Unit 5

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Mobile Computing Database Issues
Unit-5
Database issues: Hoarding techniques, caching invalidation mechanisms.
client server computing with adapt ion , power-aware and context-aware
computing, transactional models, query processing, recovery, and quality of
service issues
A database is a collection of systematically stored records or information. Databases store data
in a particular logical manner. A mobile device is not always connected to the server or
network; neither does the device retrieve data from a server or a network for each
computation. Rather, the device caches some specific data, which may be required for future
computations, during the interval in which the device is connected to the server or network.
Caching entails saving a copy of select data or a part of a database from a connected system
with a large database. The cached data is hoarded in the mobile device database. Hoarding of
the cached data in the database ensures that even when the device is not connected to the
network, the data required from the database is available for computing.

Database Hoarding
Database hoarding may be done at the application tier itself. The following figure shows a
simple architecture in which a mobile device API directly retrieves the data from a database. It
also shows another simple architecture in which a mobile device API directly retrieves the data
from a database through a program, for ex: IBM DB2 Everyplace (DB2e).

(a) API at mobile device sending queries and retrieving data from local database (Tier 1)
(b) API at mobile device retrieving data from database using DB2e (Tier 1)

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Both the two architectures belong to the class of one-tier database architecture because the
databases are specific to a mobile device, not meant to be distributed to multiple devices, not
synchronized with the new updates, are stored at the device itself. Some examples are
downloaded ringtones, music etc. IBM DB2 Everyplace (DB2e) is a relational database engine
which has been designed to reside at the device. It supports J2ME and most mobile device
operating systems. DB2e synchronizes with DB2 databases at the synchronization, application,
or enterprise server
The database architecture shown below is for two-tier or multi-tier databases. Here, the
databases reside at the remote servers and the copies of these databases are cached at the
client tiers. This is known as client-server computing architecture.

(a) Distributed data caches in mobile devices
(b) Similar architecture for a distributed cache memory in multiprocessor systems

A cache is a list or database of items or records stored at the device. Databases are
hoarded at the application or enterprise tier, where the database server uses business logic and
connectivity for retrieving the data and then transmitting it to the device. The server provides
and updates local copies of the database at each mobile device connected to it. The computing
API at the mobile device (first tier) uses the cached local copy. At first tier (tier 1), the API uses
the cached data records using the computing architecture as explained above. From tier 2 or
tier 3, the server retrieves and transmits the data records to tier 1 using business logic and
synchronizes the local copies at the device. These local copies function as device caches.

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The advantage of hoarding is that there is no access latency (delay in retrieving the
queried record from the server over wireless mobile networks). The client device API has
instantaneous data access to hoarded or cached data. After a device caches the data
distributed by the server, the data is hoarded at the device. The disadvantage of hoarding is
that the consistency of the cached data with the database at the server needs to be
maintained.

Data Caching
Hoarded copies of the databases at the servers are distributed or transmitted to the mobile
devices from the enterprise servers or application databases. The copies cached at the devices are
equivalent to the cache memories at the processors in a multiprocessor system with a shared
main memory and copies of the main memory data stored at different locations.
Cache Access Protocols: A client device caches the pushed (disseminated) data records from a
server. Caching of the pushed data leads to a reduced access interval as compared to the pull (on-
demand) mode of data fetching. Caching of data records can be-based on pushed 'hot records'
(the most needed database records at the client device). Also, caching can be based on the ratio
of two parameters—access probability (at the device) and pushing rates (from the server) for each
record. This method is called cost-based data replacement or caching.
Pre-fetching: Pre-fetching is another alternative to caching of disseminated data. The process of
pre-fetching entails requesting for and pulling records that may be required later. The client device
can pre-fetch instead of caching from the pushed records keeping future needs in view. Pre-
fetching reduces server load. Further, the cost of cache-misses can thus be reduced. The term 'cost
of cache-misses' refers to the time taken in accessing a record at the server in case that record is not
found in the device database when required by the device API.

