Women and City II

WOMEN AND THE CITY II: Combating violence against women and girls in urban public spaces - the role of public services 1
Combating violence against women and
girls in urban public spaces - the role
of public services
Women
CityII:
and
the

Acknowledgements
ActionAid is grateful to the following people and acknowledges their valuable contributions in
facilitating this study and developing this report.
Kalpana Viswanath designed the tools for the report and provided conceptual and design inputs
for the study. Anchita Ghatak provided conceptual and methodological inputs and wrote this report
along with Christy Abraham.
Gender Inclusive Cities Programme for allowing us to use their policy listing questionnaire.
Our project partners, community members and other stakeholders for their participation and
valuable contributions to the study.
Biranchi Upadhyaya and Ramona Vijeyarasa for guidance and support and review of the document.
Chris Coxon, Kate Carroll and Alice Wilson for support in development of the Terms of Reference.
Ana Paula, Bethel Terefe, Elizabeth Gbah, Putheavy Ol, Mona Sherpa, Smriti R.D.N, Jessica
Barbosa, Emilia Jomalinis, Carolina Costa, Mercy Mwangea, and Wangari Kinoti for their hard work
in facilitating the study in countries and for their continuous feedback.
Zohra Moosa, Annelien Groten, Rossana Scaricabarozzi, Rachel Moussié, Tasleem Mazhar,
Maureen Waweru and Upendranadh Choragudi for their comments on earlier drafts of this report.
Jill Hart for copy editing, Nick Purser for designing and Egigayehu Summers for logistical support.
ActionAid International, Women and The City II: Combating violence against women and girls in
urban public spaces – the role of public services, February, 2013.

Table of Contents
5 - 11 Executive Summary
12 -16 Section 1. Introduction
17 - 19 Section 2. Methodology
20 - 32 Section 3. Country context
33 - 46 Section 4. Findings and analysis
47 - 54 Section 5. Recommendations
55 - 71 ANNEXES
Annex 1 - Focus group discussions (FGD) questionnaire
Annex 2 - A guide to conduct FGDs
Annex 3 - Key informant interview questionnaire
Annex 4 - Key informant interview questionnaire for employers
Annex 5 - Key informant interview questionnaire for police
Annex 6 - Key informant interview questionnaire for university authorities
Annex 7 - Key informant interview guidelines
Annex 8 - Case study guidelines
Annex 9 - Policy listing from the Gender Inclusive Cities Programme toolkit

WOMEN AND THE CITY: Examining the Gender Impacts of Violence and Urbanisation 01
“To avoid harassment, the women of the community rethink their way of life,
including changing their mode of dress, in order to avoid “provoking” the
approach of men…. even the schedules of women have changed, women have
avoided work or working during the night and the girls had to change the
schedules of schools, courses and even the time of their leisure.”
Women from Barbalho, Brazil.
“My daughter got her salary which amounted to about US$150 and put it in
her trouser pocket. She did not realise who stole the money. It was crowded
when workers left the factory and everyone pushed each other to get through
the factory gate. She only realised that she had lost her money after she got home.”
Chaan, mother of a garment factory worker, Cambodia
“Sometimes I have to wake up and leave home as early as 3 and 4am for
work, to deliver goods for sale that will be taken by truck drivers to other
towns or the countryside. I’m afraid of risks of rape and robbery when
I leave home at this hour.”
Woman vendor in Ethiopia
“I don’t see the need for services in any special way for women at the university
because no policy of the university marginalises women in any way. There are
separate toilets for men and women and other than that men and women can
access all university services and facilities equally.”
An instructor at the University of Liberia.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
It is now well recognized that women and girls
around the world face violence, sexual harassment
and abuse in many of the spaces that they inhabit
– their homes, workplaces, educational institutes,
on streets and on public transport.1
Women’s fear
of violence restricts their movement, limiting their
use of public spaces, their movement from their
homes and as a result, their full enjoyment of a
range of human rights.
ActionAid is working in different countries to make
cities safe for women and girls through its Safe
Cities Initiative.This initiative is founded on the
concept of right to the city.2
The right to the city
is the right of all city inhabitants, especially poor
people, to have equitable access to all that a city
has to offer and also to have the right to change
their city in ways that they see fit. It entails:
Freedom from violence and harassment,•
including the fear of violence on the streets;
Safe public spaces where women and girls•
can move freely, without fear of assault;
Access to water and sanitation, electricity,•
transportation and other public amenities at
residences and in public locations to reduce
the risks of violence;
Freedom from sexual harassment and abuse•
in the workplace;
Gender sensitive policing mechanisms for•
reporting violence and obtaining redress, such
as anti-violence centres/shelters; and
Systems and structures for women and girls•
to enjoy social, economic, cultural and political
participation.
This study, entitled Women and the city II:
combating violence against women and girls in
urban public spaces- the role of public services,
was initiated to deepen our understanding about
the links between violence against women and
urban public services, to build evidence, to get
communities as well as duty bearers to engage in
the process and to strengthen our ability to work
with women in these communities to seek change.
Conducted in Brazil, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Liberia and Nepal, this study comes at a time
of significant global change. In 2008, the world
reached a momentous milestone: for the first time
in history, more than half of its human population –
3.3 billion people – lived in urban areas. By 2010,
the global urban population outnumbered the rural
population with 3.56 billion (51.5% of the global
population) living in urban areas.
This report is envisaged as a knowledge building
and advocacy tool. Our expected audience includes
local municipalities and community leaders, law
enforcement, urban planners, non-governmental
organisations, feminist movements, the safe cities
movement in particular, policymakers and donors
at the national and international levels.
The report is divided into five sections, namely,
an introduction that provides an overview of the
right to the city and the global history of safe cities
work; an outline of the methodology adopted for
this study; country contexts for each of the six
countries; key findings; and finally, recommendations.
1. Department for Economic and Social Affairs, The world’s women 2010: trends and statistics, United Nations Publications, New York, 2010,
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/Worldswomen/WW2010pub.htm (accessed 9/1/13).
2. The right to the city is an idea and a slogan that was first proposed by Henri Lefebvre in his 1968 book Le Droit à la ville. Lefebvre summarises
the ideas as a “demand... [for] a transformed and renewed access to urban life”. David Harvey described it as follows: “The right to the city
is far more than the individual liberty to access urban resources: it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city. It is, moreover, a
common rather than an individual right since this transformation inevitably depends upon the exercise of a collective power to reshape
the processes of urbanization. The freedom to make and remake our cities and ourselves is, I want to argue, one of the most precious yet
most neglected of our human rights.” Harvey, D. Social justice and the city, University of Georgia Press, Athens and London, 2009,
http://bit.ly/WAjjKP (accessed 9/1/13).

Methodology
The objectives of the study were:
a) To strengthen the quality of our programming
under the Safe cities initiative across countries
by ensuring an evidence-based response
derived through participatory knowledge
building processes with communities;
b) To develop a better understanding of the links
between lack of access to basic services and
violence against women; and
c) To strengthen the global discourse and
advocacy around these links.
A common set of tools was used across all six
participating countries. The intention was to collect
responses from each location to the same set of
questions and concerns. The tools chosen were:
policy analysis – a listing of policies, legislation,
programmes and schemes that address the issues
of availability of public services and violence
against women;3
focus group discussions (FGDs);
key informant interviews (KIIs); and case studies.
Country context
Brazil:
The State of Pernambuco is historically one of
Brazil’s poorest and most violent states. Drug
trafficking is rampant here and the capital, Recife,
has one of the highest murder rates per capita in
the country.4
Faced with rapid urbanization, many
large agricultural fields in Pernambuco are being
converted for large-scale projects, such as the
expansion of the Port of Suape and the construction
of the railroad Transnordestina. Other huge projects
which are impacting on rapid urbanization in Brazil
include the preparations for the World Cup and
the Olympics of 2014 and 2016 respectively. This
study focused on violence against women in slums
of the metropolitan region of Recife, where there is
a high prevalence of crime, evictions and displace-
ment and limited reach of public services.
Cambodia:
Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh, is one of the
fastest growing cities in the world. According to the
Cambodian Rural Urban Migration Report Project
(CRUMP), undertaken by the Ministry of Planning
and United Nations Population Fund Cambodia,
young people (aged 20-34) from the provinces are
flooding into the capital for work and education
opportunities. This study focused on the violence
and the lack of public services experienced by
women garment workers. There are 320 garment
factories employing 356,609 workers in Cambodia.
Ninety percent of Cambodia’s garment industry
workers are migrant women with an average age
of 24 years.5
Ethiopia:
83% of Ethiopia’s population lives in rural areas.
However, rapid urbanization is taking place across
the country, with particular increases in rural-urban
migration to the capital city of Addis Ababa.6
Women migrate for labour opportunities and also
to avoid early marriage practices in rural areas. In
Addis Ababa, over 64,000 informal sector workers,
more than half of the total number, are women.7
This study focused on women vendors, many of
whom travel from rural communities to sell their
goods in Addis Ababa.
3. Women in Cities International (WICI), Tools for Gathering Information about Women’s Safety and Inclusion in Cities - Experiences from the
Gender Inclusive Cities Programme 2011, Women in Cities International, Canada, 2011, http://www.womenincities.org/pdf-general/
GICP%20Tools%20Report_internet.pdf (accessed 17/1/13).
4. Nóbrega, JM. Barômetro da Violência e da Segurançana Cidadedo Recife, Política Hoje Vol. 17, Segurança Publications, Brazil, 2008.
5. International Labour Organisation and The World Bank, Cambodia: Women and work in the garment industry, The World Bank, Phnom Penh,
Cambodia, 2006, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTJUSFORPOOR/Resources/WomenandWorkinthefactory.pdf (accessed 17/1/13).
6. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects, the 2011 Revision (shows this rate as 4.1% for
Ethiopia for the period 2005-10), United Nations Publication, New York, 2012, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm (accessed 18/1/13).
7. Ethiopian Central Statistics Authority, Urban Biannual Employment Unemployment Survey2004, Ethiopia, 2004, Ethiopian Central Statistics
Publication, http://www.csa.gov.et/ (accessed 18/1/13).

Kenya:
Mombasa, in Kenya, the second largest city in the
country has a population of over 10 million people
as of 2011.9
The driving force behind urban migra-
tion for women as well as men is the search for
economic opportunities. The study was focused
on Ziwa la Ngo’mbe and Mwakirunge Dumpsite and
the surrounding informal settlements in Bamburi.
Liberia:
The Republic of Liberia has a population of fewer
than 4 million people. Liberia is a post-conflict,
transitional society recovering from a 15-year civil
war. Liberia’s population is young, with approximately
52.7% of the population under the age of 20. This
study focused on the situation of women university
students, who, being among the most mobile of
young women, are vulnerable to violence and
harassment on the routes they traverse on campus
and on transportation in the surrounding urban areas.
Nepal:
According to the preliminary results of the 2011
Population Census, the population of Nepal stands
at 26.6 million.8
Fifty percent are women and
20% of the population lives in urban areas. Since
transportation was identified as one of the major
obstacles to women’s mobility, ActionAid
decided to research and build evidence around
public transportation and women’s safety and mobility.
Findings
Availability, access and quality of public
services in cities and sites:
The findings of the study show that the absence of
access to quality services such as public transport,
streets and street lighting, electricity, housing and
living conditions, health services, food and water,
education and employment opportunities,
substandard working conditions, safety and
security, are all areas of great concern for the
different categories of women who participated in
this study. While policy frameworks in countries
are committed to deliver public services, the
provision of infrastructure and services to poor
people appears to be a lower priority for govern-
ments. Women are frequently left with inadequate
services for themselves and their families, often
relying on weak, makeshift arrangements.
In Recife, government-led evictions are displacing
many families. In Phnom Penh, garment workers
live in rented rooms, sharing cramped quarters
near factories. In addition to the limited space,
tenants are required to separately pay for water,
electricity, and garbage collection services at rates
significantly higher than what is charged by the
government for these services. Women living near
and around the Mwakirunge dumpsite, in Bamburi,
Mombasa lack access to the most basic services,
including water, electricity, healthcare or any forms
of security and protection while working at the
dumpsites or passing through them. In Addis
Ababa, many women vendors experience lack of
access to a marketplace, lack of infrastructure in
the marketplace, for example, water and electric
services.
Sexual harassment is a constant reality across
the six countries. In the past few decades, led by
women’s movements, a public discourse against
sexual harassment and other forms of violence
against women in the public sphere has been
developing. Governments are increasingly demon-
strating efforts to develop legal and policy frameworks
to fight such violence. Nonetheless, violence
remains a persistent feature of many women’s lives.
Concerns around policing were articulated in all the
countries where the study was undertaken. Police
patrols and immediate responses from police to
women’s complaints of violence were identified as
inadequate.
8. Central Bureau of Statistics, Preliminary Result of National Population Census 2011, http://census.gov.np/ (accessed 18/1/13).
9. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Kenya Facts and Figures 2012, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Publication, Kenya, 2012,
http://knbs.or.ke/downloads/pdf/Kenyafacts2012.pdf (accessed 17/01/13).

Lack of coordination among government depart-
ments and the need for better coordination was
expressed by many community members and
public service providers, for example, in Brazil by
the police and in Ethiopia by vendors.
The lack of public services and its impact
on women
During the course of this study, women from poor
and marginalised communities spoke of how lack
of access to quality public services (including bad
roads, inadequate or inexistent street lighting, lack
of public transport, unavailability of public toilets
and weak crime control), lack of information, the
absence of legislation and laxity in implementation
of existing legislation, affects their way of life. Cities
have been planned and built and services delivered
without taking women’s lives and needs into account.
Lack of gender sensitive responses heighten the
inequalities suffered by women.
Women’s experiences examined in this study
emphasise that lack of public services and the
controls imposed on women limit their ability to live
with autonomous control over their lives both within
and outside the home. In fact, the study shows
that a lack of public services leads to extreme
forms of violence against women, such as young
children aged 10-12 being sexually harassed and
raped and facing unplanned pregnancies, as seen
in the dumpsites in Mombasa, Kenya. In Brazil,
women spoke of the harassment and violence
facing themselves and girls in their communities,
violence which has been exacerbated by the pres-
ence of drug trafficking and the nexus between the
police and drug traffickers. Our findings in Nepal
reveal the limitations on women’s mobility imposed
by the lack of policing and an absence of gender
sensitivity within the transport system and society
in general.
Role of authorities and gender-sensitive
responses
Violence against women is not a one-off incident
but deeply embedded in society. Women’s mobility
and conduct is regulated both in the public sphere
and at home. For many people, including govern-
ments, ensuring safety for women often translates
into regulating women’s behaviour. There is a
strongly held belief across cultures that women
‘provoke’ violence and harassment by their own
behaviour and actions.
Our findings reveal a failure among policymakers
to appreciate that even if policies do not deliberately
exclude women, women will remain excluded
if policies do not address normalised forms of
exclusion, violence and inequality in patriarchal
societies. Women must be placed at the centre of
the design of cities and public services for levels
of violence and the gravity of such attacks to be
reduced. If women are attacked on streets, there
have to be measures in place to reduce the risk
of such attacks, like well-maintained and lit roads,
regular police patrolling, training of police personnel
to ensure they recognise the crime and do not lay
blame on the victim, penalties in place for violence
against women and public education measures to
promote a woman’s right to safe mobility.
Role of community and non-governmental
organisations
Communities take up responsibilities and play
a role in improving their situation. Countries like
Ethiopia, Nepal and Kenya have trialled systems
of community policing. In addition to state and
community efforts, women community members
see non-governmental organisations and civil
society organisations as stakeholders who play a
role in influencing the provision and maintenance
of services. In this study, individual women have
spoken about their efforts to resist violence and
sensitise public service providers.
Recommendations
During the course of this study, participants have
offered suggestions for change. The following
recommendations are an amalgamation of those
ideas put forward by directly affected groups, other
community members and officials:

Policy, legislation and programmes
Policies, laws, programmes and campaigns•
have to focus on ending violence against
women and girls, both at home and in public
life. There is a specific need for state-enacted
legislation to address all forms of violence
against women and girls in public spaces.
Policies, programmes and plans for affirmative•
action for women and girls should be put in
place in all sectors.
Governments and law enforcement agencies•
should ensure implementation of legislation,
policies and programmes and combat impunity
for violence against women.
Government programmes and schemes have•
to be flexible, so that they are able to accom-
modate the differential needs that can be
identified among excluded groups of women
and girls.
Coordination and information sharing among•
various government departments should be
more streamlined for efficient delivery of services.
Justice system
The justice system, whether it is the local police•
station or the law courts, must be equally
accessible to women and it must be just.
Mechanisms for voicing grievances should be•
in place and accessible to the most poor and
excluded women.
Methods like social audits could be used to•
involve people living in poverty in assessing
and monitoring how public services are being
delivered.
The legal framework of countries should•
support the formation of workers’ unions/col-
lectives and non-governmental organisations
to facilitate change.
Public services
Governments should commit to and allocate•
appropriate budget to ensure provision of
accessible and affordable public services
including access to safe drinking water, health,
education, housing, sanitation, electricity,
roads and public transport to poor people,
especially women and girls.
Information about policies, laws, programmes•
and mechanisms should be made available
and accessible in local languages.
Services to prevent and redress violence•
against women, both in the private sphere and
in public, should also be included in the realm
of essential public services.
Governments should regulate and monitor•
service providers and the services they deliver.
State departments must act in close coordination
with each other.
All children, including the girl child, should be•
supported to access education. Women’s
participation in higher education should be
supported. Policies for affirmative action,
both for admission and scholarships, may be
introduced.
Employers should provide services such as•
childcare to enable women to work outside the
home. Governments/employers should also
strengthen legal provisions for maternity leave
and ensure that benefits are accessible for
workers in the informal sector.
Needs of women and girls regarding public•
services and safety have to be understood
from a rights perspective and considered in
planning processes. The focus must be on
right to mobility rather than restrictions on
women.
Streets must be crime-free and policing should•
be sensitive and efficient. Crime-free neighbours
and streets reflect the commitment of govern-
ments to the right to the city.
Gender-sensitisation and training
Gender training should be made mandatory for•
service providers, be they government employees
or private providers, and also for the employer.
Training manuals for police personnel, public
transport workers, and health providers should
include modules on gender training.

