01 chemical bonding-theory-final-e

Chemical Bonding 89
Atoms of different elements excepting noble gases donot have
complete octet so they combine with other atoms to form chemical bond.
The force which holds the atoms or ions together within the molecule is
called a chemical bond and the process of their combination is called
Chemical Bonding. It depends on the valency of atoms.
Cause and Modes of chemical combination
Chemical bonding takes place due to acquire a state of minimum
energy and maximum stability and to convert atoms into molecule to
acquire stable configuration of the nearest noble gas. We divide atoms into
three classes,
(1) Electropositive elements which give up one or more electrons
easily. They have low ionisation potentials.
(2) Electronegative elements, which can gain electrons. They have
higher value of electronegativity.
(3) Elements which have little tendency to lose or gain electrons.
Different types of bonds are formed from these types of atoms.
Atoms involved Type
A + B Electrovalent
B + B Covalent
A + A Metallic
Electrons deficient molecule or ion
(Lewis acid) and electrons rich
molecule or ion (Lewis base)
Coordinate
H and electronegative element (F,
N,O)
Hydrogen
Electrovalent bond
An electrovalent bond is formed when a metal atom transfers one or
more electrons to a non-metal atom.



























  ClNaClNaClNa or
Some other examples are: MgCl2
, CaCl2
, MgO, Na2
S, CaH2
, AlF3
, NaH,
KH, OK2 , KI, RbCl, NaBr, CaH2
etc.
(1) Conditions for formation of electrovalent bond
(i) The atom which changes into cation (+ ive ion) should possess 1,
2 or 3 valency electrons. The other atom which changes into anion (–ve
ion) should possess 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the valency shell.
(ii) A high difference of electronegativity (about 2) of the two atoms
is necessary for the formation of an electrovalent bond. Electrovalent bond
is not possible between similar atoms.
(iii) There must be overall decrease in energy i.e., energy must be
released. For this an atom should have low value of Ionisation potential and
the other atom should have high value of electron affinity.
(iv) Higher the lattice energy, greater will be the case of forming an ionic
compound. The amount of energy released when free ions combine together to
form one mole of a crystal is called lattice energy (U). Lattice energy 


rr
K
;

 rr is internuclear distance.
The energy changes involved in the formation of ionic compounds
from their constituent elements can be studied with the help of a
thermochemical cycle called Born Haber cycle.
According to Hess's law of constant heat summation, heat of
formation of an ionic solid is net resultant of the above changes.
UEAIEHHHf  diss.Subl.
2
1
)(sNa )(
2
1
2 gCl
)(gNa
)(gNa
)(gCl
H sub
+IE – e–
+
1/2Hdiss.
Cl (g)
H f
Na+
Cl–
(s)
(Crystal)– EA +e–
+
– U
(Born Haber Cycle)
(Lattice energy)
Chemical Bonding
Chapter
3

90 Chemical Bonding
(2) Characteristics of electrovalent compounds
(i) Electrovalent compounds are generally crystalline is nature. The
constituent ions are arranged in a regular way in their lattice.
(ii) Electrovalent compounds possess high melting and boiling
points. Order of melting and boiling points in halides of sodium and oxides
of IInd
group elements is as,
,NaINaBrNaClNaF  BaOCaOMgO 
(iii) Electrovalent compounds are hard and brittle in nature.
(iv) Electrovalent solids do not conduct electricity. While
electrovalent compounds in the molten state or in solution conduct
electricity.
(v) Electrovalent compounds are fairly soluble in polar solvents and
insoluble in non-polar solvents.
(vi) The electrovalent bonds are non-rigid and non-directional. Thus
these compound do not show space isomerism e.g. geometrical or optical
isomerism.
(vii) Electrovalent compounds furnish ions in solution. The chemical
reaction of these compounds are known as ionic reactions, which are fast.