Caching Invalidation Mechanisms
A cached record at the client device may be invalidated. This may be due to expiry or
modification of the record at the database server. Cache invalidation is a process by which a
cached data item or record becomes invalid and thus unusable because of modification, expiry, or
invalidation at another computing system or server. Cache invalidation mechanisms are used to
synchronize the data at other processors whenever the cache-data is written (modified) by a
processor in a multiprocessor system, cache invalidation mechanisms are also active in the case of
mobile devices having distributed copies from the server.
A cache consists of several records. Each record is called a cache-line, copies of which can be
stored at other devices or servers. The cache at the mobile devices or server databases at any

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given time can be assigned one of four possible tags indicating its state—modified (after rewriting),
exclusive, shared, and invalidated (after expiry or when new data becomes available) at any given
instance. These four states are indicated by the letters M, E, S, and I, respectively (MESI). The states
indicated by the various tags are as follows:
a) The E tag indicates the exclusive state which means that the data record is for internal use
and cannot be used by any other device or server.
b) The S tag indicates the shared state which indicates that the data record can be used by
others.
c) The M tag indicates the modified state which means that the device cache
d) The I tag indicates the invalidated state which means that the server database no longer has
a copy of the record which was shared and used for computations earlier.
The following figure shows the four possible states of a data record i at any instant in the server
database and its copy at the cache of the mobile device j.

Four possible states (M, E, S, or /) of a data record /at any instance at the server
database and device j cache
Another important factor for cache maintenance in a mobile environment is cache consistency
(also called cache coherence). This requires a mechanism to ensure that a database record is
identical at the server as well as at the device caches and that only the valid cache records are used
for computations.