Training of police personnel should focus•
especially on breaking gender stereotypes and
providing sensitive services to women who
have faced violence, including women with
disabilities.
Discussions have to be conducted at different•
levels of government, and in different depart-
ments, to challenge deeply held patriarchal
beliefs and challenge and change sexist prac-
tices that affect women’s empowerment and
their daily lives. This will enable achievement
of the promises set out in policies and laws
promoting gender equality.
Stringent action should be taken against service•
providers who commit harassment including
where access to public services is made
conditional on the provision of sexual favours.
Gender sensitivity should be a criterion for
selection of staff.
Organising women
Women need to organise to demand information•
and entitlements, and to build their capacity
and awareness on issues related to their
safety, cultural stereotyping and victim blaming
that seems common to all societies.
Efforts need to be directed towards building•
strong grassroots women’s groups that see
themselves as opinion builders and influencers
of policy, legislation and plans on combating
violence against women and delivering public
services that are inclusive and gender sensitive.
Conclusion
Work on safe cities for women asserts women’s
and girls’ right to the city and all its public spaces.
The movement for safe cities for women believes
that women have a right to be outside for work
and play, during the day and at night, alone or with
others and are individuals who have the right to
fully enjoy everything that a city has to offer.
This study has also looked at policy and legislative
frameworks in the different countries to see whether
an enabling environment exists that furthers the
idea of a world free of violence against women.
A commitment to good governance by national
governments, fostering principles of democracy
and equality, creates an atmosphere that promotes
women’s rights. Ideas of equality outlined in
constitutions are given form by policy and legisla-
tion. These are translated into practical changes in
the daily lives of people through the way cities are
planned and designed and the quality of services
offered.
This study, Women and the city II: combating
violence against women and girls in urban public
spaces - the role of public services, has looked
at the experiences of different groups of women,
namely, displaced women in Brazil, migrant women
garment workers in Cambodia, women vendors in
Ethiopia, women living in informal settlements and
dumpsites in Kenya, women university students in
Liberia and women using public transport in Nepal.
It has recorded what these women have to say
about their experiences of living and working in
cities, the violence and harassment they face and
how their problems are compounded by non-exis-
tent or very poor public services.
The findings of this study pose questions to people
in government, to planners and architects, to civil
society organisations, to employers, to service
providers - both government and private – to
different social institutions and to individuals of all
genders about their ideas of people’s right to the
city, the reasons why women are excluded and
ways in which such exclusion is perpetuated. This
study acknowledges that there are deep-rooted
patriarchal beliefs and values that compromise a
woman’s right to free mobility. Social and cultural
change is the foundation for sustainable improve-
ments in women’s lives. At the same time, it
highlights the particular need to provide gender
sensitive, efficient public services as a significant
and practical way of challenging sexism, promoting
women’s right to mobility and moving towards
more just and equal societies.

Woman from slum community in Nairobi, Kenya.
Lack of public services increases women’s burdens especially
for women living in poverty and exclusion.
photo: Claudia Janke

“The most notable fact our culture imprints on women is the sense of
our limits. The most important thing one woman can do for another
is to illuminate and expand her sense of actual possibilities.”10
Adrienne Rich
INTRODUCTION
The world’s women 2010 - trends and statistics
report indicates that violence against women is a
universal phenomenon and women are subjected
to different forms of violence – physical, sexual,
psychological and economic – both within and
outside their homes.11
According to UN Women,
up to 70% of women will experience violence in
their lifetime, and a woman’s abuser is usually
known to her.12
Women and girls face violence and
the threat of violence at every stage of their lives,
across all communities, cultures and countries,13
and in all spaces they inhabit – homes, workplaces,
educational institutions, streets and public transport.
Women’s fear of violence restricts their movement,
limiting their use of public spaces and movement
from their homes to public or other private spaces.
Violence against women and girls reinforces gender
inequality. Poverty, migration and the mobility of
women and girls for livelihoods, education and in
pursuit of their other needs are also factors that
make them vulnerable to violence, especially when
they move to urban areas. Most of these threats
are triggered by the perception and dogmatic belief
that women and girls should not transcend the
traditional gender roles which they are assigned
by society. Violence against women and girls
thus violates women’s human rights and hinders
women’s empowerment.
Women fear and experience violence in two
dimensions: violence against women and violence
arising from urban insecurities, particularly in
relation to urbanisation and poverty. Women may
experience these two types of violence simultane-
ously. For example, a woman may experience rape
by someone she knows (gender-based violence),
have the act discounted or rationalised by others
(another form of gender-based violence), and then
struggle with inadequate services as she seeks
legal recourse and access to a health service
(urban insecurities).14
Violence against women in
public spaces particularly affects poor and excluded
women. Women’s roles and the differences between
women by race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation,
disability, marital and parenthood status and
socio-economic status directly influence how women
experience cities on a daily basis.
10. Adrienne Cecile Rich (May 16, 1929 – March 27, 2012) an American poet, essayist and feminist. She was called “one of the most widely
read and influential poets of the second half of the 20th century”, and was credited with bringing “the oppression of women and lesbians to
the forefront of poetic discourse.”
11. Department for Economic and Social Affairs, The world’s women 2010: trends and statistics, United Nations Publications, New York,
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/Worldswomen/WW2010pub.htm (accessed 9/1/13).
12. UN Women, Violence against women prevalence data: 2011, United Nations Publication, New York, 2011, http://www.unifem.org/gender_is
sues/violence_against_women/facts_figures.html (accessed 9/1/13).
13. United Nations Development Fund for Women, Not a minute more: ending violence against women, United Nations Publication, New York,
2003, http://www.unifem.org/materials/item_detail86d2.html (accessed 18/1/13).
14. ActionAid International, Women and the city: Examining the gender impact of violence and urbanisation, ActionAid International Publication,
Johannesburg, 2011, http://www.actionaid.org/publications/women-and-city-examining-gender-impact-violence-and-urbanisation
(accessed 18/1/13).

In 2008, the world reached an invisible but
momentous milestone: for the first time in history,
more than half of its human population – 3.3 billion
people – lived in urban areas. By 2010, the global
urban population outnumbered the rural population
with 3.56 billion (51.5%of the global population)
living in urban areas. This milestone marked the
advent of a new urban millennium. It is estimated
that 56% of the world’s population will live in urban
areas by 2020; by 2030; this percentage will rise to
60% (or 5 billion urbanites).15
It is expected that
90-95% of this growth will occur in cities in developing
countries.
Increasing population size in cities has led to
problems in ensuring adequate housing, transport,
sanitation and provision of basic services to all
populations. The growth of slums and urban poverty
has had an effect on the quality of life for millions
and has highlighted government inability and lack
of political will to fulfil people’s basic needs. Poor
people face particular vulnerabilities based on
where they live, their inability to approach the police
and their lack of rights as workers, often within
the informal sector. Crime and violence are also
becoming defining characteristics of modern cities.
In addition to the threat of violence associated with
gender, women may also be vulnerable to violence
for other reasons – perhaps because of their
cultural, migratory, minority or economic status.
The intersection of these different identities within
the context of urban growth threatens to further
marginalise and exclude women from city life.16
The global safe cities for women movement began
to emerge in the 1970s, with groups of women in
different countries organising protest marches to “take
back the night” or “reclaim the night” – illustrating
the fact that women’s right to the streets has long
been a concern of feminists. Another defining
event for the safe cities movement is The Montreal
Massacre.17
Many women’s groups and public
officials saw this as an anti-feminist attack that was
representative of wider societal violence against
women. Consequently, the anniversary of the
massacre has since been commemorated in
Canada as the National Day of Remembrance and
Action on Violence against Women.
Over time, several organisations began conducting
work on women’s urban safety. These organisations
included Women in Cities International (WICI),
Women and Habitat Network Latin America, the
Huairou Commission, Jagori, UN-HABITAT, and
UN Women (formerly UNIFEM). Although the
initiatives are varied in their geographic scope and
focus, they have highlighted the importance of city
planning, and encouraged practical initiatives that
involve women themselves in creating safe cities.
There have been three International Conferences
on Women’s Safety, in 2002, 2004 and 2010,
resulting in the Montreal Declaration 2002, Bogota
Declaration 2004 and Delhi Declaration 2010. New
generation programmes like the Gender Inclusive
Cities Programme (GICP) aim to create cities that
are inclusive and respect the right of all people,
including women, to live, work and move around
without fear or difficulty.
This report, like the work of the safe cities movement,
is embedded in the notion of the right to the city.
This is defined as the right of all city inhabitants,
especially poor people, to have equitable access to
15. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects, the 2009 Revision highlights, United Nations
Publication, New York, 2010, http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Documents/WUP2009_Highlights_Final.pdf(accessed 18/1/13).
16. Women in Cities International, Learning from women to create gender inclusive cities: Baseline findings from the gender inclusive cities
programme, Women in Cities International publication, Canada, 2010, http://www.femmesetvilles.org/pdf-general/gicp_baseline_compress.pdf
(accessed 17/1/13).
17. A young man walked into the École Polytechnique in Montreal on 6 December 1989 and shot and killed fourteen women students, most of
them studying engineering. “You’re women, you’re going to be engineers. You’re all a bunch of feminists. I hate feminists,” said the killer
and began his killing spree, Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Polytechnique_massacre) taken from Sourour, T.K. Report
of Coroner’s Investigation 1991, Canada, 2006, http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf (accessed 18/1/13).

all that a city has to offer and also to have the right
to change their city in the ways that they see fit.18
The growing safe cities for women movement19
adapted the idea of women’s right to the city, and
it aims to eliminate all forms of violence against
women and girls by simultaneously targeting
the systemic societal factors that create gender
inequality and by empowering women and girls
to make changes within their communities. At the
core of the safe cities for women movement is the
belief that violence and fear of violence restricts
women’s and girls’ access to their cities, including
opportunities for employment, health, education,
political and recreation facilities. Thus, as a result of
violence and fear of violence, women and girls are
excluded from various aspects of city life and do
not have the same rights to cities as men.
Building on this history of work, movement building
and advocacy and demands for change in 2011,
ActionAid piloted work to investigate women’s
safety in cities and urban spaces in several coun-
tries where it works. This programme sought to
build upon ActionAid’s experience working on both
violence against women and urban poverty, and
to support the consolidation and development of
tools and approaches,20
foster public awareness,
and development of practical strategies to enhance
women’s urban safety.
In keeping with ActionAid’s participatory and
human rights-based approach, the entry point in all
countries was through community women’s groups
with whom ActionAid had some prior experiences
of work. ActionAid explored the ways violence
and insecurity limit poor women’s mobility and
their participation in society by using participatory
safety audits in Brazil, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia
and Nepal. In each of the five countries, ActionAid
worked with partners to identify groups of women
particularly affected by violence in public urban
spaces. A Participatory Safety Audit Toolkit was
used to record women’s experiences of safety in
their country. Teams also adapted the tools in ways
that were culturally and contextually appropriate.
The study’s findings helped country programmes
and partners22
not only to lay the foundation for
their safe cities programme, but it also resulted
in the publication of the report Women and the
city: examining the gender impact of violence and
urbanisation in 2011. Documenting and prioritising
women’s experiences offered new information that
was then used to develop ActionAid’s position and
strategies on safe cities.
18. Harvey, D. Social justice and the city, University of Georgia Press, Athens and London, 2009, http://bit.ly/WAjjKP (accessed 9/1/13).
19. The Safe Cities movement is a new movement promoted by Jagori in India, Women in Cities is International, Canada, and the Huairou
Commission for the past 10-15 years along with UN-Habitat and UN Women.
20. In the 1990s in Canada, several organisations and cities developed useful frameworks and tools to assess and address women’s safety in
the city, notably the Toronto Metropolitan Action Committee on Violence against Women and Children (METRAC) women’s safety audit
(WSA) tool, and the Montréal Comité action femme setsécurité urbaine (CAFSU) From Dependence to Autonomy Toolkit.
21. ActionAid International commissioned Social Development Direct to work with country offices and partners to develop a template for the
Rapid Situational Analysis in the five countries and to develop a Participatory Safety Audit Toolkit.
22. ActionAid partners include: Brazil- Casa da Mulher do Nordeste (House of the North-eastern Woman), ETAPAS - EquipeTécnica de Assessoria
Pesquisa e Ação Social (Team Technical Advisory Research and Social Action), Fórum de Mulheres de Mirandiba (Conviver), Centro das
Mulheres do Cabo (Women’s Centre of Cabo); Cambodia - Worker’s Information Center (WIC); Ethiopia - Women in Self-Employment
association (WiSE); Liberia - Women Care International Foundation (WICF); Nepal - Home Net, Nepal MahilaEkataSamaj, Activista Nepal
and Rastriya Mahila Adhikar Manch, Secretariat-Prerana; Kenya - Sauti Ya Wanawake, Pwani.

Findings from Women and the city I: Examining the gender impacts of
violence and urbanization (2011)
In Brazil, key constituents were poor women who live in informal settlements. The presence of
drug trafficking and related violence had aggravated the perpetual fear and insecurity among
poor women, restricting their opportunities for livelihood, education and recreation. Inadequate
infrastructure and public services, inaction by police and public sector officials were key issues.
Rape and fear of rape was very common. Adult women in the study were most vulnerable in
public, urban spaces when they were alone. Harassment and violence were normalised, and
women were blamed for their occurrence. Other issues identified included: negative effects of
large projects such as the construction being done for the Program for the Acceleration of Growth
(PAC) the Olympics and the World Cup; increasing incidence of teenage pregnancy; sexual abuse
of children and teenagers; more young women being involved in sex work; the spread of sexually
transmitted infections; and drug use.
In Cambodia, the key constituents in the study were women garment workers. A safety audit
done with them revealed that services to ensure women’s sexual and reproductive health and
other health needs, as well as services to address rape, were inadequate and were considered
a priority for change by the women. Most garment workers are poor women who have migrated
from their provinces because of rural poverty. Garment workers not only face problem of short-
term contracts and low wages but also have to make do with poor facilities. Inadequate policing,
overcrowding in rental areas, poor hygiene and sanitation, poor lighting and distance between
rental rooms and toilets increase women’s risk of violence, including rape.
In Ethiopia the key focus group in the study comprised women who work as small-scale vendors
in urban areas in and around Addis Ababa. Findings showed that some key issues were: the lack
of a safe marketplace; robbery, theft and homicide; housing problems; and transport. Perpetrators
of violence and harassment saw women vendors as easy targets for robbery, bribes and sexual
favours. Violence and harassment affected women’s earnings and the sustainability of their small
businesses, thus having an impact on their empowerment. The research report recommended
that cooperatives should work with other organisations to prioritise women’s safety concerns.
Liberia chose as their key constituents female university students, who face widespread sexual
violence, including rape, which persists as a legacy of civil war. Changes that are needed at the
university level included sexual and reproductive health services, counseling, improved campus
security, and student organisations and peer groups that raise awareness about violence and
advocate its elimination. University authorities and national and local governments must be held
accountable for violence that takes place on campus.
In Nepal, the research conducted in 2011 aimed to understand the experiences of women who
use public transport in Kathmandu Valley. The key constituents are squatter women and women
who work in the informal sector in Kathmandu, many of whom, to sustain their livelihoods, have
to travel on public transport daily. They face harassment and violence on buses, micro-buses and
other forms of transport on isolated routes. Most of them these women have migrated to Kathmandu
Valley for better economic opportunities. Crowdedness, time of day, and even the seasons affect
women’s experiences. However, cultural norms encourage women to remain silent, protect family
prestige, and not to report incidents. Women in Nepal sometimes preferred or were told to travel
with elders, husbands or companions, regardless of how urgently they needed to travel.

The Safe cities initiative aims to result in: safety,
mobility and access to public services for women and
girls living in poverty and exclusion; the enactment
and implementation of gender inclusive urban
policies and legislation; a reduction in violence and
fear of violence experienced by women and girls;
and the participation of women and girls in economic,
educational, cultural and political opportunities.
ActionAid’s Safe cities initiative promotes the concept of the right to the city. For ActionAid a safe
city is a place where the State and civil society ensure opportunities for women and girls to enjoy
their city, which means:
Freedom from violence and harassment, including the fear of violence on the streets•
Safe public spaces where women and girls can move freely, without fear of assault•
Access to water and sanitation, electricity, transportation and other public amenities at residences•
and in public locations to reduce the risks of violence
Freedom from sexual harassment and abuse in the workplace•
Gender sensitive policing mechanisms for reporting violence and obtaining redress, such as•
anti-violence centres/shelters
Systems and structures for women and girls to enjoy social, economic, cultural and political•
participation.
Rental accommodation area for workers at Dangkor, Cambodia. ’No choice’ is a very
common phrase from the workers who must continue to earn their living in cramped, hot rooms
with many other people; eating low quality food; working under short-term contracts and working
long hours; living under fear of rape or robbery after leaving work at night time.
photo: Savann Oeurm/ActionAid

“Feminist theory – of all kinds – is to be based on, or anyway touch
base with, the variety of real life stories women provide about
themselves.”23
Maria Lugones and Elizabeth Spelman
METHODOLOGY
ActionAid’s global strategy People’s action to end
poverty has ten change promises against which
the organisation will hold itself to account. Change
Promise 3 states: “by 2017, through holding
governments and corporates to account, we will
have secured improvements in the quality, equity
and gender responsiveness of public services for
five million people living in poverty”. Change Promise
9 states “by 2017 we will have organised over five
million women and girls in rural and urban areas to
challenge and reject gender-based violence that
would have denied them control over their bodies
and sexuality and made them vulnerable to HIV
and AIDS”. The current study is contextualised
within these promises. It explores the links between
the two promises.
This study is guided by principles of feminist
research and the tools are also developed in
accordance with those principles. The aim is to
bring the ideas, concerns and voices of the most
excluded and vulnerable women and girls to
the centre. The process of the study is a means
for women and girls to express their opinions,
thoughts and ideas and become participants in a
process of learning and change. This focuses on
validating the experiences of women, documenting
them and bringing the concerns of poor and
marginalised women into the sphere of planning
and public policy.
The safe cities study is planned as a qualitative
study, to give us better understanding of the links
violence against women. This work will link with
that of the ActionAid Governance team, which is
currently involved in a rapid assessment of both
urban and rural basic services policies at the
national level across countries.
The objectives of the study are:
a) To strengthen the quality of our programming
under the Safe cities initiative across countries
by ensuring an evidence-based response
derived through participatory knowledge
building processes with communities;
b) To develop a better understanding of the links
violence against women; and
c) To strengthen the global discourse and
advocacy around these links.
A common set of tools and questions was used
across all countries for this study, which was
conducted in cities within Brazil, Cambodia,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, and Nepal. The intention
was to collect responses from each location to the
same set of questions and concerns. The tools
chosen were: policy listing – a listing of policies,
legislation, programmes and schemes that address
the issues of availability of public services and
violence against women;24
focus group discussions
(FGDs); key informant interviews (KIIs) and case
studies. More than one kind of tool was used to give
23. Lugones, María and Elizabeth Spelman. “Have We Got a Theory for You!: Cultural Imperialism and the Demand for the Woman’s Voice.”
Hypatia Reborn: Essays in Feminist Philosophy. Ed. Asisah al-Hibri and Margaret A. Simons. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University, 1990. 18-33.
24. Women in Cities International (WICI), Tools for Gathering Information about Women’s Safety and Inclusion in Cities - Experiences from the
Gender Inclusive Cities Programme 2011, Women in Cities International, Canada, 2011, http://www.womenincities.org/pdf-general/
GICP%20Tools%20Report_internet.pdf (accessed 17/1/13).