 3
)ePrecipitat(
3 NOKClAgNOAgClK
(viii) Electrovalent compounds show isomorphism.
(ix) Cooling curve of an ionic compound is not smooth, it has two
break points corresponding to time of solidification.
(x) Ionic compounds show variable electrovalency due to unstability
of core and inert pair effect.
Covalent bond
Covalent bond was first proposed by Lewis in 1916. The bond
formed between the two atoms by mutual sharing of electrons so as to
complete their octets or duplets (in case of elements having only one shell)
is called covalent bond or covalent linkage. A covalent bond between two
similar atoms is non-polar covalent bond while it is polar between two
different atom having different electronegativities. Covalent bond may be
single, double or a triple bond. We explain covalent bond formation by
Lewis octet rule.
Chlorine atom has seven electrons in the valency shell. In the
formation of chlorine molecule, each chlorine atom contributes one electron
and the pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. both the atoms
acquire stable configuration of argon.
)8,8,2()8,8,2(
*
)7,8,2(
**
**
*
*
)7,8,2(











  ClClClCl or ClCl 
Some other examples are : ,3332 ,,,, PHPClHCNNHSH
,,,,,, 33442222 BHFeClSnClHCHHC graphite, 2BeCl etc.
(1) Conditions for formation of covalent bond
(i) The combining atoms should be short by 1, 2 or 3 electrons in
the valency shell in comparison to stable noble gas configuration.
(ii) Electronegativity difference between the two atoms should be
zero or very small.
(iii) The approach of the atoms towards one another should be
accompanied by decrease of energy.
(2) Characteristics of covalent compounds
(i) These exist as gases or liquids under the normal conditions of
temperature and pressure. Some covalent compounds exist as soft solids.
(ii) Diamond, Carborandum (SiC), Silica (SiO2
), AlN etc. have giant
three dimensional network structures; therefore have exceptionally high
melting points otherwise these compounds have relatively low melting and
boiling points.
(iii) In general covalent substances are bad conductor of electricity.
Polar covalent compounds like HCl in solution conduct electricity. Graphite
can conduct electricity in solid state since electrons can pass from one layer
to the other.
(iv) These compounds are generally insoluble in polar solvent like
water but soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene etc. some covalent
compounds like alcohol, dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonding.
(v) The covalent bond is rigid and directional. These compounds,
thus show isomerism (structural and space).
(vi) Covalent substances show molecular reactions. The reaction
rates are usually low.
(vii) The number of electrons contributed by an atom of the element
for sharing with other atoms is called covalency of the element. Covalency
= 8 – [Number of the group to which element belongs]. The variable
covalency of an element is equal to the total number of unpaired electrons
in s, p and d-orbitals of its valency shell.
The element such as P, S, Cl, Br, I have vacant d-orbitals in their
valency shell. These elements show variable covalency by increasing the
number of unpaired electrons under excited conditions. The electrons from
paired orbitals get excited to vacant d-orbitals of the same shell.
Four elements, H, N, O and F do not possess d-orbitals in their
valency shell. Thus, such an excitation is not possible and variable valency is
not shown by these elements. This is reason that NCl3
exists while NCl5
does
not.
(3) The Lewis theory : The tendency of atoms to achieve eight
electrons in their outermost shell is known as lewis octet rule.
Lewis symbol for the representative elements are given in the
following table,
1 2 13 14 15 16 17
Group IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
Lewis
symbol
X X


 X 


 X 


 X 


 X 




X
(4) Failure of octet rule : There are several stable molecules known
in which the octet rule is violated i.e., atoms in these molecules have
number of electrons in the valency shell either short of octet or more than
octet.
332 ,, AlHBFBeF are electron- deficients (Octet incomplete) hence
are Lewis acid.
In PPCl ,5 has 10 electrons in valency shell while in SSF ,6 has 12
electrons in valence shell. Sugden introduced singlet linkage in which one
electron is donated (Instead of one pair of electrons) to the electron
deficient atom so that octet rule is not violated. This singlet is represented
as (⇁). Thus, 5PCl and 6SF have structures as,
(5) Construction of structures for molecules and poly atomic ions :
The following method is applicable to species in which the octet rule is not
violated.
(i) Determine the total number of valence electrons in all the atoms
present, including the net charge on the species (n1
).
(ii) Determine n2
= [2 × (number of H atoms) + 8 × (number of
other atoms)].
P
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
S
F F
F F
F F