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Cache invalidation mechanisms in mobile devices are triggered or initiated by the server. There are
four possible invalidation mechanisms – Stateless asynchronous, stateless synchronous, stateful
asynchronous and stateful synchronous.
Stateless Asynchronous: A stateless mechanism entails broadcasting of the invalidation of the
cache to all the clients of the server. The server does not keep track of the records stored at the
device caches. It just uniformly broadcasts invalidation reports to all clients irrespective of
whether the device cache holds that particular record or not. The term 'asynchronous' indicates that
the invalidation information for an item is sent as soon as its value changes. The server does not
keep the information of the present state (whether Emi, Mmi, Smi, or Imi) of a data-record in cache for
broadcasting later. The server advertises the invalidation information only. The client can either
request for a modified copy of the record or cache the relevant record when data is pushed from the
server. The server advertises as and when the corresponding data-record at the server is invalidated
and modified (deleted or replaced).
The advantage of the asynchronous approach is that there are no frequent, unnecessary
transfers of data reports, thus making the mechanism more bandwidth efficient. The
disadvantages of this approach are—(a) every client device gets an invalidation report, whether that
client requires that copy or not and (b) client devices presume that as long as there is no invalidation
report, the copy is valid for use in computations. Therefore, even when there is link failure, the
devices may be using the invalidated data and the server is unaware of state changes at the
clients after it sends the invalidation report.
Stateless Synchronous This is also a stateless mode, i.e., the server has no information
regarding the present state of data records at the device caches and broadcasts to all client
devices. However, unlike the asynchronous mechanism, here the server advertises invalidation
information at periodic intervals as well as whenever the corresponding data-record at server is
invalidated or modified. This method ensures synchronization because even if the in-between
period report is not detected by the device due to a link failure, the device expects the period-
end report of invalidation and if that is not received at the end of the period, then the device
sends a request for the same (deleted or replaced). In case the client device does not get the
periodic report due to link failure, it requests the server to send the report.
The advantage of the synchronous approach is that the client devices receive periodic
information regarding invalidity (and thus validity) of the data caches. The periodic invalidation
reports lead to greater reliability of cached data as update requests for invalid data can be sent to
the server by the device-client. This also helps the server and devices maintain cache
consistency through periodical exchanges. The disadvantages of this mode of cache
invalidation are—(a) unnecessary transfers of data invalidation reports take place, (b) every client
device gets an advertised invalidation report periodically, irrespective of whether that client has a copy
of the invalidated data or not, and (c) during the period between two invalidation reports, the client
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devices assume that, as long as there is no invalidation report, the copy is valid for use in
computations. Therefore, when there are link failures, the devices use data which has been
invalidated in the in-between period and the server is unaware of state changes at the clients after it
sends the invalidation report.
Stateful Asynchronous The stateful asynchronous mechanism is also referred to as the AS
(asynchronous stateful) scheme. The term 'stateful' indicates that the cache invalidation reports
are sent only to the affected client devices and not broadcasted to all. The server stores the
information regarding the present state (a record I can have its state as Emi, Mmi, Smi, or Imi) of each
data-record at the client device caches. This state information is stored in the home location cache
(HLC) at the server. The HLC is maintained by an HA (home agent) software. This is similar to the HLR
at the MSC in a mobile network. The client device informs the HA of the state of each record to
enable storage of the same at the HLC. The server transmits the invalidation information as and
when the records are invalidated and it transmits only to the device-clients which are affected
by the invalidation of data. Based on the invalidation information, these device-clients then
request the server for new or modified data to replace the invalidated data. After the data
records transmitted by the server modify the client device cache, the device sends information about
the new state to the server so that the record of the cache-states at the server is also modified.
The advantage of the stateful asynchronous approach is that the server keeps track of
the state of cached data at the client device. This enables the server to synchronize with the state of
records at the device cache and keep the HLC updated. The stateful asynchronous mode is also
advantageous in that only the affected clients receive the invalidation reports and other devices are
not flooded with irrelevant reports. The disadvantage of the AS scheme is that the client devices
presume that, as long as there is no invalidation report, the copy is valid for use in computations.
Therefore, when there is a link failure, then the devices use invalidated data.
Stateful Synchronous: The server keeps the information of the present state (Emi, Mmi, Smi, or
Imi) of data-records at the client-caches. The server stores the cache record state at the home
location cache (HLC) using the home agent (HA). The server transmits the invalidation
information at periodic intervals to the clients and whenever the data-record relevant to the
client is invalidated or modified (deleted or replaced) at the server. This method ensures
synchronization because even if the in-between period report is not detected by the device due
to a link failure, the device expects the period-end report of invalidation and if it is not received
at the end of the period, then the device requests for the same.
The advantage of the stateful synchronous approach is that there are reports identifying
invalidity (and thus, indirectly, of validity) of data caches at periodic intervals and that the server
also periodically updates the client-cache states stored in the HLC. This enables to synchronize
with the client device when invalid data gets modified and becomes valid. Moreover, since the
invalidation report is sent periodically, if a device does not receive an invalidation report after
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the specified period of time, it can request the server to send the report. Each client can thus
be periodically updated of any modifications at the server. When the invalidation report is not
received after the designated period and a link failure is found at the device, the device does not use
the invalidated data. Instead it requests the server for an invalidation update. The disadvantage of
the stateful synchronous approach is the high bandwidth requirement to enable periodic
transmission of invalidation reports to each device and updating requests from each client device.