depth to the methodology and enable investigators
to get the viewpoints of different cross-sections
of society, as well as to highlight different aspects
of the problem.This enabled the investigators to
engage with multiple stakeholders on issues relating
to violence that urban women face in public
spaces and to strengthen ongoing programmes
and campaigns around women’s safety in urban
public spaces.
In the context of work on women and cities, policy
listing endeavours to collect information and provide
an overview of policies, plans, legislation, and
initiatives or programmes that address violence
against women, gender equality and women’s right
to the city. It is used to determine where interventions
on women’s safety and gender inclusion fit within
the larger political and institutional context of the
city, state (province) or country. Such analysis
allows for a strategic assessment, highlighting
possible opportunities for initiatives or actions to
strengthen current policies, plans, legislation,
initiatives or programmes. Such a listing also
enables an understanding of the policy, plan,
legislation, initiative or programme gaps related to
violence against women, gender equity and women’s
right to the city. Given that such a review of policies
and laws is essential for research of this kind, it
was conducted as a first-step in all six countries.
During this study, FGDs were used to gather
information about what makes women feel safe or
unsafe in public spaces in their city and about how
their safety and inclusion in public spaces can be
improved. Each country selected groups of partici-
pants whose concerns were considered particularly
relevant to the local situation. This meant that the
composition of groups was varied and some
included men as well as women. Each participating
country conducted three to six FGDs. For example,
in Liberia, FGDs were conducted with six women
students attending the African Methodist University,
12 women students of the University of Liberia, a
mixed group of men and women in their 20s and
30s and another group of six men and women.
During this study, KIIs were conducted to get the
points of view of people in government, university
authorities, as well as those conversant with the
issue and/or the community. For example, in
Nepal, KIIs were conducted with a member of the
Bar Association and trade union leaders. Specific
KII questionnaires were developed for university
personnel in Liberia and the police in Brazil.
Women’s safety audits offer a practical and partici-
pative means of understanding perceptions about
safety in particular areas and developing proposals
for action to address safety concerns. They involve
a group of women walking around an area to
observe, consider and record views about safety
related issues as they appear. The walk is followed
by a meeting to discuss results, decide on the
necessary changes for creating a safer space and
formulate recommendations for relevant agencies.
This tool was used by ActionAid Brazil only.
Participating countries have also used case studies
as one of the tools to gather information. Guidelines
for preparing case studies for this study were
developed and used in conjunction with the existing
ActionAid case study checklist.
The methodology details are illustrated in a table
below.
The report is divided into five sections, namely,
introduction, methodology, country context, findings
and recommendations. This report is expected to
Country FGD KII Case Study
Brazil 5 3 2
Cambodia 6 8 2
Ethiopia 3 8 2
Kenya 3 7 1
Liberia 5 10 1
Nepal 6 11 3

reach out to different groups of people within
countries and internationally. The expected audience
includes local municipalities and community leaders,
law enforcers, urban planners at national and
international levels, UN Habitat, UN Women, UNDP,
and other international donors and international
institutions working on the issue. ActionAid also
hopes to reach non-governmental organisations,
feminist movements, the safe cities movement,
activists, students, youth and the media.
The report will be an advocacy tool at multiple
levels to demand that:
Urban public services are accessible to poor•
women and girls from the most vulnerable
communities
Gender policies are comprehensive and•
include a strategy to ensure women’s rights to
public services are realised
Urban governance at all levels adopts a gender•
sensitive approach, for example in planning,
developing policies, infrastructure and delivering
programmes
Communities keep a watch on systems, struc-•
tures and delivery of urban public services and
ensure commitments are fulfilled on time
Communities play a role to the extent that this•
is possible at all levels.
Public information billboards. Monrovia, Liberia.
photo: Anastasia Taylor Lind/ActionAid

“Man is defined as a human being and a woman as a female —
whenever she behaves as a human being she is said to imitate the
male.”25
Simone de Beauvoir
COUNTRY CONTEXT
This section provides the context for countries in
which ActionAid’s Safe Cities Initiative is being
carried out – Brazil, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia,
Kenya and Nepal. The contextual analysis is
derived from many sources including the policy
listings done for this study. The Safe Cities Initiative
began in all countries except Kenya in 2011.
Kenya joined the other 5 pilot countries with their
work in 2012, beginning with a rapid assessment
in the area of Bamburi where ActionAid Kenya has
been working since 2009.
Brazil
According to the 2010 revision of the World
Population Prospects, Brazil’s population was
194 million.26
Recife, in Pernambuco State, where
ActionAid has started the Safe cities initiative is
the ninth largest city in the country, and has a
population of 1.5million. Traditionally an agriculture
based economy, Pernambuco is changing with
rapid urbanisation where many large agricultural
fields are converted for large projects. In the city
of Cabo de Santo Agostinho, the expansion of the
Port of Suape and the construction of the railroad
Transnordestina resulted in the arrival of about
40,000 new workers from various regions of the
country. The preparations for the 2014 World Cup
and the 2016 Olympics have resulted in major new
urban initiatives. There is an estimated deficit of 35
million homes in the five neighbouring municipalities
of the Suape Complex. The housing shortage and
rampant inflation of property prices have increased
land conflicts.The value of real estate in the region
has escalated, land has become scarce and the
price per square metre that earlier cost 500 Brazilian
real (US$242) has gone up to 2,000 Brazilian real
(US$969).27
The forecast for the coming years is
that high prices will persist with the arrival of new
workers hired for the construction of the Abreu e
Lima refinery, which at its peak will have 28,000
workers.
According to hotline data on violence against
women, recorded by the Special Secretariat of
Policies for Women, the number of registered calls
received nationwide from January to September
2010 was 552,034. A nationwide Avon Institute/
Brazilian Institute of Public Opinion and Statistics
poll conducted in February 2009 shows 62% of
women and 48% of men knew a woman who
suffered from domestic violence. Approximately
4,000 cases a year were filed, with one-third of
reports resulting in a prosecution. Many judges
opted for alternative sentencing such as therapy.
The lack of confidence that the judicial system or
the police could protect abused women contributed
to the reluctance on the part of some women to
bring lawsuits against their abusers.28
The state of
25. Simone de Beauvoir was a writer on feminism and existentialism. She also wrote novels. Her book “The Second Sex” is a feminist classic.
It is based on the idea that, while men and women may have different tendencies, each person is unique, and it is culture which has
enforced a uniform set of expectations of what is “feminine,” as contrasted to what is “human” which is equated with what is male. Beavoir
argued that women can free themselves, through individual decisions and collective action.
26. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects, the 2010 Revision, United Nations Publication,
New York, 2010, http://esa.un.org/wpp (accessed 9/1/13).
27. Jornal do Commercio, Pernambuco, 2010, http://www2.uol.com.br/JC/especial/suape/ocupacao.html (accessed 17/1/13).

Pernambuco is historically one of Brazil’s poorest
and most violent states. A 2006 WHO multi-country
study published in the Lancet in 2006 evidenced
a prevalence of 14.8% violence against women
in the sugarcane plantation region in the state of
Pernambuco.29
The capital of the state, Recife, has one of the
highest murder rates per capita in the country.30
The vast majority of people killed in Pernambuco
are men, but more women are killed than in any
other state in Brazil, with about 300 murders of
women reported annually. According to the feminist
non-governmental organisation SOS Corpo, from
2002 to 2004, 55% of these murders occurred in
public places. In a survey conducted in Pernambuco,
78% of people surveyed said that they thought
sexual violence was increasing.31
More generally,
women were more likely to feel insecure than men,
whether at home or in public spaces.
Brazil suffers from a lack of specific laws and policies
that address the issue of violence against women
in public spaces. There are legal mechanisms that
provide for the punishment of acts that threaten
the life, liberty and equality of all citizens irrespective
of gender. The Maria da Penha Law that focuses
on domestic violence was passed in 2006. The
penalties provided by law include an obligation
to stay away from the victim, community service
and imprisonment. The penal code of 1940 was
amended as law 12.015, in 2009 to make sexual
harassment and rape a crime. Rape, including
spousal rape, is a crime punishable by 8 to 10
years’ imprisonment.
In Brazil, public safety is the responsibility of the
federal and state powers. Nationally, the Ministry of
Justice, through the National Secretariat of Public
Security (SENASP) works in partnership with
states, on the restructuring of police units, creating
and strengthening of police intelligence, training of
professionals and the creation and expansion of
national statistics. However, in the state of Per-
nambuco, the body responsible for public safety,
prevention and punishment is the Secretary of
Social Defense, composed of the Fire Department,
Military Police and Civilian Police, which has a
Police Department for Women (DPMUL).Since
2002, Brazil has had a Secretariat of Policies for
Women within the federal government and various
government agencies of policies for women at
municipal and state level such as secretariats,
departments and superintendants. These bodies
aim to develop public policies for women with
specific actions and in partnership with other
government agencies.
Gender equality provisions include national law
No. 9504 of 1997 that establishes a 30% quota
for women in political parties. Although regulation
obliges political parties to meet this quota, the law
is not enforced. The platform “More Women in
Power” formulated by the National Secretariat of
Policies for Women provides a series of campaigns
and actions aimed at increasing women’s political
participation at different levels. There are no equal
opportunity requirements for hiring women in
government jobs and no affirmative action policies
for hiring women. The BIGE (Brazilian Institute
of Geography and Statistics) collects gender
disaggregated data during the census. The II Plan
policies for women have identified education as an
important issue in promoting gender equality.
The Government of Pernambuco created the
Special Secretariat of Policies for Women in 2007.
Its mission is to develop and coordinate public
28. US Department of State, Human rights report 2010: Brazil, 2010 USA, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/wha/154496.htm
(accessed 9/1/13).
29. As cited in Da Silva, MA et al., CadSaúdePública, Brazil, http://www.scielo.br/pdf/csp/v26n2/06.pdf (accessed 5/1/13).
30. Nóbrega, JM. Barômetro da Violência e da Segurançana Cidadedo Recife, Política Hoje Vol. 17, 2008.
31. Nóbrega, JM. Instituto de Pesquisa e Econômica Aplicada: Sistema de Indicadores de Percepção Segurança Publications, Brazil, 2008.

policies focused on women, draft and implement
educational campaigns that address discrimination,
including gender issues within state government
activities, and promote and execute programmes
in cooperation with public and private agencies
committed to implementing policies beneficial to
women. This Special Secretariat has its own budget
and the state only receives funding from the Office
of Women’s Policy of the Federal Government.
Cambodia
Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh, is one of the
fastest growing cities in the world. According to
the last two Cambodian censuses, the population
of the city of Phnom Penh more than doubled
between 1998 and 2008, from 567,860 to
1,237,600 residents. This represents an average
annual growth of about 8%, an extraordinarily high
rate. The population of the city actually did double
over a period of just eight years, from 1998 to
2006. The majority of the growth of Phnom Penh
(80%) occurred through net migration.32
Migrants
to Phnom Penh come from every province of the
country. A greater number of young women, 20-34
years, migrate to Phnom Penh than any other age/
sex group. This is changing the age and sex
structure of the city. Phnom Penh is now a young
city with slightly higher percentage of young females
than males.
Rural poverty pushes women to migrate to Phnom
Penh and other urban areas to earn money to
support themselves and their families. Occupations
are gender specific. The most common jobs for
migrant men are those of construction and non-
construction labourers and drivers and for migrant
women they are garment worker, entertainment/
service worker and small business owner. The
female professions are the lowest paying. Although
women migrants make less money than their male
counterparts, they are more likely to send money
back to their village of origin(sending on average
25% of their income). Female migrants are less
likely than male migrants to have children, even if
they are married. It appears that having children is
an impediment to migration for women but not for
men. For more than 20% of Phnom Penh migrants
with children, their children live elsewhere, not with
them, and more than 80% of children who live
elsewhere live with their grandparents. Leaving
children behind has been noted as a cost of
migration, and it is especially important in villages
that have lost a large number of people through
migration.33
There are 320 garment factories employing
356,609 workers in Cambodia. The Chief Technical
Advisor of ILO-Better Factories Cambodia has said
that “90% of Cambodia’s garment industry workers
are women with an average age of 24 years”.34
Cambodian factories made headlines with news of
over 2,300 workers fainting in the first half of the
year 2011, due to poor air circulation and overtime
hours.35
Workers at several factories went on
strike, but conditions have largely remained the
same. “There has been little significant improvement
in compliance in areas related to the causes of
group fainting…with many of these areas still
below 50% in compliance....There is no one cause
for the factory fainting incidents. Contributing factors
include poor worker nutrition, excessive overtime,
high heat levels, poor ventilation, and mass
psychogenic illness (MPI).”36
Most factories are
located in the outskirts of the capital, Phnom Penh.
32. Net migration rate is the difference of immigrants and emigrants of an area in a period of time, divided (usually) per 1,000 inhabitants
(considered by midterm population). A positive value represents more people entering the country than leaving it, while a negative value
means more people leaving than entering it.
33 Ministry of Planning, The Cambodian Rural Urban Migration Project (CRUMP), 2012, Cambodia, 2012, http://www.mop.gov.kh/ (accessed 18/1/13).
34. International Labour Organisation, Better Factories Cambodia, 2012, http://www.betterfactories.org/newsdet.aspx?z=4&IdNews=803&c=1
(accessed 18/1/13).
35. Keo, M. Radio free Asia, Hundreds Faint in Garment Factory, 2011, http://www.rfa.org/english/news/cambodia/faintings-08252011182914.html
(accessed 17/10/11).
36. International Labour Organisation, Better Factories Cambodia, 2012, http://www.betterfactories.org/newsdet.aspx?z=4&IdNews=803&c=1
(accessed 18/1/13).

One of the highest concentrations of factories is in
Dangkor, the area where ActionAid Cambodia has
started its Safe Cities Initiative.
There are several articles in the National Constitution
of Cambodia that support gender equality, including
articles 31, 35, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46, 72 and 73.
There are gender mainstreaming action groups
(GMAGs) in each line ministry to train officials
in their respective Ministry on the contents and
purpose of CEDAW. Legislation on domestic/
family violence was passed in 2005 and covers
certain forms of physical violence, mental violence
and marital rape. There is also a National Action
Plan to prevent violence against women and its
core objective is to encourage the enforcement of
the law to prevent and reduce all forms of violence
against women. The plan stresses the need for a
standardised system for data collection from
different sources to monitor the frequency and
extent of violence against women and children.
The National Strategic Development Plan (NSDP)
incorporates the commitments to gender equality
and women’s empowerment and re-states the
government view that “women are the backbone
of the society and the economy”. Core indicators in
the NSDP include: a gender equity indicator; main-
streaming of gender in all spheres; the percentage
of female share of wage employment in agriculture,
industry and services; the percentage level of
awareness that violence against women is a crime;
the number of protection orders issued by courts,
based on the law on the prevention of domestic
violence; and the number of domestic violence
survivors who receive counselling by qualified
personnel. Indicators for improvement in health
and education also include sex-disaggregated data
and indicators concerning enrolment at primary
and secondary schools, completion rates, maternal
mortality and female anaemia.
The government has a strategy for growth,
employment, equity and efficiency, which recognizes
the interconnection between gender equality,
women’s roles, poverty reduction and the socio-
economic development of the country. The Ministry
of Interior has a Strategic Framework for law
enforcement advancing the protection of children
and vulnerable people, which is called LEAP.
LEAP’s strategic framework will address issues of
sexual and labour exploitation, sexual abuse, human
trafficking, domestic violence, the worst forms of
child labour, drug abuse, exploitative adoption and
fostering, exploitative marriage brokering, juvenile
justice, including children in conflict with the law.
There is no legislation for sexual harassment in
the workplace but there is a law for sexual harass-
ment/molestation in public places with a jail term
of one to three years. The punishment is doubled if
children are harassed or molested. There is legisla-
tion against rape, in accordance with the National
Penal Code (2010). Rape is punishable by impris-
onment of 5 to 10 years. If rape is accompanied by
aggravating circumstances, such as threats with a
weapon, use of drugs, abuse of authority or power,
or if it is committed by two or more offenders or
accomplices, or if it is committed against “particular
vulnerable” people or pregnant women, the
punishment is a term of imprisonment of 7 to 15
years. The Royal Government of Cambodia has a
programme that municipal, provincial, city and
district authorities must have at least one woman
in a leadership position. In addition, the government
has also taken special measures at the sangkat
(commune) level to ensure the representation of
women through the Committee for Women and
Children of the sangkat. There are child friendly
school programmes, which focus on development
of gender equality and equity in the education sector.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, with a population of 79.8 million, is the
second most populous country in Sub-Saharan
Africa. It has a high rural population, with 83%
of its people living in rural areas. Fifty percent
of Ethiopia’s population are female. It is one of
the least developed countries in the world, with a
ranking of 174 out of 187 countries, according to
the UNDP’s 2011 Human Development Report.

Ethiopia is ranked 64 out of 86 in the 2012 Social
Institutions and Gender Index.37
In Ethiopia, a minority of the population currently
lives in urban areas (17%). With a 3.76% annual
urban growth rate, the percentage of the population
living in urban areas is expected to reach 37.5% by
2050.38
However, rapid urbanisation is already taking
place across Ethiopia, with particular increases in
rural-urban migration to the capital city of Addis
Ababa. Both men and women migrate, with men
seeking jobs linked to the increasing development
in Addis Ababa. Women migrate for labour oppor-
tunities and also to avoid early marriage practices
in rural areas. In Addis Ababa, 128,598 people
out of a population of nearly 3.5 million are active
in the informal sector. More than half of informal
sector workers are women (over 64,000).39
The
informal sector is defined as “household type
establishments/activities which are mainly engaged
in market production; not registered companies or
cooperatives; have not full written book of accounts;
which have less than 10 persons engaged in the
activity and have no licence.”40
Women in Ethiopia have been historically marginalised
from social, economic, and political spheres of
life. Ongoing dominant social and cultural norms
contribute to further subjugating women to inferior
positions within society. There is a great discrepancy
between sexes in terms of literacy rates. Nationally,
among the population between 15 and 49 years of
age, 67% of men are literate, while 38% of women
are literate.41
In Addis Ababa (including the capital
and surrounding areas), literacy rates increase and
the discrepancy between sexes is lower. Women’s
illiteracy contributes to their disadvantage in formal
labour market opportunities, making them rely
on informal income-generating activities. Though
there are a significant number of women informally
employed in Addis Ababa, there is a scarcity of
information regarding the types of insecurities
they face. Likewise, there is a lack of information
to indicate how these dangers may restrict them
economically or prevent them from exercising their
rights to the city.
Ethiopia is a federal country with nine regional
states and two city administrations and it has a
decentralised system of governance. Each of the
country’s nine regions consists of a number of
zones, which in turn comprise woredas (districts)
and kebeles (local councils). Basic administrative
services such as security, magistrate courts, health
care and public education are delivered in a top-
down manner, and reach most of the country.42
Thirty per cent of the seats in the House of Peoples’
Representatives (one house of parliament) are
reserved for women at National parliament,
regional parliament and district level council. This
has increased the representation of women in
legislative bodies. There is an Ethiopian Women’s
Parliamentary Caucus at the national level. As part
of the country’s five-year Macro Policy, Growth and
Transformation policy, there is a plan to increase
the representation of women in the civil service
to 30% at the higher leadership level and 50% at
the medium leadership level by the end of 2015.
37. OECD Development Centre Social Institutions and Gender Index: Ethiopia, 2011, http://genderindex.org/country/ethiopia (accessed 17/01/13).
38. Bertelsmann S. Ethiopia Country Report 2010, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2012 http://www.bti-project.de/fileadmin/Inhalte/reports/2012/pdf/
BTI%202012%20Ethiopia.pdf (accessed 17/01/13).
39. Ethiopian Central Statistics Authority, Urban Biannual Employment Unemployment Survey 2004, Ethiopia, 2004, Ethiopian Central Statistics
Publication, http://www.csa.gov.et/ (accessed 18/1/13)
40. Ethiopian Central Statistics Authority, The 1994 Population and Housing Census, Ethiopia, Ethiopian Central Statistics Publication, 1997,
http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=category&id=62&Itemid=70 (accessed 18/1/13).
41. United Nations Children’s Fund, The United Kingdom Department for International Development and the United States Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey: Key Findings, USA, 2012, http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/SR191/
SR191.pdf (accessed 18/1/13).
42. Bertelsmann S. Ethiopia Country Report 2010, Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2012 http://www.bti-project.de/fileadmin/Inhalte/reports/2012/pdf/
BTI%202012%20Ethiopia.pdf (accessed 9/1/13).