Chemical Bonding 91
(iii) Determine the number of bonding electrons, n3
, which equals n2
– n1
. No. of bonds equals n3
/2.
(iv) Determine the number of non-bonding electrons, n4
, which
equals n1
– n3
. No. of lone pairs equals n4
/2.
(v) Knowing the central atom (you’ll need to know some chemistry
here, math will not help!), arrange and distribute other atoms and n3
/2
bonds. Then complete octets using n4
/2 lone pairs.
(vi) Determine the ‘formal charge’ on each atom.
(vii) Formal Charge = [valence electrons in atom) – (no. of bonds) –
(no. of unshared electrons)]
(viii) Other aspects like resonance etc. can now be incorporated.
Illustrative examples
(i) 242)36(4; 1
2
3 
nCO [2 added for net charge]
2n = (2 × 0) + (8 × 4) = 32 (no. H atom, 4 other atoms (1’C’ and 3
‘O’)
3n = 32 – 24 = 8, hence 8/2 = 4 bonds
4n = 24 – 8 = 16, hence 8 lone pairs.
Since carbon is the central atom, 3 oxygen atoms are to be arranged
around it, thus,
O
O
CO 
|
, but total bonds are equal to 4.
Hence, we get O
O
CO 
|
. Now, arrange lone pairs to complete
octet :
:.
:
..
..
|.
..
O
O
CO 
(ii) ;2CO n1
= 4 + (6 × 2 ) = 16
n2
= (2 × 0) + (8 × 3) = 24
n3
= 24 – 16 = 8, hence 4 bonds
n4
= 16 – 8 = 8, hence 4 lone-pairs
Since C is the central atom, the two oxygen atoms are around to be
arranged it thus the structure would be; O – C – O, but total no. of bonds
= 4
Thus, O = C = O. After arrangement of lone pairs to complete
octets, we get, ::
....
OCO  and thus final structure is ::
....
OCO 
Co-ordinate covalent or Dative bond
This is a special type of covalent bond where the shared pair of
electrons are contributed by one species only but shared by both. The atom
which contributes the electrons is called the donor (Lewis base) while the
other which only shares the electron pair is known as acceptor (Lewis acid).
This bond is usually represented by an arrow )( pointing from donor to
the acceptor atom.
BF3
molecule, boron is short of two electrons. So to complete its
octet, it shares the lone pair of nitrogen in ammonia forming a dative bond.
Examples : CO, N2
O, H2
O2
, N2
O3
, N2
O4
, N2
O5
, HNO3
, 
3NO , SO2
, SO3
,
H2
SO4
, ,, 2
2
2
4

SOSO ,43POH ,724 OPH
,,,,,,Anhydrous)(, 4322236233 HClOHIOSOClClSOOClAlPOH

5233 ,, HNNCCHHClO ,  2
43423 ])([,, NHCuNHNOCH etc.
Characteristics of co-ordinate covalent compound
(1) Their melting and boiling points are higher than purely covalent
compounds and lower than purely ionic compounds.
(2) These are sparingly soluble in polar solvent like water but readily
soluble in non-polar solvents.
(3) Like covalent compounds, these are also bad conductors of
electricity. Their solutions or fused masses do not allow the passage to
electricity.
(4) The bond is rigid and directional. Thus, coordinate compounds
show isomerism.
Dipole moment
“The product of magnitude of negative or positive charge (q) and
the distance (d) between the centres of positive and negative charges is
called dipole moment”.
 = Electric charge  bond length
As q is in the order of 10–10
esu and d is in the order of 10–8
cm,  is in
the order of 10–18
esu cm. Dipole moment is measured in “Debye” (D) unit.
18
101 
D esu cm = 30
1033.3 
 coulomb metre (In S.I. unit).
Dipole moment is indicated by an arrow having a symbol )(
pointing towards the negative end. Dipole moment has both magnitude and
direction and therefore it is a vector quantity.
Symmetrical polyatomic molecules are not polar so they do not have
any value of dipole moment.
OCO
FF
B
F
H
HH
C
H
 = 0 due to symmetry
Unsymmetrical polyatomic molecules always have net value of dipole
moment, thus such molecules are polar in nature. H2
O, CH3
Cl, NH3
, etc are
polar molecules as they have some positive values of dipole moments.
  0 due to unsymmetry
(1) Dipole moment is an important factor in determining the
geometry of molecules.
Table : 3.1 Molecular geometry and dipole moment
General
formula
Molecular geometry Dipole
moment
Example
AX Linear May be
non zero
HF, HCl
2AX Linear
Bent or V-shape
Zero
Non zero
22,CSCO
22 , NOOH
3AX Triangular planar
Pyramidal
T-shape
Zero
Non zero
Non zero
3BF
33,PClNH
3ClF
4AX Tetrahedral Zero 44 ,CClCH
F
FB
F
H
NH
H
F
F
B
F
H
NH
H
F
F
B
F
H
NH
H











































 |
|
|
|
*
*
**
Formation of a co-ordinate
bond between NH3 and BF3
H H
C
H
Cl
Methyl chloride
 = 1.86D
H H
O
Water
 = 1.84D
H H
N
H
Ammonia
 = 1.46D