Data Cache Maintenance in Mobile Environments

Assume that a device needs a data-record during an application. A request must be sent to the
server for the data record (this mechanism is called pulling). The time taken for the application
software to access a particular record is known as access latency. Caching and hoarding the
record at the device reduces access latency to zero. Therefore, data cache maintenance is
necessary in a mobile environment to overcome access latency.
Data cache inconsistency means that data records cached for applications are not invalidated at
the device when modified at the server but not modified at the device. Data cache consistency can
be maintained by the three methods given below:
I. Cache invalidation mechanism (server-initiated case): the server sends invalidation reports
on invalidation of records (asynchronous) or at regular intervals (synchronous).
II. Polling mechanism (client-initiated case): Polling means checking from the server, the state
of data record whether the record is in the valid, invalid, modified, or exclusive state. Each
cached record copy is polled whenever required by the application software during computation.
If the record is found to be modified or invalidated, then the device requests for the modified
data and replaces the earlier cached record copy.
III. Time-to-live mechanism (client-initiated case): Each cached record is assigned a TTL (time-to-live).
The TTL assignment is adaptive (adjustable) previous update intervals of that record. After the
end of the TTL, the cached record copy is polled. If it is modified, then the device requests the
server to replace the invalid cached record with the modified data. When TTL is set to 0, the TTL
mechanism is equivalent to the polling mechanism.

Web Cache Maintenance in Mobile Environments
The mobile devices or their servers can be connected to a web server (e.g., traffic information
server or train information server). Web cache at the device stores the web server data and
maintains it in a manner similar to the cache maintenance for server data described above. If an
application running at the device needs a data record from the web which is not at the web cache,
then there is access latency. Web cache maintenance is necessary in a mobile environment to
overcome access latency in downloading from websites due to disconnections. Web cache
consistency can be maintained by two methods. These are:
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I. Time-to-live (TTL) mechanism (client-initiated case): The method is identical to the one
discussed for data cache maintenance.
II. Power-aware computing mechanism (client-initiated case): Each web cache maintained at
the device can also store the CRC (cyclic redundancy check) bits. Assume that there are N
cached bits and n CRC bits. N is much greater than n. Similarly at the server, n CRC bits are
stored. As long as there is consistency between the server and device records, the CRC bits
at both are identical. Whenever any of the records cached at the server is modified, the
corresponding CRC bits at the server are also modified. After the TTL expires or on-
demand for the web cache records by the client API, the cached record CRC is polled and
obtained from the website server. If the n CRC bits at server are found to be modified and
the change is found to be much higher than a given threshold (i.e., a significant change),
then the modified part of the website hypertext or database is retrieved by the client device
for use by the API. However, if the change is minor, then the API uses the previous cache.
Since N » n, the power dissipated in the web cache maintenance method (in which
invalidation reports and all invalidated record bits are transmitted) is much greater than
that in the present method (in which the device polls for the significant change in the CRC
bits at server and the records are transmitted only when there is a significant change in the
CRC bits).

Client-Server Computing
Client-server computing is a distributed computing architecture, in which there are two types of
nodes, i.e., the clients and the servers. A server is defined as a computing system, which responds
to requests from one or more clients. A client is defined as a computing system, which requests
the server for a resource or for executing a task. The client can either access the data records at
the server or it can cache these records at the client device. The data can be accessed either on client
request or through broadcasts or distribution from the server.
The client and the server can be on the same computing system or on different computing
systems. Client-server computing can have N-tier architecture (N= 1, 2 ...). When the client and the
server are on the same computing system then the number of tiers, N = 1. When the client and the
server are on different computing systems on the network, then N = 2. A command interchange
protocol (e.g., HTTP) is used for obtaining the client requests at the server or the server responses
at the client.
The following subsections describe client-server computing in 2, 3, or N-tier architectures.
Each tier connects to the other with a connecting, synchronizing, data, or command interchange
protocol.

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Two-tier Client-Server Architecture

Multimedia file server in two-tier client-server computing architecture (local copies 1 to j of
image and voice hoarding at the mobile devices)
The following figure shows the application server at the second tier. The data records are
retrieved using business logic and a synchronization server in the application server synchronizes
with the local copies at the mobile devices. Synchronization means that when copies of records at
the server-end are modified, the copies cached at the client devices should also be accordingly
modified. The APIs are designed independent of hardware and software platforms as far as
possible as different devices may have different platforms.