Recently, in July 2012, a national guideline was
developed for mainstreaming gender in programme
and budget processes in Ethiopia, to be used
across sectors.
Gender equality was put in article 35 of the
Ethiopian Constitution 1995, ensuring women’s
equal right to property and employment, repealing
earlier discriminatory laws and practices and
ensuring affirmative action. The Domestic Violence
Act was passed in 2005. Punishment includes
three months imprisonment for assault that doesn’t
cause injury to a person’s health, two years for
common wilful injury, and 1 to 15 years for grave
wilful injury that causes permanent physical or
mental health damage.
The Ethiopian labour proclamation is being amended
to include articles to protect women from sexual
harassment and abuse in the work place. Molesta-
tion in public spaces is considered a petty offence
against morality and the penalty is imprisonment
for a month or a fine. There is a revised criminal
justice administration policy that was introduced in
2010 and has a special chapter with the provision
of enacting special regulation to support women
experiencing violence. The policy is currently being
discussed and is yet to come into effect. There
are no women’s cells or women’s police stations.
Community policing initiatives are there for general
crime prevention. They are not focused on violence
against women in particular.
Liberia
The Republic of Liberia, situated on the west coast
of Africa, is a relatively small nation, covering ap-
proximately 111,369 km with a population of fewer
than 4 million people. It is estimated that 64% of
Liberians live below the absolute poverty line, and,
among the extremely poor, 73% of households are
headed by women. Liberia is a post-conflict,
transitional society recovering from a 15-year civil war.
The country is divided into 15 political subdivisions,
called counties. Monrovia is Liberia’s largest city
and serves as its administrative, commercial and
financial capital. As a result of greater security in
urban centres during war times and greater access
to jobs, services and social gratification during
peace time, 47% of the population lives in urban
areas. According to the 2008 National population
and housing census, the population is 50.1% male
and 49.9% female. Liberia’s population is young,
with approximately 52.7% of the population under
the age of 20 years. The relatively young population,
combined with factors such as high rates of teenage
pregnancy (32%) and low levels of contraceptive
prevalence (11% overall; 7% in rural areas) contribute
to Liberia’s high total fertility rate of 5.9 children
per woman. According to the 2010 United Nations
Development Programme’s Human Development
Report, Liberia ranked 162nd out of 169 countries.
Liberia ranks 87 of 102 in terms of gender discrimi-
nation.43
Violence against women cuts across every sector
of Liberian society, but it affects groups of women
in different ways. For instance, being among the
most mobile of young women, university students
are vulnerable to risks in terms of the many routes
they traverse on campus and on transportation in
the surrounding urban areas. In addition to lingering
effects of the war, factors that influence the levels
of violence include social and cultural norms of
gender inequality, poverty and shortcomings in
social, health and law enforcement institutions—
which were devastated during the conflict.44
Liberian women have very limited access to justice
in particular, and the justice system is met with
weak security nationally and at university campus
level. There is a dual legal system that recognises
both statutory and customary laws, but statutory
43. OECD Development Centre Social Institutions and Gender Index: Ethiopia, 2011, http://genderindex.org/country/ethiopia (accessed 17/01/13).
44. Sirleaf E.J. National Gender-based Violence (GBV) Action Plan: Liberia 2006-2011, http://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/FMRdownloads/
en/FMRpdfs/FMR27/21.pdf (accessed 18/1/13)

legal facilities are often inadequate or absent.
There is a lack of training on and awareness of
women’s rights and violence against women, and
there is resistance among male-dominated legal
and government practitioners to enforce laws that
protect women and prosecute offenders.
The Government of Liberia enacted legislation to
amend the new Penal Code of June 1976 Chapter
14, Section 14.70 and 14.71 (the Rape Law). The
new rape law came into force in January 2006.
This Act45
states that a person who has sexual
intercourse with another person (male or female)
without his/her consent has committed rape that
is punishable by 10 years or lifetime imprisonment
depending on the degree of the rape (rape of a
minor, rape resulting in serious bodily harm, rape
using a weapon, gang rape).The Act also requires
in camera hearings for all rape cases. There are
women’s courts provided by government called
Criminal Court “E” for pursuing rape cases.
As far as sexual harassment in public places is
concerned, the Penal Code gives attention to
offensive touching and names it as a form of assault.
If the molestation does not involve touch, the law is
silent. The handbook of the Women and Children
Protection Section (WACPS), funded by both the
Government of Liberia and the donor community,
is complemented by a Handbook for Prosecution
of Sexual Offences. Community police have been
named as partner in combatingviolence against
women in some communities. It is unclear how
community police are funded. Community police
are more active in some communities than in others.
There are hardly any emergency services to respond
to violence against women. The emergency
services in hospitals are very weak. An Emergency
Response Unit (ERU) exists as a part of the police
but is particularly involved with anti-riot activities.
Women feel that the WACPS is more responsive
than the ERU.
Attempts to introduce quotas on female represen-
tation have failed in the legislature. The failure has
been blamed on inadequate executive support. A
women’s legislative caucus exists at the national
level, which includes members of both houses and
is currently headed by Representative Josephine
Joyce Francis of Montserrado. A local government
/decentralisation policy is being prepared to
increase women’s participation in local government.
Presidential appointment of women to local
government occurs, though the policy is pending.
Women have been appointed to the mayoralty of
the capital and leadership of the two largest counties.
There is no gender mainstreaming in government
budgets at the national, state or local levels.
Gender activities/programmes are mainly donor
funded. State budgets are prepared on the basis
of prices of goods and services and not gender.
Constitutional provisions forbid discrimination in
government recruitment on the basis of gender,
religion or age. A person employed is assumed to
be the best qualified, regardless of sex. However,
qualified women are often reluctant to work for
low government salaries. The Ministry of Gender
and Development was established by an Act of
Legislature in 2002. The Ministry has a gender
office in each county. Some counties may have
more effective gender offices than others. The
Ministry of Gender and Development hosts coor-
dination meetings amongst different departments
and ministries. The meetings take place at both the
national and county levels.

There is no annual gender equality plan. Plans exist
for implementing various gender equality goals and
instruments but there is no consolidated annual
plan. Counties implement portions of the national
plans and strategies. There are implementation
plans on The Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
45. UN Secretary-General’s database on violence against women: Liberia Rape Amendment Act (2006), http://sgdatabase.unwomen.org/
searchDetail.action?measureId=10413&baseHREF=country&baseHREFId=766 (accessed 9/1/13).

and UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR)
1325. The Liberia Institute for Statistics and
Geo-Information Services works with data. Data is
disaggregated on the basis of age, gender, county
and other demographic categories. Each county
has a County Statistics and Information Office.

Nepal
According to the preliminary results of the 2011
Population Census, the population of Nepal stands
at 26.6 million.46
Fifty per cent are women and 20%
of the population live in urban areas. Agriculture is
the major occupation, with 76% of households
involved in agricultural activities. Currently, 4.5
million people (17%) reside in urban areas.47
Kathmandu Valley is the urban centre of Nepal and
includes five major cities: Kathmandu, Lalitpur,
Bhaktapur, Kirtipur, and Thimi. Kathmandu
Metropolitan City is the largest city in Nepal and
the cosmopolitan heart of the Himalayan region.
The city, along with the other towns in the Valley,
with 2000 years of history, rank among the oldest
human settlements in central Himalaya. The three
Valley districts Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur
together cover an area of 899 km2
, and have 150
local administrative units (Village Development
Committees and Municipalities). With more than
1.5 million people, (220,000 households) the
Kathmandu Valley is the most important urban
concentration in Nepal.
The urbanisation rate of Nepal is 6.4%. Migration
within Nepal is high, with almost half the migrants
moving within the country. Men migrate mostly
for work (72%), while women primarily migrate
due to marriage (54%). Another common reason
for migrating is educational pursuits, with 17% of
men and 14% of women citing this as a reason.
Women also tend to migrate due to family reasons,
such as accompanying their spouse or accompa-
nying their children who move to urban areas for
education.48
People move to the cities for better
facilities but overpopulated urban settlements have
created their own problems of waste management,
air pollution, vehicle congestion, security and
management. Conflicting land uses, unplanned
and haphazard construction, an inadequate road
network, and inefficient transport management
are creating severe traffic congestion during peak
commuting periods in the city. Due to the lack of
proper road networks connecting the city centre
and semi-urban areas, public transport cannot
operate effectively in a semi-urban settlement.
According to Women’s Rehabilitation Centre
(WOREC) Nepal, violence against women is a
disturbingly growing trend in Nepal. A semi-feudal
and patriarchal social structure, superstitions and
illiteracy among women, as well as poverty and
marginalisation of women are the factors contributing
to violence against women. At the same time,
impunity in the state and weak enforcement of law
are also responsible for violence against women.
Statistics of cases received by WOREC Nepal
reveal that that there were 1,569 cases of violence
against women from June 2010 to June 2011. Of
these, 1,002 were domestic violence, 124 rape, 64
murder, 47 trafficking and 266 social violence. Out
of the total women killed, 91% of the women were
killed by people they know.49
As a response, the
government of Nepal declared 2010 as the Year to
End Gender-Based Violence.
A five-year action plan for empowerment of women
and to prevent gender-based violence is in place.
The action plan focuses on empowerment of
women and prosecution, protection and prevention,
46. Central Bureau of Statistics, Preliminary Result of National Population Census 2011, http://census.gov.np/ (accessed 18/1/13).
47. Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat Government of Nepal 2011, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
INTLSMS/Resources/3358986-1181743055198/3877319-1329489437402/Statistical_Report_Vol1.pdf (accessed 18/1/13).
48. The Rising Nepal, 3 December, 2011, http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/archieve.new.p10.php?cat_id=7 3/12/ 2011 (date accessed 04/2/13).
49. Worec keeps the record of all the cases of VAW which are registered in their safe centers, that Women Human Rights Defenders (WHRD)
deals with and that comes in media. They also consult with police administration and then publish it in their report named Anweshi.

highlighting the need for a special commission
to investigate cases of violence against women.
To address gender-based violence, a free hotline
telephone number isnow available in the Prime
Minister’s Office. On 23 February 2012 the Prime
Minister, Dr.Baburam Bhattarai, directed all secre-
tariats of respective ministries and security forces
to prepare a mechanism to address incidents of
gender-based violence within 24 hours. This was
done to encourage survivors to report cases.
The Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) prohibits
physical, mental or any other form of violence
against women and declares that such acts shall
be punishable by law [Article 20(3)]. It also incorpo-
rates a separate article recognizing that women’s
rights, including reproductive rights, are fundamental.
The Interim Constitution recognises the right to
equality as a fundamental right. It provides that all
citizens are equal before law [Article 13(1)].
On 5 May 2009 the Parliament of Nepal passed
the Domestic Violence (Crime and Punishment)
Act. The Act includes physical and psychological
violence within the definition of domestic violence.
The Act also states that the reporting of the crime
can be in either verbal or in written form. If the case
does not get resolved through quasi-judicial bodies
or mutual understanding, the survivor can file a
case directly to the courts. Furthermore, a third
party can also file a report on behalf of the person
who has suffered violence. It also has provisions
for interim relief for those affected by domestic
violence. The court can order interim protective
measures for the entire duration of case proceed-
ings. The guilty party will be fined any amount
from 3,000-25,000 Nepalese rupees (US$35-294)
or will be imprisoned for 6 months, or both. If the
guilty person is a public servant punishment will
be enhanced. A repeat offender will receive double
punishment.
The Human Trafficking Act (2007) extended the
definition of trafficking to include the offence of
transportation for the purpose of trafficking. With
this extended definition and other support measures,
the new Act helps to control human trafficking and
affords needed support and care for survivors.
Apart from these actions, the Supreme Court has
also issued orders at different times prohibiting
various malpractices that contribute to gender-
based violence.
The Gender Equality Act passed in 2006 repealed
and amended 56 discriminatory provisions of vari-
ous Acts and has also incorporated provisions to
ensure women’s rights. There is no law yet but a
bill has been submitted to the government regarding
sexual harassment in the work place. The law on
sexual assault/rape says that if found guilty of
raping a girl below the age of 10, the person will
be imprisoned for 10 to 15 years, for raping a girl
of 10 to 16 years, the person will be imprisoned for
7 to 10 years and for raping a woman of 16 years
and above, the person will be imprisoned for 5 to 7
years. Those found guilty of a gang rape will serve
an additional five years. The survivor will get half
the property of the rapists. If a woman is sexually
harassed/molested in a public place then the guilty
person will have to pay 100-500 Nepalese rupees
(US$1.18-5.88) as a penalty and will be imprisoned
for 6 months. If someone is found guilty of groping
or touching or holding a woman with an intention
of rape he will be charged up to 500 Nepalese
rupees (US$5.88) as penalty or will be imprisoned
for a year, or both.
There are government policies on quotas for
elected women in government. Thirty-three percent
of the seats have been allocated for elected
women in government at all levels, namely, national,
district, municipality and Village Development
Committee. There is the Local Self-Governance
Act and Local Self-Governance Regulation for
local government. There are no networks of
elected women representatives in Nepal.
Gender mainstreaming in national, state and local
budgets is guided by the Local Self-Governance
Act and Local Self-Governance Regulation. It is also
regulated by Gender Equality and Social Inclusion
(GESI) strategy. The equal opportunity requirement

for hiring in government jobs is guided by the
Public Service Commission Act and Civil Service
Act. Gender Equality Offices or Women’s Offices
are incorporated in the government structure from
national to district level. They are not present at the
Village Development Committee level. There is an
Annual Gender Equality Plan at the national,
district, municipality and Village Development
Committee levels, guided by the Local Self-Gover-
nance Act and Local Self-Governance Regulation. It
is also regulated by the GESI strategy and Gender
Responsive Budgeting. The Central Bureau of
Statistics has gender disaggregated official data.
There are national police guidelines and protocol
covering police response to sexual assault. ActionAid
Nepal is supporting the Government in the
development of a manual for gender sensitive
crime investigation. Women’s desks have been
established in the police stations in Kathmandu
and one in each district police office. Community
police carry out some programmes and activities in
coordination with international and national non-
governmental organisations and local groups and
organisations as well.
Kenya:
Kenya has a population of 39.5 million as of
2011.50
Kenya’s current urbanisation level is
39.7% according to the 2009 population census
and is projected to hit 50% by 2030. Kenya’s
urbanisation is occurring for a number of reasons.
Rising birth rates and natural growth of the urban
population accounts for approximately 55% of
urban growth. Rural-urban migration due to factors
including drought, conflict and rural poverty accounts
for an estimated 25% of urban growth. Rapid
urbanisation is changing the face of poverty in
Kenya. Nairobi’s population is set to nearly double
to almost six million by 2025, and 60% of residents
live in slums with limited or no access to even the
most basic services such as clean water, sanitation,
housing, education and healthcare. Whereas the
starkest poverty has previously been found in
remote rural areas, within the next ten years half of
all poor Kenyans will be in towns and cities.
Rising urban inequality is creating a huge underclass
with serious consequences for the country’s
security and social fabric. The struggle to survive
has forced some of the most vulnerable people
into crime and high-risk occupations such as sex
work. “Frustrated youth are increasingly turning to
violence and with Kenya still extremely politically
volatile following the 2007-08 post-election
violence, the risk of ethnically-linked clashes in
Nairobi’s slums is being exacerbated by the growing
resentment over inequality and desperate living
conditions.”51
The driving force behind urban migration for
women as well as men is the search for economic
opportunity. Various studies have documented the
general high prevalence of domestic violence in
Kenya. The 2003 Kenya Demographic and House-
hold Survey found that about one in four married,
divorced or separated women had experienced
emotional abuse at the hands of their current or
most recent husband; 40% had experienced
physical violence, and 16% had experienced sexual
violence. The study noted that up to two thirds of
women who were physically or sexually abused
were abused by husbands or other relatives. A
recent countrywide study by the Federation of
Women Lawyers in Kenya (FIDA-K) reveals that
gender-based domestic violence and intimate
partner violence is a common feature across
Kenya and is overwhelmingly driven by factors
“ranging from the low status society accords to
women, to poor policy and legal frameworks that
50. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Kenya Facts and Figures 2012, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics Publication, Kenya, 2012,
http://knbs.or.ke/downloads/pdf/Kenyafacts2012.pdf (accessed 17/01/13)
51. Oxfam International, Kenya threatened by new urban disaster, Press release, 2009, http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2009-
09-10/kenya-threatened-new-urban-disaster (accessed 9/1/13).

condone or ignore the prevalence and perpetuation
of domestic violence”.52
Mombasa, the second largest city in Kenya, houses
a little over one million people. Over one-third of
the city’s population lives below the poverty line
and virtually all of the urban poor live in unplanned
settlements spread across the city. Estimates from
the 2007 Kenya Household and Budget Survey
show that 37.6% of Mombasa’s households fall
below the poverty line. Poverty appears more
entrenched among women-headed households
with 48.8% of this group below the poverty line.
Mombasa is managed by a municipal authority, the
Mombasa Municipal Council (MMC). It is also the
headquarters of Mombasa District, an administrative
sub-unit of the province. The district boundaries
are the same as those of the municipal authority.
Contrary to expectations, more children and ado-
lescents than women are being referred to Kenya’s
Sexual Gender Based Violence Recovery Centres,
a study from Coast General Hospital in Mombasa
has shown. Revealing the study during the on-going
Integration for Impact 2012 Conference in Nairobi
Lou Dierick, Director of Support Services at the
International Centre for Reproductive Health, said
the revelations from the Mombasa observations
call for policy change that would integrate Sexual
Gender Based Violence Recovery Centres into the
public health system. According to the study, 55%
of survivors of sexual gender-based violence are
children below 15 years, 83% of whom are girls.
Rape and sodomy constitute 86% of reported
cases. Seventy-five per cent of perpetrators are
known to by the survivors of the violence; they are
either neighbours, relatives or close family friends.
ActionAid Kenya started working in Bamburi,
Mombasa in 2009 in partnership with Sauti Ya
Wanawake, Pwani. The current population projection
of Bamburi stands at 7,625 with a total of 932
households. Most community members in this
area are squatters who live on private land with
or without the knowledge of the landlords. The
indigenous people have no title deeds for the
pieces of land where they have built their houses.
A welfare monitoring survey found that 38.32% of
the population in Bamburi live in absolute poverty.
Within Bamburi is Mwakirunge Dumpsite, a large
dumpsite established by the Mombasa Municipal
Council in 2008. The dumpsite was established
amidst promises for improved infrastructure for
Bamburi – including a new road and classrooms
for a nearby primary school. None of these promises
have been fulfilled, and instead the site has proved
to be a security and environmental hazard, with no
sign of the state taking responsibility for what it has
become.
52. Amnesty International, Insecurity and indignity - Women’s experiences in the slums of Nairobi, Kenya, 2010,
http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/AFR32/002/2010 (accessed 18/1/13).
All children have a right to education. The plight of girls out of
school is bought out sharply by the hopelessness felt by girls as
young as 12-13 in the Mwankirunge dumpsite, Mombasa, Kenya
photo: Fedis Mbura - Sauti ya Wanawake

