers, 500 cadets, 120 warrant officers and sergeants, and 900 rank and file. A few illustrations of typical buildings are given, together with photographs of the strength at the cessation of hostilities. The surrounding country is level, and affords many opportunities for landing. To the north stretches the great expanse of Lake Huron, to the east lies Lake Simcoe, and 50 miles to the south is the shore of Lake Ontario. To those who visited Borden when the air was full of machines, there has always been something peculiarily fascinating in the wide, clear skies and unquestionable atmosphere of space and height which is noticeable. During its occupancy, the 44th Wing did much to improve the camp, and the energetic measures taken by the officer commanding for the comfort and enjoyment of his unit will long be remembered. A large concrete swimming pool, 100 feet by 40 feet was built, a cement tennis court of exceptional excellence was constructed, and a golf course of 9 holes laid down by first rate professionals, arrangements being made whereby, for the expenditure of a few cents, all could enjoy this most inviting of sports. Games, football and all types of physical exercise were indulged in, and it was impossible to find within the boundaries of the corps a more complete programme of physical relaxation. The chart on page 291 shows the number of cadets passed through this wing. It should be remembered, however, that until the formation of the School of Aerial Gunnery in April, 1918, at Beamsville, the 44th Wing assumed this instruction. The unit occupied Camps Leaside and Armour Heights during the summer and winter of 1917, but for the rest of its active history its home has been at Camp Borden.
- 33. LONG BRANCH. At first the scene of the initial flying activity of the brigade, i.e., that of “X” and “Y” Squadrons, Long Branch subsequently became the home of the Cadet Wing. The area covers approximately 100 acres, its use being kindly granted by the Department of Militia and Defence. During the summer of 1917, cadets were housed under canvas. When autumn came, the unit was split between camps Mohawk and Borden, then vacated by units proceeding to Texas, and returned in April to a larger tented city on the former ground. During the summer of 1918 it was decided that permanent accommodation be provided, this being due to the fact that it was not contemplated that the brigade should again visit Texas. By the autumn most excellent provision had been made for 30 officers, 1,200 cadets, 68 warrant officers and sergeants and 1,200 rank and file. The camp is excellently laid out, supplied with power and light from the transmission lines of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission, and was complete with every provision for the instruction, comfort and amusement of the large number of cadets on the strength. Hospital accommodation at this unit was especially centralized, and arrangements provided that technical instruction be given to patients so far as their condition permitted. The Cadet Wing was always prominent in sports, and during the summer of 1918 several racing shells were purchased and afforded much enjoyment along the shores of Lake Ontario, which lies immediately on the south boundary of the camp. Here also constant interest was occasioned by the passage of machines en route to the School of Aerial Fighting at Beamsville.
- 34. DESERONTO. The Town of Deseronto is on the north shore of Lake Ontario, some 130 miles east of Toronto. Between it and the main body of the lake, lies the island county of Prince Edward. Here, at points three miles west and one and a half miles north, were selected the two aerodromes of camps Mohawk and Rathbun, the former being part of an Indian reserve, the use of which was secured through the agency of the Department of Indian Affairs at Ottawa, the latter being a level farm owned by a prominent family in the town of Deseronto. Work commenced during April, 1917, and was sufficiently far advanced to enable machines to take the air in the following month. The technical equipment at Mohawk ultimately consisted of twelve flight sheds (four squadrons), with complete provision for aeroplane repair and ground instruction, the engine repair work being done in rented sheds in the town of Deseronto. The aerodrome itself was unusually level and the surrounding country fairly open. A large amount of flying took place, of course, over water. Within easy reach to the eastward lies that exquisite expanse of the St. Lawrence River which encircles the Thousand Islands. The camp buildings, centrally heated, crowned an eminence lying between the aerodrome and the water’s edge, a beautiful site which commanded an excellent view of the adjacent country. Mohawk, with the neighboring camp of Rathbun, was occupied during the early summer of 1917 by the 43rd Wing, headquarters administration being housed in the Town of Deseronto, from which both camps could easily be reached. The development of training, confined at first to aerial work, was carried to the point of giving ground and gunnery instruction, and an excellent range was constructed near the barrack buildings. Water
- 35. was drawn from the lake nearby and chlorinated for use, while ample electrical facilities were secured from the transmission circuits of the Provincial Hydro-Electric system. By November, 1918, the accommodation of this unit was sufficient for 71 officers, 320 cadets, 69 warrant officers and sergeants, and 450 rank and file. Camp Rathbun, one and a half miles north of Deseronto, was topographically very similar to Mohawk, but comprised a lesser acreage. During the autumn of 1918, the accommodation there was also increased, and a central heating plant erected in order to keep all buildings thoroughly comfortable during the winter months. There was provision for 53 officers, 246 cadets, and 330 other ranks. Water was chlorinated and drawn through the municipal system of the town of Deseronto, and electrical energy secured as at Mohawk. Both the above camps were occupied by the 43rd Wing during the summer of 1917, and by the 42nd Wing during the summer of 1918. In the intervening winter, Camp Mohawk afforded accommodation for one half of the Cadet Wing held in Canada in training during that particular period. Wing headquarters have always been in Deseronto, and there also, during the summer of 1918, permanent housing was erected for that section of the occupying wing engaged in repair, motor transport and similar work. Here too was housed the headquarters staff. Women civilian subordinates were largely employed at Deseronto, making their temporary homes in the town, and radiating out to the two flying camps. In spite of apparent scanty accommodation the arrangement worked here, as elsewhere, to the definite advantage of the Corps.
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