Three-tier Client-Server Architecture
In a three-tier computing architecture, the application interface, the functional logic, and the
database are maintained at three different layers. The database is associated with the enterprise
server tier (tier 3) and only local copies of the database exist at mobile devices. The database
connects to the enterprise server through a connecting protocol. The enterprise server connects the
complete databases on different platforms, for example, Oracle, XML, and IBM DB2.

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(a) Local copies 1 to j of database hoarded at the mobile devices using an enterprise database
connection synchronization server, which synchronizes the required local copies for application with the
enterprise database server (b) Mobile device with J2ME or BREW platform, APIs an OS and database
having local copies

Data records at tier 3 are sent to tier 1 as shown in the figure through a synchronization-cum-
application server at tier 2. The synchronization-cum-application server has synchronization and
server programs, which retrieves data records from the enterprise tier (tier 3) using business logic.
There is an in-between server, called synchronization server, which sends and synchronizes the
copies at the multiple mobile devices. The figure shows that local copies 1 to j of databases are
hoarded at the mobile devices for the applications 1 to j.

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N-tier Client-Server Architecture
When N is greater than 3, then the database is presented at the client through in-between
layers. For example, the following figure shows a four-tier architecture in which a client device
connects to a data-presentation server at tier 2.

4-tier architecture in which a client device connects to a data-presentation server
The presentation server then connects to the application server tier 3. The application server can
connect to the database using the connectivity protocol and to the multimedia server using Java or
XML API at tier 4. The total number of tiers can be counted by adding 2 to the number of in-between
servers between the database and the client device. The presentation, application, and enterprise
servers can establish connectivity using RPC, Java RMI, JNDI, or HOP. These servers may also use
HTTP or HTTPS in case the server at a tier j connects to tier j+1 using the Internet.

Client-Server Computing with Adaptation
The data formats of data transmitted from the synchronization server and those required for the
device database and device APIs are different in different cases, there are two adapters at a
mobile device—an adapter for standard data format for synchronization at the mobile device and
another adapter for the backend database copy, which is in a different data format for the API at the
mobile device. An adapter is software to get data in one format or data governed by one protocol and
convert it to another format or to data governed by another protocol.

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Figure shows an API, database, and adapters at a mobile device and the adapters at the
synchronization, application, or enterprise servers. Here the adapters are an addition used for
interchange between standard data formats and data formats for the API.

Context-aware Computing
The context of a mobile device represents the circumstances, situations, applications, or
physical environment under which the device is being used. For example, let us assume that a
mobile phone is operating in a busy, congested area. If the device is aware of the surrounding noises,
then during the conversation, it can raise the speaker volume by itself and when the user leaves that
area, the device can again reduce the volume. Also, if there is intermittent loss of connectivity
during the conversation, the device can introduce background noises by itself so that the user does
not feel discomfort due to intermittent periods of silence. This is one example in which the
computing system is aware of the surrounding physical context in which the conversation is
taking place.
A context-aware computing system is one which has user, device, and application
interfaces such that, using these, the system remains aware of the past and present surrounding
situations, circumstances, or actions such as the present mobile network, surrounding devices or
systems, changes in the state of the connecting network, physical parameters such as present time
of the day, presently remaining memory and battery power, presently available nearest connectivity,
past sequence of actions of the device user, past sequence of application or applications, and
previously cached data records, and takes these into account during computations.

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Context
The term 'context' refers to the interrelated conditions in which a collection of elements, records,
components, or entities exists or occurs. Each message, data record, element, or entity has a
meaning. But when these are considered along with the conditions that relate them to each other
and to the environment, then they have a wider meaning. Understanding of the context in which a
device is meant to operate, results in better, more efficient computing strategies.