As part of the Safe cities initiative a Rapid Assessment was done in Ziwa la Ngo’mbe and
Mwakirunge Dumpsite in September 2012. The findings raise number of issues:
The dumpsite is a haven for criminal activities. Criminal gangs are said to have moved out
of Mombasa to the dumpsite and have introduced drug use and crime to the area. There are no
regular police patrols and this provides a haven for gang activity.
Fear of being robbed, mugged and physically injured: In Ziwa la Ng’ombe women fear being
attacked in dark alleys and back streets, especially because of poor lighting. Young men intimidate
women by asking them to stay indoors, even during the day, especially because they want to
do their criminal acts out of sight of the adults. Pupils from Ziwa la Ngo’mbe primary school and
women said that they are afraid of walking home unaccompanied.
Sexual violence including rape and sexual harassment: The men who work here have colonised
the place and demand sex and money from women in order to allow them to enter to get work,
or even to collect valuables. The men collude with the truck drivers who come to the dump and
girls have been raped in the dumpsite. They lure young girls from the neighbouring villages. At
least 4 girls from a neighbouring school have fallen pregnant here, 6 have actually dropped out
of school to be married by these men,12 live at the dumpsite and one young girl has been raped
while she was playing near the dumpsite.
Drug and alcohol abuse: In Ziwa la Ng’ombe, increasing drug and alcohol abuse, especially in
the residential areas, has increased the sense of insecurity as there are reports of drunken men
trying to lure young girls into lodgings in the area.
Accidents and health concerns: Women working in the dumpsite have no protective gear,
exposing them to inhaling poisonous gases and smoke and being cut by sharp objects. At least
four cases of children being burned at the dumpsite have been reported so far. The huge smoke
that billows from the dumpsite makes visibility very poor and trucks and motorbikes occasionally
hit pedestrians.
Kenya’s new constitution of 2010 states that no
more than two-thirds of any elected and appointed
public body, at any level, shall be of the same
gender. This will only take effect after the first
elections under the new constitution to be held in
March 2013. Whereas the constitution is clear on
the mechanisms for achieving this principle at the
level of the county assembly, it does not contain
a clear mechanism for the levels of the National
Assembly (Parliament) and the Senate. A consti-
tutional amendment bill to elaborate a mechanism
for achieving the principle in Parliament and the
Senate has failed to gain support in Parliament.
Additionally the State Attorney General has sought
a judicial advisory opinion from the Supreme Court
to the effect that the principle is to be implemented
progressively. There is a Kenya Women Parlia-
mentarians Association (KEWOPA) but there is no
equivalent body for women representatives of local
governments.
A law on domestic/family violence is pending in
Parliament. In 2006, a law was enacted on Sexual
harassment/molestation in the workplace with a jail
sentence of no less than three years or a fine
of 100,000Kenyan shillings (approx. US$1,152.74)

or both. The law on sexual assault/rape (2006)
includes a jail sentence of no less than 10 years
and can continue for life. The law on sexual
harassment/molestation in public places (2006)
includes a jail sentence of no less than 10 years.
The term used is “indecent acts” and includes
only: touching of genitals, breasts or buttocks; and
showing pornography against the will of second
party. There are no women’s courts but sensitive
cases, such as those concerning sexual violence,
are often heard in camera.
There are no specific police guidelines for
responding to violence against women. National
Guidelines on the Management of Sexual Violence
in Kenya (2009) only cover medical and psychosocial
response. There are some gender desks to handle
gender-based cases. There are no national
programmes on community police initiatives on
violence against women but several initiatives
between government, -non-governmental organi-
sations and bilateral donors. The government,
through the National Gender Commission, worked
with non-governmental organisations and drew up
a National Gender-Based Violence (GBV) Framework
in 2009, whose purpose was to promote coordination
among those who provided services to combat
violence against women.
Marta Lucia da Silva, from Ibura, a favela in the Brazilian city of
Recife, on a safety audit walk around her neighborhood for Actionaid
International’s Safe Cities Initiative. Women from Ibura have been
collecting information on how poor infrastructure and drug trafficking
make the public spaces of this community dangerous for women at
all times of day.
photo: Danielle Peck/ActionAid

“Stepping onto a brand-new path is difficult, but not more difficult
than remaining in a situation, which is not nurturing to the whole
woman.”53
Maya Angelou
FINDINGS
This section presents the experiences of women, girls
and other members of marginalised communities
around public services and violence against women.
This is detailed in four sections, namely: availability,
access and quality of public services in cities and
sites; role of authorities and gender sensitive
responses; lack of public services and its impact
on women; and role of community and non-govern-
mental organisations.
Availability, access and quality
of public services in cities and
sites
Housing and living conditions, electricity, public
transport, streets and street lighting, health services,
working conditions, employment opportunities,
food, water, policing and safety are major areas of
concern for all the different categories of women
spoken to during this study. Poor and marginalised
communities experience exclusion in every sphere.
For example, women vendors in Ethiopia find it
difficult to access recognised market spaces, migrant
workers in Cambodia have to make do with
cramped living and working conditions, women in
Nepal, Ethiopia and Liberia are faced with harass-
ment and violence on public transport. Lack of
safety due to poor police responses was a major
issue in all six countries. Study participants as-
serted that public services have to be delivered to
all, with specific focus on poor people and most
vulnerable.
Lack of an adequate standard of living: The
right to an adequate standard of living is recognized
as a human right in international human rights
instruments and is understood to establish a
minimum entitlement to food, clothing and housing
at a subsistence level.
In Cambodia, garment workers live in rented rooms
near the factories. In addition to the room, the tenants
also pay separately for water, electricity, and garbage
collection services. However, the landlord usually
charges them more than double what the government
charges for these services. The number of people
sharing a room is worked out by the tenants,
who collectively pay for the room they rent. The
landlords are usually keen to maximise profit and
do not take any steps to ensure that living condi-
tions are healthy and safe. Garbage disposal is a
problem. Tenants and owners have little choice but
to dump garbage in empty plots of land. Garbage
is not removed everyday by the local authorities so
it is left for days to rot.
Factory workers in Phnom Penh are on the lookout
for cheap food so most food sellers near factories
buy low quality ingredients (vegetable, meats and
fish) to prepare food. The workers usually spend
either 500 or 1,000 Cambodian riel (US$0. 12-
0.25) for food and 300 riel (US$0.07) for rice.
53. Dr. Maya Angelou (Marguerite Johnson) is one of the most renowned and influential voices of our time. Hailed as a global renaissance
woman, Dr. Angelou is a celebrated poet, memoirist, novelist, educator, dramatist, producer, actress, historian, filmmaker, and civil rights
activist. She demonstrates an evolution of female identity throughout her autobiographical works of which the most popular is “I Know Why
the Caged Bird Sings” (1970).

In total, spending on a single meal is the equivalent
of US$0.31-0.32. The food bought at this price is
of poor quality. It is also not sufficient for a person
working a 10-12 hour day. Many women work
overtime to earn more money and the roads from
the factory are dark, dirty and muddy putting the
workers at risk of being attacked, abused and
robbed by criminal gangs.
54. This refers to the volume of the container.
Bopha, from the Prey Veng province of Cambodia, lives in Phnom Penh in a rented room which
is 2.3 metres by 3 metres. She has an eight year old son, who lives in the village with his grand-
parents. The floor of her room is covered with a plastic sheet and is used for cooking during the
day and sleeping at night. There is a wooden shelf on top where two women sleep. All bags and
cases, clothes, pots and pans, a sewing machine, and the toilet are in this small space. Bopha
shares this space with four other women. The room costs US$20 a month. The women share the
cost of the room among themselves. In addition to the rent, they share the cost of water and elec-
tricity. The toilets in the house are run down, dirty and smelly. All workers bathe in front of their
rooms, in spaces they have covered for some privacy.
The water bill is usually over 15,000 riel (US$3.66) per month per room and tenants share the
cost among themselves. While workers’ pay 1,500 riel for a jar of water and another 1,500 riel for
one kilowatt of electricity, the actual charge imposed by governments is 350 riel per cubic metre54
for water and 650-850 riel for one kilowatt of electricity. House owners charge much more than
government rates for water and electricity.
In eight years, Bopha has worked in three different garment factories - Universal factory, I Khang
factory and, since 2006, Hong Hwa factory. She is a contract worker and her contract is renewed
every six months. Bopha receives a minimum wage of US$61 a month. If she works overtime and
on Sundays, she receives US$0.43 per hour and an additional amount of US$0.50 (2,000 riel) for
her evening meal. Overtime is usually
for two hours but occasionally
extends to four hours. During peak
season when production has to meet
deadlines, she has worked 10 hours
overtime. She starts the normal shift
from 7am to 4pm and continues
the overnight overtime from 7pm to
6am with an hour’s break for a meal
between 11pm and 12am. At the
end of each month, her total salary
is US$70. Occasionally, with overtime
work throughout the month, she might
get a total salary of over US$80 or
US$90.
Bopha, a garment worker in Dangkor shares her rented room
which is just 2.3 metres by 3 metres, with four other women.

Weak and inefficient systems and structures
for service delivery: Governments do not prioritise
the delivery of public services to poor people.
There are no systems and structures in place that
enable regular and timely delivery of services to
poor settlements. Certain sections of the population,
such as migrants, are often seen as outsiders,
even if they are from the same country, and
administrations make little, if any, effort to bring
them within the purview of services. Women have
the major responsibility of looking after homes
and families and a lack of public services adds
considerably to their workload. They are vulnerable
to harassment and violence and exploited at all levels.
Waste management is an enormous problem in
Mombasa and the atmosphere in the dumpsite is
unhealthy, full of flies and smoke from burning
waste. Children get involved in accidents when
they hang onto the waste vehicles in the area
and there are dangerous items like medical waste
bottles and syringes everywhere. Children and
even adults sustain burns when the waste is
being burned; some waste burns or retains heat
for days. Dirty paper bags fly everywhere including
inside the nearby houses.
Health and sanitation is yet another major issue
for women and children in the dumpsites of Mwa-
kirunge and Bamburi in Mombasa, with practically
no services. Children eat from the dumpsite and
are prone to diseases like cholera. Chest infections
and coughs and colds are very common. The
nurse at the Mwakirunge health dispensary
explained the lack of adequate services: there are
toilets but often there is no running water or even
electricity, and they have to get water from different
places. The nurse went on to say:
“We do not have much in the way of facilities
and, as such, no separate toilets for women.
We give special services to women like family
planning and children’s clinics. There is a
delivery room that is secluded and provides
privacy to women. But a laboratory is essential.
Women who face sexual violence also need
special treatment although we are not able
to give it – such as post-exposure prophylaxis
and other specialised post-rape care. They
have to go to the Coast General Hospital in
Mombasa for that.”
Lack of Infrastructure and basic amenities: In
Addis Ababa, many poor women experience lack
of access to a marketplace and lack of infrastructure
in the marketplace, for example, water and electric
services. Getting information about services is dif-
ficult and a lack of correct information leads to loss
of time and money. The government department
for small and micro enterprises supports women
vendors but the demand is much more than they
can meet. Some women who have received support
from non-governmental organisations on different
issues also feel that government departments
discriminate against them. There are also lengthy
procedures and cumbersome requirements to
obtain a business licence. Another group of women,
in Ethiopia, had a bad experience getting electricity
for their stall. They spent a lot of time lobbying with
the kebele (local authorities), and small and micro
enterprises agency at first, before they were told to
go to the sub-city. There they were asked to pay
20,000 Ethiopian birr (US$1,111.11), out of which
they paid half. And again, there were delays with
the electric corporation.
“I paid 7,000 birr (US$388.88) for that place.
The place was demolished within eight
months. The marketplace was demolished
because the place was claimed by the Ministry
of Water,” says a woman vendor in Ethiopia
describing her problems in finding a place for
vending.
“I have a Singer (sewing machine) and used
to work from home, which I rent from someone
else. The process to get a business licence is
very complicated. We register and they ask
as for the capital we have. We don’t have a
lot of capital. And if we have a licence we
need to have a proper marketplace. And
the government is not providing us with a
marketplace,”55
complained a vendor.
55. Women in Self-EmploymentAssociation (WISE), an ActionAid partner in Ethiopia, http://www.wise.org.et (accessed 18/1/13).

Privatisation of services with no monitoring:
Governments often say that it is not cost effective
for them to provide poor people with public services.
Even when governments provide such services,
special efforts are not made to ensure women will
have the information. When governments do not
provide poor people with affordable services, poor
people are compelled to seek those services from
private providers at a high cost. There seems to
be minimal regulation of providers, which leads to
poor quality of services.
In Addis Ababa, the government duty bearer for
public transport service providers, such as city
mini-buses, is not clearly known. The mini-buses
are assigned routes but they don’t work according
to their assigned routes. It is generally assumed that
road transport authority is responsible for ensuring
that they work in the place they are assigned. But
the office is often seen as not performing its job.
There are government assigned, mini-bus/taxi
attendants. However, they often tend to be part of
the problem. They collaborate with mini-bus drivers
and assistants in overcharging women vendors
carrying goods.
“Once when returning from Awasa city to
Addis Ababa, the bus driver told us to get out
before we reached our destination, even if we
had paid the fare. He said this was as far as
he would go. I went to the nearest road and
transport office in Kaliti. The first official who
I talked to was not willing to help me. The
second official I talked to told me to write the
plate number of the bus. When I went back to
write the plate number, everyone had got off
the bus and it had left,” said a woman in Addis
Ababa.
Sexual harassment a constant reality across
countries: In Kenya, women say that they are
harassed and demeaned at the dumpsites. Insulting
and abusive language, most of it sex-related and
considered ‘normal’, ensured to keep them away
from earning a living out of the dumpsite. Young
girls, some as young as 10, reported that men
often demand sex if they help women with goods
or waste. They also said that rape was widespread
but girls usually kept quiet about it because they
didn’t feel anything could be done. Girls are out
of school in the area and even girls as young as
12 have become pregnant. In Recife, Brazil, there
are some streets that are actually narrow unpaved
alleys. Women feel unsafe because of the risk of
being surprised in such locations. In these places,
street lighting is unreliable or even nonexistent.
Many areas are poorly connected by public transport.
Women in Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley have discussed
the inadequacy of public transport facilities, over-
crowding and long waits at bus stops. Women
constantly face various kinds of sexual harassment
in public places like streets, markets, parks, temples,
bus stops and on different public transport vehicles.
Harassers are male travellers, as well as drivers
and conductors. Although the problem of sexual
harassment is widespread, it is not openly
acknowledged. Some women said that it was this
process of conducting the study that has enabled
them to name the harassment that they often
experience in public spaces. Women drivers and
women police personnel also have to face harass-
ment from co-workers and passengers, even while
on duty.
Women university students in Liberia have echoed
the experience of women in Nepal as far as public
transport is concerned. They have also pointed
out that although things are changing, women face
discrimination and violence on university campuses.
Women are approached for sex in exchange of
grades and the atmosphere on campuses does
not encourage women to resist such overtures or
complain. Some students say that campuses lack
basic services like toilets for women and running
water.
Women vendors in Ethiopia have strongly
emphasised the fear that women all over the world
feel when they have to negotiate deserted roads,
especially early in the morning or late at night.

“Sometimes I have to wake up and leave
home as early as 3 and 4am for work, to
deliver goods for sale that will be taken by
truck drivers to other towns or the country-
side. I’m afraid of risks of rape and robbery
when I leave home at this hour.” – woman
vendor in Ethiopia
Inadequate policing: Concerns around policing
were articulated in all the countries where the study
was undertaken. The police patrolling conducted
in communities to keep them crime-free is not
adequate and also reflects a logic which is often seen
in the attitude of the police toward poor people:
the criminalisation of poverty. With this logic, the
police enter communities, quite violently, and are
not concerned about differentiating the guilty from
the innocent. Many feel that for the police the
logic is that all are guilty until proven innocent. In
Cambodia, for example, garment workers can
easily be hauled up by the police in case there
are ‘incidents’ in their neighbourhood. In Ethiopia,
women who don’t have a proper marketplace,
who sell goods on the street, are continuously at
risk of robbery. In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the police
patrol main streets during the day. However, they
are not around at night and hardly ever in places
where robberies are known to occur. The police do
not patrol side streets and dangerous neighbour-
hoods, or even marketplaces, especially at night.
Robbers attack women as they leave for home
in the evenings assuming they carry money with
them. One woman explained how she had to keep
moving homes:
“I live renting a room from individual house
owners – in their compound. I have been
moving from one house to another because
thieves keep coming and stealing stuff at
night. Recently they stole a bicycle belonging
to my son and I had to move again to a different
compound.”- Woman in Addis Ababa
A story from Cambodia illustrates the helplessness
women feel when they face criminal attacks:
“It was the end of October this year, just
before Pchum Ben holiday (a local festival).
My daughter got her salary which amounted
to about US$150 and put it in her trouser
pocket. She did not realise who stole the
money. It was crowded when workers left
the factory and everyone pushed each other
to get through the factory gate. She only
realised that she had lost her money after
she got home. My daughter felt very bad; that
was her salary for a whole month of working
at least 10 hours a day. I consoled her that it
was the bad luck that went with the money.
It was terrible as we needed money for the
festival. Fortunately, we had some savings to
live on throughout the month.”- Chaan, mother
of a garment factory worker.
Role of authorities and gender
sensitive responses
There are stark differences between the way women
on the ground see issues and the perception of
officials. Most officials are willing to grant that
everything is not perfect. Yet there is reluctance
to accept that violence against women is not a
one-off incident but deeply embedded in society.
Women’s ability to live and work becomes further
Two Kathmandu women were returning
home one evening when they were
accosted by a man, who flashed his
penis at them. The women chased after
him but he ran away. The next day,
the man was arrested because he had
flashed his penis at another woman. The
man was in prison for seven days. One of
the women, whom he had flashed earlier,
went to meet him. She asked him whether
he recognised her.