Structural Context: To explain what is meant by structural context let us consider a few
examples of records with structural arrangement. The fields name, address, experience, and
achievements of a person have an individual meaning. However, when put together to form a
resume, these fields acquire a significance beyond their individual meanings. This significance
comes from the fact that they are now arranged in a structure which indicates an interrelationship
between them. The structure of the resume includes the records and their interrelationship and
thus defines a context for these records. Whereby, the records have a new meaning in the context
of the resume (which is a structure). Contexts such as the context of the resume of an individual are
called structural contexts. The context in such cases comes from the structure or format in which the
records in a database are organized.
Consider another example, this time that of a line in a telephone directory. It has a sequence
of records including a name, an address, and a 10-digit number. Each record has an individual
meaning. But a collection of these records shows an interrelationship and thus defines a context,
i.e., a telephone directory.
Implicit and Explicit Contexts Context may be implicit or explicit. Implicit context
provides for omissions by leaving out unimportant details, takes independent world-views, and
performs alterations in order to cope with incompatible protocols, interfaces, or APIs by
transparently changing the messages. Implicit context uses history to examine call history, to
manage omissions, or to determine recipients and performs contextual message alterations.
Consider the context 'Contacts' which has a set of contacts. The name, e-mail ID, and telephone
number are implicit in a contact in the context Contacts. When a computing device uses a contact to
call a number using a name record, the system takes independent view and uses the telephone
number implicitly and deploys CDMA or GSM protocols for connecting to the mobile network
implicitly. Context CDMA is implicit in defining the records 'Contact'. When a computing system
uses a contact to send an e-mail using a name record, the use of the e-mail ID record is implicit to
the system and the use of SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) or other mail sending protocol is also
implicit. Name gets automatically altered to e-mail ID when the context is sending of e-mail. The
implicit context also copes with incompatible interfaces, for example, mail sending and receiving
software handling data in different formats. Consider the context document. In document
context, the contact or personal information is an extrinsic context. In context to processing of a

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document, the existence of document author contact information is extrinsic. The contacts
context is imported into the document context to establish interrelationship between document
and contact.
Context-aware Computing
Context-aware computing leads to application-aware computing. This is so because the APIs are
part of the context (implicit or explicit contexts). For example, if context is a contact, the phone-
talk application will adapt itself to use of the telephone number from the 'contact' and to the
use of GSM or CDMA communication.
Use of context in computing helps in reducing possibility of errors. It helps in reducing the
ambiguity in the action(s). It helps in deciding the expected system response on computations.
For example, if name is input in personal biodata context, then the address, experience, and
achievements, which correspond to that name, are also required for computations. This is
because all four are related and needed in biodata context. When name is input in telephone
directory context, then the address and phone number, which correspond to that name, are
also required for computations. This is because all three are related in context to telephone
directory. The name in two different contexts (personal biodata and telephone directory)
during computations needs computations to perform different actions.

Context Types in Context-aware Computing
The five types of contexts that are important in context-aware computing are-physical context,
computing context, user context, temporal context, and structural context.
Physical Context: The context can be that of the physical environment. The
parameters for defining a physical context are service disconnection, light level, noise
level, and signal strength. For example, if there is service disconnection during a
conversation, the mobile device can sense the change in the physical conditions and it
interleaves background noise so that the listener does not feel the effects of the
disconnection. Also, the mobile device can sense the light levels, so during daytime the
display brightness is increased and during night time or in poor light conditions, the
device display brightness is reduced. The physical context changes and the device display
is adjusted accordingly.
Computing Context: The context in a context-aware computing environment may also be
computing context. Computing context is defined by interrelationships and conditions of the
network connectivity protocol in use (Bluetooth, ZigBee, GSM, GPRS, or CDMA), bandwidth, and
available resources. Examples of resources are keypad, display unit, printer, and cradle. A cradle
is the unit on which the mobile device lies in order to connect to a computer in the vicinity.
Consider a mobile device lying on a cradle. It discovers the computing context and uses
ActiveSync to synchronize and download from the computer. When a mobile device lies in the

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vicinity of a computer with a Bluetooth interface, it discovers another computing context
resource and uses wireless Bluetooth for connecting to the computer. When it functions
independently and connects to a mobile network, it discovers another computing context and
uses a GSM, CDMA, GPRS, or EDGE connection. The response of the system is as per the
computing context, i.e., the network connectivity protocol.
User Context: The user context is defined user location, user profiles, and persons near
the user. Reza B 'Far defines user-interfaces context states as follows—'within the realm
of user interfaces, we can define context as the sum of the relationships between the user
interface components, the condition of the user, the primary intent of the system, and all of
the other elements that allow users and computing systems to communicate.
Temporal Context: Temporal context defines the interrelation between time and the
occurrence of an event or action. A group of interface components have an intrinsic or
extrinsic temporal context. For example, assume that at an instant the user presses the
switch for dial in a mobile device. At the next instant the device seeks a number as an input.
Then user will consider it in the context of dialling and input the number to be dialled. Now,
assume that at another time the user presses the switch to add a contact in the mobile
device. The device again prompts the user to enter a number as an input. The user will
consider it in context of the number to be added in the contacts and stored in the device for
future use. The device then seeks the name of the contact as the input. Response of the
system in such cases is as per the temporal context. The context for the VUI (voice user
interface) elements also defines a temporal context (depending upon the instances and
sequences in which these occur).
Structural Context: Structural context defines a sequence and structure formed by
the elements or records. Graphic user interface (GUI) elements have structural context.
Structural context may also be extrinsic for some other type of context. Interrelation
among the GUI elements depends on structural positions on the display screen. When time is
the context, then the hour and minute elements.

Transaction Models
A transaction is the execution of interrelated instructions in a sequence for a specific operation
on a database. Database transaction models must maintain data integrity and must enforce a
set of rules called ACID rules. These rules are as follows:
 Atomicity: All operations of a transaction must be complete. In case, a transaction cannot
be completed; it must be undone (rolled back). Operations in a transaction are assumed to
be one indivisible unit (atomic unit).

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 Consistency: A transaction must be such that it preserves the integrity constraints and
follows the declared consistency rules for a given database. Consistency means the data is
not in a contradictory state after the transaction.
 Isolation: If two transactions are carried out simultaneously, there should not be any
interference between the two. Further, any intermediate results in a transaction should be
invisible to any other transaction.
 Durability: After a transaction is completed, it must persist and cannot be aborted or
discarded. For example, in a transaction entailing transfer of a balance from account A to
account B, once the transfer is completed and finished there should be no roll back.
Consider a base class library included in Microsoft.NET. It has a set of computer software
components called ADO.NET (ActiveX Data Objects in .NET). These can be used to access the
data and data services including for access and modifying the data stored in relational database
systems. The ADO.NET transaction model permits three transaction commands:
1. BeginTransaction: It is used to begin a transaction. Any operation after
BeginTransaction is assumed to be a part of the transaction till the
CommitTransaction command or the RollbackTransaction
command. An example of a command is as follows:
connectionA.open();
transA = connectionA.BeginTransaction();
Here connectionA and transA are two distinct objects.
2. Commit: It is used to commit the transaction operations that were carried
out after the BeginTransaction command and up to this command. An
example of this is
transA.Commit();
All statements between BeginTransaction and commit must execute
automatically.
3. Rollback: It is used to rollback the transaction in case an exception is
generated after the BeginTransaction command is executed.

A DBMS may provide for auto-commit mode. Auto-commit mode means the transaction
finished automatically even if an error occurs in between.

Query Processing
Query processing means making a correct as well as efficient execution strategy by query
decomposition and query-optimization. A relational-algebraic equation defines a set of
operations needed during query processing. Either of the two equivalent relational-algebraic
equations given below can be used.
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This means first select a column Contacts.cTelNum in a row in Contacts in which
Contacts.cTelNum column equals a column DialledNumbers.dTelNum by
crosschecking and matching the records of a column in Contacts with all the rows of
DialledNumbers. Then in the second step select the row in which Contacts.
firstChar = “R” and the selected cTelNum exists. Then in the third step project
cName and CTelNum.