compromised by social attitudes that indicate that
women do not need to work outside the home,
and strictures such as a belief that women must be
‘modestly’ dressed. Women’s mobility and conduct
is regulated both in the public sphere and at home.
For many people, including governments, ensuring
safety for women often translates into regulating
women’s behaviour.
Denial and blaming the victim are common:
There is a strongly held belief across cultures that
women ‘provoke’ violence and harassment by their
own behaviour and actions. In many instances,
when the police receive complaints related to
violence that women experience in public spaces,
there is a tendency to blame the victim by reinforcing
ideas about the need to curtail women’s freedom
in order to avoid violence. Women who face sexual
harassment, or are molested or attacked, experience
both the indifference and ineptitude of the police.
There is a reluctance to accept women’s complaints
– they might be laughed off or sometimes even
accused of provoking the attack by their dress,
gestures or voice. The problems are compounded
when there are no specific laws or policies regarding
violence against women in public places. However,
the policy listing showed that laws addressing
violence against women, whether at home or outside
the home are rarely implemented.
“The college going girls attract the drivers
and conductors with their fashion in order to
travel without paying [the] fare,” remarked a
union leader of drivers in Nepal.
“I generally treat persons with disabilities and
the elderly in a bit of a different way, the rest
are treated equally. It is not possible to provide
separate services for everyone. I attend to
those needing quicker services first, for
example, those needing just a signature need
not wait till I finish maybe a domestic violence
case. There has not been any VAW issues like
rape here. Only once in 2008 there was a rape
case, the perpetrator in this case was appre-
hended,” said an official in Kenya.
“Well, as far as my knowledge goes, there are
no specific policies adopted by the University
of Liberia to ensure women’s participation.
Instead, everyone irrespective of gender is
permitted to participate at all levels based
on qualification,” remarked an instructor at the
University of Liberia
“I don’t see the need for services in any special
way for women at the university because no
policy of the university marginalises women
in any way. There are separate toilets for men
and women and other than that men and
women can access all university services and
facilities equally,” asserted an instructor at the
University of Liberia.
These comments reflect a limited understanding
among university officials in Liberia of the importance
of addressing normalised forms of exclusion in a
patriarchal society. For instance, women are not
seen in leadership roles in student organisations.
Officials are also unwilling to accept that sexual
harassment of women students is a reality of
university life.
Implementation limitations within the system:
Some women and men in positions of authority
recognise the need for gender sensitive responses
but also pointed out different limitations in implemen-
tation. In Liberia, one of the officers felt the need
for a policy. A woman official at a Liberian university
agrees that women need specific services. In
Addis Ababa, a woman trade and industry officer
recognises that official responses have to be
matched to women’s realities. In Brazil, the chief of
the Women’s Police shared the limitations she has
observed.
“However, it would be necessary to develop
such policy that will not protect only women,
but men as well on the job against sexual
harassment. Unions everywhere are organised
to address issues which confront their members.
Obviously, if a female student reports to a
student union any issue of sexual harassment,
I believe the union will address it.” - Grants
coordinator, University of Liberia

“One hundred and twenty women organized
by micro and small enterprises were given a
four-storey building in a place called Almi. But
the place was not suitable for a marketplace
and they started renting out for residential
purpose. The four-storey building also does
not address the need of different women, for
example women with disability. The building
has no means of accessibility for people with
disability.” – Trade and Industry officer, Addis
Ababa
In Brazil, the idea of creating a specialised
women’s police station signals a concern to take
into account the specificities of violence against
women. The work of specialised women’s police
stations in Brazil, which have rules provided in the
Maria da Penha Law, deals specifically with cases
of domestic violence against women in the country.
The women’s police stations are expected to fill the
gaps women experienced earlier when they sought
the support of police. In the state of Pernambuco,
there are eight women’s police stations.
According to the chief of the Women’s Police, there
is no structure to give some kind of differential
treatment to violence suffered by women in public
spaces, unless that is sexual violence. If women
experience crime in public spaces, these crimes
will not be regulated by a special law, but by the
Brazilian Penal Code. The ability to be sensitive to
gender issues is evaluated when selecting the right
professionals to work in the specialised women’s
police unit. There are selected officers who show
an interest in working in the area. These professionals,
before starting work, are required to get a qualifica-
tion that makes them sensitive to meet the specific
demands of women who experience domestic
violence. There are also ongoing training programmes
to guard against de-sensitisation, as stories of
domestic violence are often extremely repetitive.
These courses are provided through ongoing
training in partnership with the Women’s Secretariat
of the State of Pernambuco.
The continuum of violence: Women vendors
in Ethiopia have broken the barriers between the
‘public’ and ‘private’ in their accounts of their lives.
They have spoken candidly about the resistance
that most of them faced from their husbands. The
experiences of these women emphasise the fact
that women’s ability to function as full individuals
with autonomy both within and outside the home
is restricted by the controls imposed on them at
home. These controls can be verbal strictures or
acts of overt physical and/or sexual violence.
Poverty means not just a lack of income and material
goods, but also not enough resources, opportunities
and security.56
This takes away dignity and accen-
tuates people’s vulnerability. Poverty is also about
power – who has it and can exercise it, both at
home and in public life.
“When I started my own small business, my
husband didn’t want me to go out and work.
But because I received a lot of training at
WiSE, I was confident enough to stand up to
him. Today I have employed my daughter and
husband, in addition to other employees.” –
woman union member, Ethiopia
“When we start working and earning money,
our husbands want us to cover all the household
expenses.” – woman in Ethiopia
Women in Ethiopia see a significant role for the
women’s associations and women’s affairs offices
at local government level. They feel these offices
are able to “settle disputes” in cases of domestic
violence.
“Women’s affairs office at kebele level helps
women if the husband beats his wife, drinks,
or does not give her money for household
expenses. The husband will be called to the
kebele to provide response on those things.
He will be given advice by the women’s affairs
office.” –a woman vendor.
56. The UN Works for People and Planet, Human rights and poverty: 60 years later, http://www.un.org/works/sub3.asp?lang=en&id=63
(accessed 17/01/13).

Positive moves by government: Measures are
introduced by governments, both local and national,
to promote women’s empowerment. There is a
constant battle between implementing progressive
ideas and battling the resistance to women’s autonomy
that is deeply entrenched in the minds of many
people in high office.
Governed by the Nepal Government’s policies,
the Municipality in Lalitpur has been conducting
various women’s programmes, which include
training on violence against women, skill development
training such as mobile repairing, house wiring and
leadership development. Various agricultural training
courses including floriculture and mushroom
farming have been introduced. The impact of the
training programmes should be assessed subse-
quently. An evaluation is required to understand the
extent to which these programmes have helped
women in terms of enhancing knowledge, skills,
employability and self-confidence.
In Pernambuco, Brazil, the state government runs
two specialised health services for the care of
women survivors of violence. However, not too
many people know about these services and they
focus only on the state capital. Also, there is no
kind of data systematisation of the women registered
there so it is difficult to keep track of how the
services function.
Lack of public services and
impact on women
During the course of this study, women from poor
and marginalised communities spoke of how a lack
of services (such as bad roads, no lighting, lack
of public transport, unavailability of public toilets
and weak crime control), a lack of information, the
absence of legislation and the laxity in implementation
of existing legislation affects their way of life. Cities
have been planned and built and services delivered
without taking women’s lives and needs into account.
Lack of gender sensitive responses aggravate
women’s burdens.
Fear of violence and harassment and lure of
new lifestyles: In Brazil, it is evident that there is
a close relationship between drug trafficking and
lack of policing and the issue of women’s safety
in urban spaces. Children are lured into drug use
and drug marketing, and girls and young women
are affected by harassment and urban violence,
which have increased because of the presence
of drug trafficking. They also become drug users
and due to addiction become vulnerable to sexual
exploitation. The idea of the arrival of men from
others parts of the country has encouraged girls
to believe in what is locally called the “myth of
romantic love”. Given the situation of vulnerability
experienced by these girls, namely, lack of employ-
ment, education and poverty, they believe they can
live a different reality in another location, with any
man who has come from somewhere else in the
country and may offer a new life to the local girls
and young women.
“To avoid harassment, the women of the
community rethink their way of life, including
changing their mode of dress, in order to
avoid “provoking” the approach of men….
even the schedules of women have changed,
women have avoided work or working during
the night and the girls had to change the
schedules of schools, courses and even the
time of their leisure.” women from Barbalho, Brazil.
Increased work and care load: Women working
in garment factories in Phnom Penh are not provided
any childcare facilities, although employers are
supposed to provide this facility, according to the
labour laws. They have to make their own arrange-
ments. An elderly migrant woman, whose daughter
is a garment factory worker, works as a babysitter
for other workers. She describes the work she
does and how the lack of childcare facilities affects
women who have children:

Increasing poverty, subjugation and violence:
In Kenya, during discussions, elderly people
explained that the dominant cultural viewpoint
is that women are not “full members of society”.
Cultural ideas are also carried into the realm of
citizens’ rights –many women do not have national
identification documents and so they do not
participate in directly electing their representatives.
For practical matters of everyday living, it is women
who bear the brunt. For example, when there is no
water in the taps for days, it is women who have
Keo is a single mother in Cambodia, who came from Svay Rieng province to Phnom Penh. Her
story is an illustration of the kind of labour women put in when there is no social security support.
She has two daughters working in the garment factory. Both her sons are still studying at lower
secondary school. She rented a flat to live with all her four children. It costs her US$70 a month,
plus the cost of utilities. Keo earns money by doing three different jobs. She sells Khmer noodle in
front of her house throughout the day but she does not have a lot of customers. Keo also takes in
sewing from people in the community. Lastly, Keo babysits two children of women workers who
live in the nearby rented rooms.
“I guard the small children while their mothers work in the factories. The mother brings her child to
me before 7am and comes to take him/her back at 12pm when they have lunch break. They bring
the kids again at 1pm and get back at 6pm. They leave food (porridge, milk) with me to feed the
babies. I took on this job so that I could earn some money to cope with the cost we pay for rent
and other expenses. The mother pays me US$50 per month for one child.”
Keo, a single mother does multiple jobs to maintain her family
of four. Her two daughters work in the garment factories.

to make alternate arrangements. There are many
instances of women being the only breadwinners
of the family. Women’s contributions to family life
are not recognised and often, violence against
women is so extreme that they are turned out of
their home on flimsy grounds.
“We live in abject poverty and are unable to
afford basic necessities; the children get sick
and we are the care givers. Women too can
make a living out of the dumpsite but there
is a lot of vulgar language against women
meant to demean us and chase us off the
business areas of the dumpsite,” lamented
some women in Mombasa, Kenya.
“Women are many a times the breadwinners
of the family. Even the water goes off the taps
for days and they have to keep looking for
water and it is a point of vulnerability. When
the girls go to fetch firewood, they are attacked
and violated,” remarked an elderly male in
Mombasa, Kenya.
In Liberia, there is high illiteracy amongst women.
Also, employment opportunities are inadequate.
Women find it difficult to report violence, especially
sexual harassment because they feel that they
will be blamed for the way they dress. Women in
Nepal said that it would be difficult to find women
who had never faced any kind of sexual harass-
ment in their lives. Children in Kenya said no girl
in the dumpsite can grow beyond the age of 10
without getting sexually abused.
Role of community and non-
governmental organisations
This section provides examples of community
attitudes and initiatives that exist on the ground.
It presents changes at the grassroots that have
taken place by focusing on the need to deliver
quality public services and fight violence against
women. There are instances of individual initiatives
and collective efforts. There are girls and women
who speak out against violence, either individually
or collectively.
“This semester, while on campus one day I
wanted use the washroom but to my surprise
all the doors were locked due to the lack of
water. I rushed to a bush nearby. While I was
there a fellow came from nowhere and said he
also wanted to pee. I was so afraid thinking
that this man could do anything to me since
the place was so isolated and in the bush.
I asked him to please allow me to wear my
clothes and leave. I did so. He didn’t do any-
thing to me but I felt terrified at that moment.
We need women’s groups on campuses to
draw attention to our vulnerable situation,”
says Famata Thomas a junior student from
University of Liberia.

Countries like Ethiopia, Nepal and Kenya have tried
out systems of community policing. The community
policing system started three or four years ago in
Ethiopia. Members of the community police are
selected by the kebele – local government. The
salary of the community police is paid by community
contributions. Men and women are included in the
community police. Most of the members of the
community police are women. They settle quarrels
in the community, they report robberies and stop
street fights. They are trained by the police. They
also clear bush areas where criminals may hide
and monitor the street lights. Of course, women
have to fight deeply held notions about gender roles.
“I am Debaki Dhungel and I live in Gairigaon slum community in Kathmandu. I am 22 years
old and I am studying in grade 11. My sister and her family lives in Kaandaghari. I usually travel
there to meet them. The bus to Kaandaghari is always crowded. I cannot afford to travel in a
taxi. I have to bear harassments in public vehicles every time I travel but I always remember one
incident because this was the first time I had spoken against it. Since, there are very few buses
on that route, the bus is always crowded and in a seat of three, the bus driver and conductor had
crammed four passengers. I was one of them. I was the third person in the seat. Then, helped
by the conductor, a fourth person, a man, forced himself on the seat. As he sat down, he put his
hand on my shoulder. I was shocked because that happened really suddenly. Thinking that it was
an unintentional thing because of the crowded bus I politely told him to put his hand on the seat
before us. He suddenly snapped at me telling me to ride my own car if I feel so uncomfortable in
a public bus. I felt bad and stayed quiet but stayed alert. Despite me being alert, the man man-
aged to slowly slide his hand to my breast. This made me really angry. I shouted at him for doing
that and told him to behave
himself. When I shouted
and everybody looked at
him, he put his hand away.
I was relieved when he got
off the bus after a short
while. I felt confident after
that incident. I felt that if I
spoke up and let everyone
in the bus know about what
he was doing, the harasser
would be shamed in public
and would not repeat such
behaviour. If I stayed quiet
it was a silent acceptance
of what he was doing. So,
now I always speak up
against harassment.”
Debaki Dhungel, a student who lives in the slum community
of Gairigaon, Kathmandu believes that speaking out against
sexual harassment is the best way to handle it.
photo: Bhagwati Adhikari, Nepal Mahila Ekata Samaj

Berhane Temesgen, a 55-year-old woman, lives in woreda (district) 8 of Nefas Silk Lafto sub-city
in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. She is an active member of the woreda 8 community police, a system
started three years ago by which communities take up the responsibility to ensure safety and
security in their neighbourhoods, in collaboration with the district justice office. The reason for
initiating the system was an escalating crime rate in the neighbourhoods of the district. These
problems were discussed in a community gathering called Idir – an informal self-help network.
Fifteen Committee members were selected during the Idir meeting, out of which four were women.
The community police set up an office and hired four guards who would patrol the neighbourhood
at night and assist the committee members in the woreda. Asecretary was also hired to take note
of crimes and cases reported to the community police and to pass this informationon to the respon-
sible authorities. The salary of the fourguards and the secretary was paid out of the contributions
made by business owners and households in the community. One household contributes on
average 10 birr (US$0.55) per month. Some business organisations also give bigger donations.
The committee members of the community police, together with the guards, patrol the neigh-
bourhood at night to make sure the streets are safe. Where there were no street lights they asked
people to switch on the lights outside in their compound or on their gates. The community police
also received reports of disputes or fighting between couples and among neighbours and played
a mediation role, reporting only cases that are beyond their mandate to the woreda regular police.
Women experiencing violence usually go to the community police first seeking assistance and the
community police take them to the women’s affairs office in the woreda or to the police.
Berhane explains how the system works: “When robberies happen in broad daylight, if the perpe-
trators are known, we take the case to the Idir gathering and report the case and also advise their
parents/families if they live in the community...
If they commit crimes again, we report them
to the police and they are sent to prison.”
“There were some challenges that reduced
the effectiveness of the community policing
system. One of these is weak support provided
from the regular police. The regular police of
the woreda don’t patrol the streets at night
together with the guards and also don’t
respond quickly enough when they are called.
Recently the woreda has taken action against
six police officers who were corrupt and found
collaborating with thieves and robbers. The
police officers were dismissed. Also, all com-
munity members do not pay and support the
process. However, crime has actually reduced
in this woreda because of the community
policing,” concludes Berhane.
Berhane, a resident of Nefas Silk Lafto
sub-city, Addis Ababa was selected as
a member of the community police.
photo: Lewam Mengistu, Women in
Self Employment

In Nepal a committee of community members,
local leaders and teachers form the community
police and are responsible for raising awareness on
violence against women, gender equality, sexual
harassment and substance abuse among youth.
They conduct such programmes in the community,
clubs, schools and colleges. It is believed mostly
by women FGD participants, that the services
delivered by the community police are gender
sensitive and female-friendly. They are closer to the
community and hence know and understand the
needs and priorities of the community. The com-
munity police in Kathmandu have also worked to
improve the lighting system in the streets in Baag
bazar, where there are many educational institutions.
Solar lights and inverters have been set up by the
community police and night college teachers
working together. However, the limitation is that in
case of a conflict, the community police can solve
cases informally within the community itself only
if the community agrees. However, they cannot
replace the police.
Other than the state and community efforts,
non-governmental organisations and civil society
organisations are seen by students in Liberia as
stakeholders, who play a role in influencing the
provision and maintenance of services. After the
war in Liberia the World Food Program has played
a major role by providing food and other non-food
items. The Red Cross also has provided medical
services at low cost in Liberia. Another group in
Liberia is the Female Lawyers Association and
they could take up violation issues of women. The
Female Lawyers Association is a group in Liberia
that deals with issues on laws protecting women
and girls. This group was instrumented in ensuring
that the New Rape law was passed.
The role of community organisations and non-
governmental organisations is crucial in raising
issues. Some of the KII respondents said they have
undergone gender sensitivity trainings organised
by non-governmental organisations, which have
helped them understand and address issues.
Government agencies and non-governmental
organisations also collaborate to conduct such
training. These training sessions provide an
opportunity for state officials and members of civil
society to engage in discussions on issues including
gender equality and violence against women and
can lead to better implementation of existing policies,
laws and programmes, and pave the way for policy
changes promoting gender equality.
The work of ETAPAS57
with ActionAid Brazil in
raising debate about safe cities for women was
important to begin discussions. The methodology
used by ActionAid for the discussions and mapping
of insecure areas had a great impact among civil
society organisations of Pernambuco. The Women’s
Department of the state of Pernambuco, recognising
the importance and effectiveness of this work,
wants to work together with ActionAid Brazil,
inviting them to offer training in this methodology in
four cities of Pernambuco.
It is important to appreciate that this process, in
addition to raising awareness and mobilising the
support of women in the community, is an important
tool for advocacy on behalf of women in the com-
munities. The media could be an effective stakeholder
in this matter. ActionAid Nepal has already developed
some ideas for working with new media like Facebook
and YouTube, as well as more traditional media.
They have also tried out communication and
advocacy methods such as flash mobs to spread
their message.
57. Equipe Técnica de Assessoria Pesquisa e Ação Social, September 2012, (Technical Advisory Research and Social ActionTeam).