This means that in first series of step, crosscheck all rows of Contacts and
DialledNumbers and select, after AND operation, the rows in which
Contacts.firstchar = “R” and Contacts.cTelNum =
DialledNumbers.dTelNum. Then in the next step project cName and cTelNum form
the selected records.

Query processing architecture
Π represents the projection operation, σ the selection operation, and Λ, the AND operation. It
is clear that the second set of operations in query processing is less efficient than the first.
Query decomposition of the first set gives efficiency. Decomposition is done by (i) analysis, (ii)
conjunctive and disjunctive normalization, and (iii) semantic analysis.
Efficient processing of queries needs optimization of steps for query processing. Optimization
can be based on cost (number of micro-operations in processing) by evaluating the costs of sets
of equivalent expressions. Optimization can also be based on a heuristic approach consisting of

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the following steps: perform the selection steps and projection steps as early as possible and
eliminate duplicate operations.
The query optimizer employs (a) query processing plan generator and (b) query processing cost
estimator to provide an efficient plan for query processing.

Data Recovery Process
Data is non-recoverable in case of media failure, intentional attack on the database and
transactions logging data, or physical media destruction. However, data recovery is possible in
other cases. Figure below shows recovery management architecture. It uses a recovery
manager, which ensures atomicity and durability. Atomicity ensures that an uncommitted but
started transaction aborts on failure and aborted transactions are logged in log file. Durability
ensures that a committed transaction is not affected by failure and is recovered. Stable state
databases at the start and at the end of transactions reside in secondary storage. Transaction
commands are sent to the recovery manager, which sends fetch commands to the database
manager. The database manager processes the queries during the transaction and uses a
database buffer. The recovery manager also sends the flush commands to transfer the
committed transactions and database buffer data to the secondary storage. The recovery
manager detects the results of operations. It recovers lost operations from the secondary
storage. Recovery is by detecting the data lost during the transaction.

Recovery Management Architecture
The recovery manager uses a log file, which logs actions in the following manner:
1. Each instruction for a transaction for update (insertion, deletion, replacement, and
addition) must be logged.
2. Database read instructions are not logged
3. Log files are stored at a different storage medium.
4. Log entries are flushed out after the final stable state database is stored.

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Each logged entry contains the following fields.
 transaction type (begin, commit, or rollback transaction)
 transaction ID
 operation-type
 object on which the operation is performed
 pre-operation and post-operation values of the object.
A procedure called the Aries algorithm is also used for recovering lost data. The basic steps of
the algorithm are:
I. Analyse from last checkpoint and identify all dirty records (written again after operation
restarted) in the buffer.
II. Redo all buffered operations logged in the update log to finish and make final page.
III. Undo all write operations and restore pre-transaction values.
The recovery models used in data recovery processes are as follows:
I. The full recovery model creates back up of the database and incremental backup of the
changes. All transactions are logged from the last backup taken for the database.
II. The bulk logged recovery model entails logging and taking backup of bulk data record
operations but not the full logging and backup. Size of bulk logging is kept to the
minimum required. This improves performance. We can recover the database to the
point of failure by restoring the database with the bulk transaction log file backup. This
is unlike the full recovery model in which all operations are logged.
III. The simple recovery model prepares full backups but the incremental changes are not
logged. We can recover the database to the most recent backup of the given database.

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Assignment Questions

1. Explain about power aware computing?

2. Explain data recovery process in detail

3. Explain the concepts of Cache Invalidation mechanisms and what is importance

of data cache maintenance and web cache maintenance?

4. Explain the database transaction models and the ACID rules?

5. Explain three-tier architecture

6. What are the advantages of hoarding the data at the mobile device

7. What are the hoarding techniques and explain in detail

8. What is query processing and explain in detail

9. What is context aware and explain in detail about context aware computing

10. Define QoS and does Internet provide QoS? Justify your answer

11. List and explain the context types in Context aware computing

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