Kolfie market, Ethiopia. Lack of a permanent market
place and infrastructure such as electricity and water are the
biggest burden women vendors suffer
photo: Petterik Wiggers/Panos Pictures

“Look closely at the present you are constructing: it should look
like the future you are dreaming.”58
Alice Walker
Recommendations
During the course of this study, participants not
only identified and discussed problems but also
offered suggestions for change. Suggestions have
come from directly affected groups, other community
members and officials. The suggestions received
for improving delivery of public services and
preventing, resisting and combating violence
against women are presented here.
It was clear that people felt that the main respon-
sibility for ensuring that public services are avail-
able and efficient and reach the most marginalised
people lies with the government, both national
and local. Participants in the study said that poor
people deserved better public amenities than they
receive. Similarly, it was quite clear that even if the
direct links between delivery of public services and
violence against women are not always evident,
there is a need for state intervention to address
violence against women. Efficient public services
make it easier for people to go about their daily
activities. Since women have the major share of
household responsibilities, their work burden is
reduced by an effective service delivery system.
If public spaces including universities, health care
centres, parks and markets are designed with
women and their lives in mind, for example, with
women’s toilets, good lighting, accessibility for
women and girls living with disabilities, prompt
policing, public telephones, to name a few, women
would be less intimated when outside. Such a
setting clearly makes the point that women have a
right to the city.
While the existence of good infrastructure and
other services does not guarantee the elimination
of all violence against women, it undoubtedly
contributes to making women’s lives better and
safer. Completely eliminating violence against
women will also require attitudinal changes and
a strong political will, supplemented by adequate
resources. It is important to have government
structures and systems with greater accountability,
as well as communities that are involved and
willing to support the government in the process
of ensuring better public services and eliminating
violence against women. It must be remembered
that while the government and its arms are seen
as the principal duty bearers, responsibility also
lies with employers, civil society organisations and
members of communities.
Governments are policy makers, legislators,
planners, service providers and law enforcers.
Civil society organisations and community actors
including governmental organisations, workers’
organisations, women’s groups and students’
organisations, on the other hand, can play the
role of watchdogs and organisers. The media can
play a significant role in questioning gendered
norms, monitoring public services and creating
public opinion to resist violence against women.
Questioning and changing gendered norms and
ways of life is necessary to create a society that is
gender-just and equal and where there is no violence
against women. Civil society organisations, community
groups, media and academic organisations can
58. Alice Malsenior Walker (born February 9, 1944) is an American author, poet, and activist. She has written both fiction and essays about race
and gender. She is best known for the critically acclaimed novel The Color Purple (1982) for which she won the National Book Award and
the Pulitzer Prize.

work together to bring about change. Collaborations
and partnerships are underway as part of ActionAid’s
on-going work.
Policy, legislation and
programmes
The need to have gender sensitive policies and
laws in place cannot be overstated and participants
asserted that the accountability lay with the
government. Taking differences in governance
structures and systems into account, that the
major responsibility for each country’s legislative
and policy framework lies with national governments
and that local governments and officials have
responsibility for implementation and everyday
operations. Bodies like National Human Rights
Commissions and Women’s Commissions could
also play a facilitating role.
There is need for legislation specifically to•
address all forms of violence against women
and girls in public spaces.
Policies, laws, programmes and campaigns•
have to focus on ending violence against
women and girls, both at home and in public
life.
Governments and law enforcement agencies•
will have to make efforts to ensure that legisla-
tion is implemented and violators punished.
Information about policies, laws, programmes•
and mechanisms is often not known, especially
by poor and/or marginalised people. Such
information must be made available and
accessible in local languages and with a point
close to the community for clarification and
easy access.
Policies, programmes and plans for affirmative•
action for women and girls should be put in
place wherever necessary, especially in sectors
of education, housing and employment.
Relevant Ministries and Departments could be
entrusted with implementing such plans and
programmes.
Government programmes and schemes have•
to be flexible, so that they are able to accom-
modate the needs of different sections of girls
and women. For example, the public transport
needs of women vendors and schoolgirls maybe
different. Also, the needs of women and girls
with disabilities need to be factored into urban
planning and design, including designs for
all public places such as markets, parks and
squares, public toilets, public transport, shopping
centres.
Coordination and information-sharing amongst•
various government departments has to be more
streamlined. This will result in an improvement
in overall delivery of services and also ensure
that time is not wasted and efforts are not
duplicated.
Justice system
The justice system must be accessible and•
just. Despite the violence perpetrated against
them, women in this study identified various
challenges with approaching the justice system,
whether it is the local police station or the law
courts. Women harassed on buses or streets
are not even sure whether such harassment
would be recognised as a wrong.
Poor women suffer particular and exacerbated•
consequences of inadequate policing, evident
in the proximity to crime and lawlessness in
the displaced communities in Brazil, workers’
colonies in Phnom Penh and the dumpsites
in Kenya. They also often face the brutality of
the police. Women in this study have explained
how the police do not take crimes against
women seriously and also engage in victim
blaming. Experiences of police personnel
perpetrating violence against women are well
documented across the world. The experience
of women police stations in Brazil maybe studied
as an example of compassionate, gender
sensitive policing and the learning from it built
upon.
Mechanisms for voicing grievances have to be•
in place and they should be accessible. Many
government departments in different countries
have systems of people getting in touch with

them and talking about their problems. Often
women are not aware of the existence of such
mechanisms or are hesitant to approach them.
There is a need to have such mechanisms in
place and make them accessible to all individuals.
Grievances must be redressed swiftly. Swift
redress will increase women’s confidence in
such systems.
Cleonice Maria da Silva, 36, lives with her husband, parents and four children in Mill Tiriri, in the
state of Pernambuco, Brazil. She was born and brought up here and built her family in this town.
However, on 29 May 2012, at 4am, she and her family were removed from her home in an
aggressive police action, which used a large contingent of the police force. The government used
armed military police with dogs, civilian police, employees and the contractor responsible for the
expansion work at the Port of Suape Complex.
The land belonged to her father Abilio, 87, who had come to the area to work in the sugarcane
plantations. He worked with the Engenho Tiriri cooperative, which bought plots of land and
transferred them to workers, including Abilio, for cultivation of cane sugar (60% of the area) and
subsistence farming (40%). One evening, all the farmers involved in the cooperative were called
to a meeting where they unknowingly signed a document illegally transferring land to INCRA, the
company responsible for the construction of the Port of Suape.
As a result, years later, Cleonice was removed from her home with only 14 days’ notice. Today
Cleonice lives in a shack in an area near where her old home used to be. The amount Cleonice
received for the land where her father lived for over 50 years is not even enough to build a house
on the outskirts of the city.
Forcefully, evicted from her house by the State,
Cleonice, with her three children and elderly
parents live in a shack where her house used
to be, in Mill Tiriri, Pernambuco, Brazil.
photo: PICASA/ActionAid

Corruption in public offices and officials must•
be tackled. Women are harassed and intimidated
by public officials asking for bribes and sexual
favours. Unless corruption, including in the
form of sexual harassment, is tackled people
will continue to be wary of the intentions of
government officials and departments. Meth-
ods like social audit could be used to involve
people in monitoring how public services are
being delivered.
The legal framework of countries should not•
outlaw workers’ unions/collectives. Such
unions are effective stakeholders in supporting
workers, addressing their needs and bringing
about change. For example, in Nepal, the
National Trade Union Congress (NTUC) and
General Federation of Nepalese Trade Unions
(GEFONT) facilitates training for their member
drivers, helps them get necessary documents
like licences and blue books and guards its
members against harassment by the traffic
police or other kinds of victimisation. They
provide training to their members for the
implementation of any new rules. They also
work to increase passenger comfort and focus
on issues like new bus routes and reserved
seats for marginalised sections of the population.
The unions also support their members during
disputes with authorities or passengers.
Public services
Governments should commit and work to•
provide accessible and affordable public
services to poor people, including women and
girls. Public services like drinking water, health,
food, education, housing, sanitation, electricity,
roads and public transport are essential. The
situation of women and girls in Kenya demands
strong government actions in the areas of right
to food, housing, water and sanitation and
healthcare.
The situation of garment workers in Cambodia•
makes a powerful plea for safe and affordable
housing. Children living on the streets of Liberia
or dumpsites of Kenya are more than likely to
be out of school, be sexually abused and get
involved in crime. Displaced women in Brazil
have suggested that the federal government
programme Minha Casa, Minha Vida, which
provides subsidies for people to buy their own
houses, needs to be expanded to also include
women who have been displaced.
All children have a right to education. In•
this study, the plight of girls out of school is
brought out sharply by the hopelessness felt
by girls as young as 12 or 13 in the Bamburi
dumpsite in Kenya. Since they are out of
school, they do not get any education or training
and are subject to or vulnerable to sexual abuse.
Higher education for women must be encouraged•
and supported. Policies for affirmative action,
both for admission and scholarships, may be
introduced.
Needs of women and girls for public services•
and safety have to be understood from a rights
perspective and included in planning. The
focus must be on right to mobility rather than
restrictions on women. Public services including
street lighting, efficient transportation with
special seating for women and strict safety
norms with respect to harassment of women
will facilitate this.
Women and girls have a right to enjoy the•
streets, parks, marketplaces and neighbourhoods
of their city not just for work but also for fun.
Women and girls should not be harassed
when they are out.
Women in Brazil have articulated their need•
for investment in leisure spaces. Hence, the
streets must be crime-free and policing should
be sensitive and efficient. Crime-free neigh-
bourhoods and streets make the point that the
government is committed to the idea of a safe city.
Employers must provide childcare services•
so that women are able to work outside the
home. Governments/employers must also
strengthen provisions for maternity leave and
benefits to include workers in the informal sector.
Services to prevent and redress violence•

against women, both in the private sphere and
in public, should also be included in the realm
of essential public services. Such services
should include shelters and halfway houses.
Health services should be equipped to provide
information about violence against women
and girls, including sexual violence and abuse.
Contraceptive advice and services should be
easily available. Special support is necessary
for girls and young women. Emergency support
services for survivors of rape and sexual abuse
are essential. Mental health support mechanisms
including counselling and psychiatric services
for drug users and survivors of violence are
necessary.
Governments should monitor service providers•
and the services they deliver. Government
departments must act in close coordination
with each other. Participants from Nepal
emphasised that the quality of services is
affected and absurd things happen if depart-
ments do not communicate and coordinate
with each other. One service provider gets in
the way of another.
“The department of roads constructs a
road one day and a few days later the
sanitation department digs it up to build
a canal.”
Girls are harrassed at the dumpsite as they are
left to fend for themselves making them vulnerable
to all forms of exploitation including sexual.
photo: Fedis Mbura - Sauti ya Wanawake

Gender sensitisation and
training
Gender training should be mandatory for service•
providers, be they government employees
or private providers, and also for employers.
Institutionalisation of such efforts is necessary.
Training of police personnel should focus•
especially on breaking gender stereotypes and
providing sensitive services to women who
have faced violence. Police personnel must
also be trained to provide appropriate services
to girls and women with disabilities.
Training manuals for police, public transport•
workers and health care providers should have
modules on gender.
Stringent action should be taken against•
service providers for harassment of women
and girls to whom they provide services. These
acts of harassment include delays in processing,
asking for sexual favours, and others.
Gender sensitivity, assessed with benchmarks,•
should be one of the criteria for selection of staff.
Discussions have to be conducted at different•
levels of government, and in different depart-
ments, to understand how to challenge deeply
held patriarchal beliefs and sexist practices
that impact women’s empowerment and their
daily lives. This will also help in achieving the
promise set out in policies and laws promoting
gender equality.
It is important to understand that overt and•
covert violence against women, in all the
spaces they inhabit, has a negative impact on
women’s lives. Policies, laws, programmes and
campaigns have to focus on ending violence
against women and girls, both at home and in
public life. Such discussions are also required
with service providers, both government and
private, and employers.
Media campaigns through social media as well•
as more traditional media can be a very effec-
tive method to focus attention on the issue of
violence against women and public services.
Organising women
Efforts have to be made to work with affected•
communities to share the insights gained
from ActionAid’s work on safe cities over the
past two years. Women need to organise to
demand information and entitlements, and
also to discuss issues related to their safety.
According to the FGD participants, the discussion
of public policy among women is essential
because women living in the affected community
are aware of their real needs and priorities,
and, for that reason, need to be consulted
when policies for their safety are designed.
Organising efforts have to focus on discussing•
the cultural stereotyping and victim blaming
that seem common to all societies when it
comes to violence against women. In Nepal,
women and men have spoken about a culture
of silence that prevents women from reporting
the harassment and violence that they experi-
ence. University students in Liberia say that
they are afraid to report sexual harassment
because the way they dress will be blamed. In
Brazil, women shared their view that sexism
makes men believe that they are the owners
of public spaces and therefore those men feel
they have the right to harass women, even if it
is just verbally.
The nature of interventions by non-govern-•
mental organisations in the last two decades
has focused on building women’s organisations
of poor women. However, women students in
Liberia and women students and white collar
workers in Nepal have expressed the need for
women’s solidarity and support.
As the work on safe cities for women matures•
and gains momentum, efforts at building
collective action should intensify. Grassroots
action must focus on building groups of
affected women and girls and other sections
of the population. Such groups will enable
women and girls to take their voices to different
forums.

Efforts need to be directed towards building•
strong grassroots women’s groups that see
themselves as opinion builders and influencers
of policy, legislation and plans on combating
violence against women and delivering public
services that are inclusive and gender sensitive.
Conclusion
Work on safe cities for women asserts women’s
and girls’ right to the city and all its public places,
including streets, markets, parks, playgrounds,
squares, bus stops, train stations. The movement
for safe cities for women believes that women have
a right to be outside for work and play, during the
day and at night, alone or with others - they are
individuals with right to enjoy everything that a city
has to offer.
ActionAid’s focus on violence against women and
the delivery of public services recognises that vio-
lence against women is considered a normalized
way of life in many communities. Frequently, the
planning and design of cities fails to take adequate
account of women’s lives and needs. There is also
a tacit understanding that there are places women
will not go and there are times of the day or night
that they will not be out of the house. Dominant
ideas about women and their place in society
intensify women’s exclusion from public places and
public life. It is this almost automatic exclusion that
ActionAid wants to question in its work.
This study has also looked at policy and legisla-
tive frameworks of the different countries to see
whether there exists an enabling framework to
further the idea of a world free of violence against
women. A commitment to good governance by
national governments committed to principles of
democracy and equality creates an atmosphere
that promotes women’s rights. Ideas of equality
outlined in constitutions are given form by policy
and legislation. These are translated into practical
matters of daily life by the way people’s lives are
planned and designed and the quality of services
they are offered.
This study, Women and the city II: combating
violence against women and girls in urban public
spaces - the role of public services, has looked
at the experiences of different groups of women,
namely, displaced women in Brazil, migrant women
garment workers in Cambodia, women vendors in
Ethiopia, women living in formal settlements and
dumpsites in Kenya, women university students in
Liberia and women using public transport in Nepal.
It has recorded what these women have to say
about their experiences of living and working in
cities, the violence and harassment they face and
how their problems are compounded by non-exis-
tent or very poor public services.
The findings of this study pose questions to people
in government, to planners and architects, to civil
society organisations, to employers, to service
providers - both government and private, to different
social institutions and to individuals of all genders
about their ideas of people’s right to the city,
reasons why women are excluded and ways in
which such exclusions are perpetuated. This study
documents experiences of poor and marginalised
women and their struggles to overcome their
problems and live their lives. People in authority
have also provided their points of view regarding
public service delivery and violence against women.
This study acknowledges that there are deep-rooted
sexist beliefs that compromise women’s right to
free mobility. At the same time it also makes the
point that providing gender sensitive, efficient
public services is a significant and practical way of
challenging sexism, promoting women’s right to
mobility and moving towards equality and justice.

The way forward is to join hands to make our voices loud and clear as this group of young
people from Nepal is doing. The message reads - Inappropriate! Unwanted! Unacceptable!
Stop sexual harassment in public transportation! Stop! Stop ! Stop!”
photo: Moti Lama, Activista Co-ordinator, Nepal

Annex 1 - FGD questions
ANNEXES
1. Identify the key concerns and issues regarding
safety of women in the area. (The facilitator
can use the findings from the safety audit to
prompt and take forward the discussion).
2. Based upon the main concerns identified, list
the key stakeholders and stakeholder
bodies, such as municipal bodies, police,
urban planners, local government, resident
associations, university authorities, employers
etc. Once this list is made by the participants,
divide the list into government and non-
government stakeholders for further discussion.
3. For each government stakeholder, the group
should be asked about their expectations from
them and the shortcomings of each in the
provision and maintenance of services. The
following questions should be asked:
a. What in your view is the role of the
stakeholder (duty bearer), particularly in
providing urban basic services to poor and
vulnerable groups of people in the community?
b. What are the current services being
delivered? Are they gender sensitive and
take into consideration the specific
concerns of women?
c. What is the quality of services being
delivered? Is it better in some areas, or at
some times of the day?
d. What is the impact of this situation on the
lives of women?
e. What are the improvements that you would
like to see? Give specific details about the
kinds of changes and improvements you
would like to see in the ways that these
services are planned and delivered?
f. What role do you think the community,
and more specifically women, should play
in ensuring delivery of urban basic services?
Are there existing initiatives and examples
of ways that the community and women in
the community have taken action?
4. For each non-government stakeholder
(such as employers, university authorities,
market associations etc) the following
questions should be asked:
a. What are the key responsibilities and roles
of the stakeholder in terms of ensuring the
rights and dignity of women and girls in the
particular setting (factory, market, university)?
b. Are these being addressed currently by the
relevant stakeholders? Are they gender
sensitive and do they take into consideration
the specific concerns of women?
c. What is the quality of these services? Are
they effective and do they respond to the
needs of the most vulnerable?
d. What is the impact of this situation on the
lives of women?
e. What improvements would you like to see?
Give specific details about the kinds of
changes and improvements you would like
to see in the ways that these services are
planned and delivered?
f. What role do you think the community,
and more specifically women, should play
in ensuring the effective implementation of
services to address women’s safety, access
and mobility? Are there existing initiatives
and examples of ways that the women
have taken action?
5. Other than these key duty bearers/stakeholders,
are there any other bodies or groups who play
a role in determining or influencing provision
and maintenance of services. If so, who are
these and what are the roles they play? (Some
examples could be local community formations
or committees). Are you satisfied with the role
they play? Do you think they could be doing
more?

A focus group is a moderated conversation
discussion held to increase understanding of a
particular issue and explore ideas about how a
problem might be addressed. It involves sharing
specific experiences, presenting opinions and
exploring ideas. The group needs to be large
enough to include different points of view and to
generate discussion, but not so large that some
participants are unable to participate.1
Aim
For this phase of research, the aim of the FGD is
to engage participants to talk about the different
kinds of urban basic services that they think are
necessary and important to address the concerns
and problems that were identified during the safety
audits. Urban basic services play a very important
role in creating the conditions for women to live
and move around in cities without fear and violence.
The FGD will focus on the kinds of services
needed, the current state of provision, who are the
key stakeholders and what kind of services they
would want to have to ensure safety and mobility
of women.
Process
The discussion will take approximately 60-90
minutes. It should begin with an introduction to
the discussion by the facilitator and a round of
introductions so that the group gets familiar. The
facilitator should then share the process that will be
followed and lay down some ground rules about
listening to each person, not interrupting, and being
respectful to each other’s views and perspectives.
It takes time for participants to feel comfortable in
FGD settings. If a setting feels too formal, arranging
chairs in a circle or even sitting on the floor can be
helpful. Give some time for people to get comfort-
able and feel safe to speak.
At the end, there should be tying up of key
conclusions and concerns that arose during the
discussion.
Participants
The participants should be a group of women or
men with similar backgrounds in order to be able
to capture their particular experiences, concerns
and understanding of the situation. It is therefore
important to plan the different groups to be
included so that all key groups are reached and
their voices heard. The ideal number for a FGD is
between 8-12 people. FGDs should be held for
vulnerable groups of women including: women
in different occupations such as domestic work,
factory work, vending etc; women who have to use
public transport and travel long distances; older
women; young women; women living with disability
and other such groups. This will be determined dif-
ferently in each city according to the local situation.
FGDs should very specifically be held with multiple
stakeholders both from the government as well as
non-government sector.
Facilitating the Discussion
The role of the facilitator is key to a successful
FGD. She should be familiar with the questions
before the discussion. She should introduce the
topic clearly and lay all the ground rules of respect
and listening.
Annex 2 - A guide to conducting Focus group discussions (FGD)
1. Women in Cities International (WICI). Tools for Gathering Information about Women’s Safety and Inclusion in Cities: Experiences from the
Gender Inclusive Cities Programme. 2011.

Each question should be explained clearly. She
should not pass judgement on any views or
statements made by the participants. She should
ensure that all participants have an opportunity to
give their views. The aim is to hear all voices and
not necessarily reach a consensus. The facilitator
should also ensure that the discussion stays
focussed on the topic and does not digress too
much.2
Remember not to have too many outsiders at the
discussion. In addition to the facilitator, there could
be two others to take notes and to pitch in to the
discussion if need be. The women need to feel that
they are the key actors in this discussion.
Confidentiality
Respecting the confidentiality of the participants is
very important. They must be given all information
regarding the FGD before beginning. If photography,
audio or video recording is taking place, consent
must be taken from each participant, preferably in
writing, especially if information is going to be put
in the public domain.
Recording and reporting
Those taking notes and writing the report will often
not be able to participate too much in the discussion.
The note taker’s role is primarily to do an accurate
recording of the event and what each person says.
For the purpose of this research all information
taken down in local language should be translated
into English without losing its spirit. Explain how
the information will be used. Taking photographs of
the FGD is a useful method of documentation.
Other points
It is important to plan the FGD at a time and venue
that is convenient to participants to ensure maxi-
mum participation. If women bring along young
children, it might be useful to provide some space
for the children to be looked after so that the
women can participate in the discussion freely.
2. WICI 2011; Jagori. A Handbook on Women’s Safety Audits in Low-income Urban Neighbourhoods: A Focus on Essential Services. 2010.

Objective
To gather information and perspectives of key
stakeholders of urban basic services about: the
provision and maintenance of urban basic services
in the specified city and community; whether there
is any gender specific perspective; and whether
the rights of the poor and most vulnerable are
considered.
Who should be interviewed?
Government stakeholders of urban basic services
including housing, water, sanitation, waste man-
agement, transport and security. In each city, key
stakeholder departments will need to be identified.
In some cities, it will be the municipal corporation,
in others it may be the transport department or the
public works department or the local police. Fol-
lowing that, they will need to identify the person/s
within each department with whom the interview
will be conducted.
Questions
These should be used as a guide and adapted
as per the particular urban service provider being
questioned.
What are the main parameters of service1.
delivery of your department/office/division
in relation to provision and maintenance of
basic services to communities?
Is there payment taken for these services. If2.
so, how is the payment decided and collected?
Do you have regular monitoring mechanisms3.
to ensure effective and timely delivery of
services? If so, please elaborate on this. Who
is responsible for this? What steps are taken if
service delivery is faulty?
Is there any mechanism by which the community4.
can give feedback to you and your office
regarding delivery of the service?
If members of the community are unhappy5.
with the service delivery or have an active
complaint, who can they approach? Is there
any complaints mechanism or process to follow?
Do you think that women and girls have specific6.
needs in terms of services, for example, toilets
or public transport?
Is there a policy framework that governs7.
delivery of services from your department/of-
fice/division? If so, what is it and how does it
play a role in service delivery? Is it linked to any
urban renewal policy in the city or country?
Does this policy apply to all populations and all8.
geographies - urban, semi-urban, authorised
and unauthorised slum communities equally?
Have officers and members of your office9.
undergone any gender sensitisation capacity
building exercise? If so, please give details.
Do you think there could be improvement in10.
the delivery of services from your department?
If so, please elaborate. Who or which bodies
are responsible for bringing about change?
Annex 3 - Key informant interview questions

Objective
To gather information and perspectives of employ-
ers of industries or factories where large numbers
of women are employed about the provision of
basic services and upholding of dignity and rights
of the employees.
Employers and other officials who work in the
management of factories and establishments
where women are employed.
Questions
These should be used as a guide and adapted:
What are the benefits and services that your1.
organisation offers to women employees?
Please state which are provided and give
details for each.
a. Housing
b. Food
c. Medical/health benefits
d. Accident insurance
e. Child care facilities
f. Vacation and weekly holidays
g. Transportation/transport allowance
h. Any other
Is there payment taken for these services? If so,2.
how is the payment decided and collected?
Do you have any monitoring mechanisms to3.
ensure that these are functioning effectively?
If so, please elaborate on this. Who are the
people responsible for this? What steps are
taken if service delivery is faulty?
Do you think that women and girls have specific4.
needs in terms of services, for example toilets
transport, health etc? Do you provide any of
these services? Give examples.
Have officers and members of your office5.
undergone any gender sensitisation capacity
building exercise? If so, please give details.
the provision of services and care for the welfare
of employees from your organisation? If so,
please elaborate. Who or which bodies are
responsible for bringing about change?
Is there an official Anti Sexual Harassment7.
Policy for the organisation? If so, please share
some of its main features? If not, do you think
it is necessary to formulate one?
Does the organisation have any specific8.
measures to address women’s safety concerns
either at the workplace, or during the journey/
commute or at the residence provided by the
employer? If so, please elaborate.
Annex 4 - Key informant interview questions for employers/factory owners

Objective
To gather information and perspectives of police
about: their response mechanisms to address
gender-based violence (GBV) in the specified city
and community; whether there is any gender spe-
cific perspective and whether the rights of the poor
and most vulnerable are considered.
Police officials at different levels could be inter-
viewed. It would be useful to conduct interviews
with police at the local police station to understand
the relationship with the community and delivery of
police services to the community. For information
on police procedures and gender mainstreaming,
it may be useful to interview officials at the city or
police headquarter level.
Questions
These should be used as a guide and adapted as
needed. The questions can be asked in any way
that the interviewer would like and do not need to
be repeated verbatim.
What is the existing procedure for addressing1.
GBV? Under which laws or codes is it currently
being addressed?
Is there a standard operating procedure for2.
victims of gender-based violence approaching
the police? If so, when was it drafted? Is it
followed and what are some of its main
features? Do you feel that this needs improve-
ment or upgrading? If so, please elaborate.
Are there special police stations or special3.
cells/desks for women in police stations? If so,
how do they operate? Are they preferred by
women and survivors of GBV?
Is there a separate helpline/s for women? If so,4.
how are they managed? Are there separate
staff and procedures? Are these written up
and formalised? In your opinion, do women
prefer to use these services to general ones?
Are there separate resources (financial and5.
other) available to the police for addressing GBV?
How many women police officers are there at6.
this police station? Do they primarily work on
GBV or do they work in different departments?
Are there any special police schemes/7.
programmes that are directly targeted at
addressing GBV? If so, please share some
details.
Have the police conducted any campaigns8.
specifically addressing GBV? If so, please
share some details. Do you think these have
had any impact?
Do the police and related agencies have any9.
formal programmes of gender sensitisation? If
so, please give some further details about this
process.
Have you and your team undergone any gender10.
sensitisation programmes? If so what was your
experience and did you find it useful?
Do the police have any programmes in which11.
they work in partnership with community or
resident based groups? Any that work specifically
with women’s groups or address GBV?
Is there any mechanism by which the community12.
can give feedback to you and your office?
If members of the community are unhappy13.
with the service delivery or have an active
complaint, who can they approach? Is there
any complaints mechanism or process to follow?
the delivery of services from your department?
If so, please elaborate. Who or which bodies
are responsible for bringing about change?
policy for the police as an organisation? If so,
please share some of its main features? If not,
do you think it is necessary?
Annex 5 - Key informant interview questions for police

Objective
To gather information and perspectives of university
authorities and related stakeholders about their
role in creating an enabling environment for
women, free from violence and discrimination and
upholding of dignity and rights of all members of
the university.
University authorities, principals of colleges and
other key functionaries who may play a role in
addressing safety concerns of women within
universities.
Questions
These should be used as a guide and adapted:
Does the university have any special policies1.
to ensure maximum participation of women in
the university (including admission, affirmative
action, support services etc)? If so, please
elaborate.
Do you think that women have specific needs2.
in terms of services, for example toilets transport,
accessing different aspects of the university
etc? Do you help or support in provision of
any of these services? If so, give examples.
Does the university have any mechanism of3.
supporting women who are migrants or from
less privileged backgrounds in order to help
them integrate better?
Do you think there could be improvement4.
in the provision of services and support for
women students and employees? If so, please
elaborate. Who or which departments of the
university management are responsible for
bringing about change?
Policy for the university? If so, please share
some of its main features? (Specifically on
issues of quid pro quo and harassment by
teachers and others in positions of authority.
If not, do you think it is necessary to formulate
one?
Are there separate women’s studies or gender6.
studies schools or departments? Are there
any other spaces where women can address
their concerns such as study groups, women’s
centre etc?
Does the university have any specific measures7.
to address women’s safety concerns either at
the university (including in classrooms, libraries,
laboratories etc), or during the journey/commute
or housing within the university premises? If
so, please elaborate.
Is there a policy framework that governs8.
universities? If so, please elaborate.
Do student unions address issues of sexual9.
harassment or violence against women?
What type ofcases and how many cases have10.
the university addressed so far? Give some
statistics for the last 2 years.
Annex 6 - Key informant interview questions for university authorities

The key informant interview (KII) is a standard
anthropological method that is widely used in social
development inquiry. The term “key informant”
refers to anyone who can provide detailed information
and opinion based on his or her knowledge of a
particular issue or his or her position in an organisation.
Some of the advantages of a KII include:
b• eing able to capture the big picture/policy
framework.
Getting detailed information on an issue.•
Understanding perspectives of informants.•
The Interviewer
The interviewer should be familiar with the topic
and issue and with the set of questions to be
asked. She has to remain neutral and must refrain
from asking biased or leading questions during the
interview She must also not provide an opinion but
listen to the informant. Some desirable characteristics
of an interviewer would include:
Listens carefully.•
Can easily establish rapport.•
Understands the issue.•
Has an unbiased attitude.•
Key informants
Depending on the key urban basic services being
investigated, suitable informants should be identi-
fied. It is important to choose an informant who
is aware of the issue at hand and is in a position
to share this information. Thus speaking to a very
junior officer may not provide adequate information.
Conducting the interview
The questions should be used as an open-ended
guide, and need not be repeated verbatim.
First introduce yourself and explain the purpose of
the interview. This is the time to answer any doubts
that the informant might have.
If you are planning to tape the interview, be sure to
ask permission. Even if you are taping, make sure
to take notes also.
Start with easy, non-threatening questions.
Sequence questions for conversation flow.
Anticipate possible follow up questions.
Please keep the following in mind:
Do not be judgmental so as not to influence•
responses.
Let the respondent do most of the talking.•
Be an active, attentive listener. •
Be aware of time and make sure all the key•
questions have been answered.
Annex 7 - Key informant interview guide

These guidelines have to be read along with
the case study guidelines that already exist
for ActionAid. Please follow organisational
norms and guidelines.
These case studies are to illustrate and
highlight issues coming out of the FGDs with
communities.
Why are you writing the case study? Be clear1.
about the angles, aspects, ideas you want the
case study to highlight.
The case study can be the story of an individual,2.
a group or a community. For example, you
could write about a woman who worked to
ensure that women were not harassed when
they went to collect water from the pump or
the impact of a large development project
on women’s lives. A case study can illustrate
individual triumph or defeat, or document
collective efforts/struggles and their outcomes.
It could also tell the story of a government
initiative, for example, the Safe Cities initiative
of the local government of Montreal after the
Montreal Massacre in 1989.
Your case study should incorporate as much3.
detail as possible, for example, if you are
saying that a street was not considered safe,
please explain why.
It is best to speak directly to the subject/s4.
about whom you are writing. If you are writing
about a group or an organisation please speak
to some key actors of the case. Do refer to
any other material that will strengthen/enrich
your case study.
Make sure you have all the information you5.
need before you begin writing. If you notice
gaps while you write please make sure you fill
the gaps. You may have to go back to your
sources and/or materials to check.
Your case study should lay out the context,6.
document the story in detail and highlight the
learnings.
It is important to point out the link between7.
the provision of public services and their effect
on combating violence against women. For
instance, you might say that installing lights on
a dark lane was one of the factors that helped
young women question the deeply held belief
that women should not go out alone after dark.
A case study is a factual report, so it is best8.
not to invent or speculate.
For the purpose of this report, it is best that9.
your case study is not very long – try to keep it
within 2,000 words.
The case study will be part of an international10.
publication, so please explain local terms,
concepts and practices. Do not use acronyms
- expand them.
The case study should be written in the past11.
tense and in the third person. Direct quotes
should not be overused.
It is important not to put people at risk when12.
you write about them. Make sure you change
names and other easily identifiable details.
Some relevant points from ActionAid
case study checklist
When doing your case study make sure you:
Ask open-ended questions (ie ones that can’t•
be answered with a simple yes or no. You will
Annex 8 - Case study guidelines

not be able to use these responses most of
the time).
Think about the what, who, where, why, when•
and how of the story.
Get accurate first-person quotes describing•
the situation and ActionAid’s impact.
Ask interviewees how they feel about things –•
convey their emotions and reactions.
Find out the information listed below – without•
it, we may not be able to use the case study.
Vital information about the interviewee:
Name.•
Age (approximate if you can’t get exact age)•
Location (village, region and country).•
What ActionAid project are they linked to and•
how?
Brief physical description (clothes particularly).•
Family situation (married or single, number of•
children and their ages, name of husband/wife).
Role in community.•
How do they earn a living?•
Help bring the story to life by:
Describing the local surroundings (e.g. clothing,•
food, housing).
Mentioning unique cultural differences (eg•
cooking methods, local customs).
Including strong photographs (with captions).•
Taking plenty of consent forms with you –•
remember to get permission from everyone
you photograph and interview to use their
images and stories.
Other information:
Name of interviewer.•
Date of interview.•
Links to other case studies/people/pictures in•
same village.

A policy listing is used to determine where
interventions on women’s safety and gender
inclusion fit within the larger political and institutional
context of the city, state or even nation. A policy
listing provides general information about policies,
plans, legislation, and initiatives/programmes that
address violence against women, gender equality
and women’s right to the city.
Policy listings are beneficial
because they provide:
A relatively quick overview of the state of•
policies, plans, legislation, and initiative
programmes that address violence against
women, gender equity and women’s right to
the city.
The ability to strategically assess where there•
may be opportunities to create initiatives or
actions that strengthen current policies, plans,
legislation, and/or initiatives/programmes.
The ability to understand where there are•
policy, plan, legislation or initiative/programme
gaps related to violence against women, gender
equity and women’s right to the city.
Policy listings do not provide:
In-depth information on the state of individual•
policies, plans, legislation, or initiatives and
programmes.
Explicit opportunities to engage with decision-•
makers in order to improve policies, plans,
legislation, or initiatives/programmes.
Opportunities to suggest detailed recommen-•
dations in relation to policies, plans, legislation,
or initiatives/ programmes.
Summary information on policies
and initiatives promoting women’s
safety and inclusion
This form is intended to provide a general overview
of legislation, policies and initiatives that have or
could have a positive (or negative) impact on the
promotion of women’s safety and inclusion in your
city. These may be provided by local, state, or
national government, non-governmental organi-
sations, community-based organizations, or the
private sector.
The matrix is divided into three sections:
The first covers policies, structures, plans and1.
other initiatives that establish the framework
within which stakeholders must operate and
which also indicate intent.
The second section relates to existing legislation2.
on women’s equality, rights and VAW. This will
also help to establish the context within which
violence is viewed and will provide the basis
for advocacy.
The third section relates to services, programmes3.
and projects, activities that reflect the reality of
what is actually happening “on the ground” now.
Annex 9 - Policy Listing from the GICP toolkit

Policies,
structures
and plans
Yes/no Brief summary
National/ state/
municipal
Comments
Government policies
on quotas for elected
women in government
Network of
elected women
representatives
Public policies to
increase women’s
participation in local
government
Gender mainstream-
ing in national/state/
local budgets
Equal opportunity
requirement for hiring
in government jobs
Gender Equality
Office or Women’s
Office at national/
state/local levels
Annual gender
equality plan
Gender-disaggregated
official data (eg vic-
timisation, employ-
ment, health )
Other (specify)
Section 1:

Section 2:
Services,
programmes and
projects
Provided by local/
national govern-
ment, private,
NGO, other
Comments
Police guidelines and
protocol covering
police response to
sexual assault
Special cells or wom-
en police stations
Community police
iniatives on VAW
Other (specify)
Design guidelines
that promote
women’s safety
Training for urban
planners/architects
on safety and
inclusion
Initiatives that
promote inclusive
public space
Urban renewal
providing economic
and housing
opportunities for
women and other
vulnerable groups
Police Services & Initiatives
Urban Planning Initiatives

Section 3:
Legislation Yes/No
National/ state/
municipal
Year
passed
Nature of
punishment/ bail
Comments (Any
review of law,
critique, etc)
Gender Equality
Domestic or
family violence
Sexual
harassment/
molestation at
workplace
Sexual assault/
rape
Sexual
harassment/
molestation in
public places
Pornography
Prostitution/
Soliciting

Services,
programmes and
projects
Provided by local/
national govern-
ment, private,
NGO, other
Comments
Initiatives to make
public transport
stations and stops
safer, as well as the
surrounding areas
Training for public
transport drivers and
other service staff
Campaign on safety
in public transporta-
tion
Women’s buses or
women’s seats on
buses
Other (specify)
Campaigns on
women’s safety in
public spaces
White Ribbon
Campaign or other
male-led violence
prevention
Public education on
harassment, sexual
assault, intimate
partner violence
Public Transport Initiatives
Public Awareness Campaigns

Services,
programmes and
projects
Provided by local/
national govern-
ment, private,
NGO, other
Comments
Promoting respectful
relationships
Preventing violence
and harassment by
teachers
Promoting social
cohesion and
preventing
discrimination and
violence
Promoting girls’
education
Other (specify)
Community devel-
opment grants for
women
Leadership develop-
ment for residents’
associations and
other such groups
Other (specify)
Initiatives with Educational Institutions
Community Mobilisation/Leadership Initiatives

Services,
programmes and
projects
Provided by local/
national govern-
ment, private,
NGO, other
Comments
Women’s courts
Emergency health
services
Emergency police
services
Coordination
between services to
prevent and respond
to victims of violence,
especially VAW
Other (specify)
Access to services

ActionAid is a partnership between people in rich and poor countries, dedicated to ending poverty and
injustice. We work with people all over the world to fight hunger and disease, seek justice and education for
women, hold companies and governments accountable, and cope with emergencies in over 40 countries.
ActionAid
International Secretariat
4th Floor West,
158 Jan Smuts Avenue,
Rosebank,
Johannesburg
South Africa
Telephone: +27 11 731 4500
Facsimile: +27 11 880 8082
Email: mail.jhb@actionaid.org
Website: www.actionaid.org
ActionAid International is incorporated in The Hague, The Netherlands. Registration number 2726419
ActionAid International is incorporated in South Africa under section 21A of the Companies Act 1973.
Registration number 2004/007117/10
Illustration and design by www.nickpurser.com

Women and City II

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