92 Chemical Bonding
Square planar
See saw
Zero
Non zero
4XeF
44 ,TeClSF
5AX Trigonal bipyramidal
Square pyramidal
Zero
Non zero
5PCl
5BrCl
6AX Octahedral
Distorted octahedral
Zero
Non zero
6SF
6XeF
7AX Pentagonal bipyramidal Zero 7IF
(2) Every ionic compound having some percentage of covalent
character according to Fajan's rule. The percentage of ionic character in
compound having some covalent character can be calculated by the
following equation.
The % ionic character 100
lTheoretica
Observed



.
(3) The trans isomer usually possesses either zero dipole moment or
very low value in comparison to cis–form
ClCH
ClCH


||
HCCl
ClCH


||
Fajan’s rule
The magnitude of polarization or increased covalent character
depends upon a number of factors. These factors are,
(1) Small size of cation : Smaller size of cation greater is its
polarizing power i.e. greater will be the covalent nature of the bond.
(2) Large size of anion : Larger the size of anion greater is its
polarizing power i.e. greater will be the covalent nature of the bond.
(3) Large charge on either of the two ions : As the charge on the
ion increases, the electrostatic attraction of the cation for the outer
electrons of the anion also increases with the result its ability for forming
the covalent bond increases.
(4) Electronic configuration of the cation : For the two ions of the
same size and charge, one with a pseudo noble gas configuration (i.e. 18
electrons in the outermost shell) will be more polarizing than a cation with
noble gas configuration (i.e., 8 electron in outer most shell).
Valence bond theory or VBT
It was developed by Heitler and London in 1927 and modified by
Pauling and Slater in 1931.
(1) To form a covalent bond, two atoms must come close to each
other so that orbitals of one overlaps with the other.
(2) Orbitals having unpaired electrons of anti spin overlaps with
each other.
(3) After overlapping a new localized bond orbital is formed which
has maximum probability of finding electrons.
(4) Covalent bond is formed due to electrostatic attraction between
radii and the accumulated electrons cloud and by attraction between spins
of anti spin electrons.
(5) Greater is the overlapping, lesser will be the bond length, more
will be attraction and more will be bond energy and the stability of bond
will also be high.
(6) The extent of overlapping depends upon: Nature of orbitals
involved in overlapping, and nature of overlapping.
(7) More closer the valence shells are to the nucleus, more will be
the overlapping and the bond energy will also be high.
(8) Between two sub shells of same energy level, the sub shell more
directionally concentrated shows more overlapping. Bond energy :
ss 22  < ps 22  < pp 22 
(9) s -orbitals are spherically symmetrical and thus show only head
on overlapping. On the other hand, p -orbitals are directionally
concentrated and thus show either head on overlapping or lateral
overlapping.Overlapping of different type gives sigma () and pi () bond.
Sigma () bond Pi () bond
It results from the end to end
overlapping of two s-orbitals or
two p-orbitals or one s and one p-
orbital.
It result from the sidewise (lateral)
overlapping of two p-orbitals.
Stronger Less strong
Bond energy 80 kcals Bond energy 65 kcals
More stable Less stable
Less reactive More reactive
Can exist independently Always exist along with a -bond
The electron cloud is symmetrical
about the internuclear axis.
The electron cloud is above and
below the plane of internuclear
axis.
Hybridization
The concept of hybridization was introduced by Pauling and Slater.
Hybridization is defined as the intermixing of dissimilar orbitals of the same
atom but having slightly different energies to form same number of new
orbitals of equal energies and identical shapes. The new orbitals so formed
are known as hybrid orbitals.
Characteristics of hybridization
(1) Only orbitals of almost similar energies and belonging to the
same atom or ion undergoes hybridization.
(2) Hybridization takes place only in orbitals, electrons are not
involved in it.
(3) The number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number
of pure orbitals, mixed during hybridization.
(4) In the excited state, the number of unpaired electrons must
correspond to the oxidation state of the central atom in the molecule.
(5) Both half filled orbitals or fully filled orbitals of equivalent
energy can involve in hybridization.
(6) Hybrid orbitals form only sigma bonds.
(7) Orbitals involved in  bond formation do not participate in
hybridization.
(8) Hybridization never takes place in an isolated atom but it occurs
only at the time of bond formation.
(9) The hybrid orbitals are distributed in space as apart as possible
resulting in a definite geometry of molecule.
(10) Hybridized orbitals provide efficient overlapping than
overlapping by pure s, p and d-orbitals.
(11) Hybridized orbitals possess lower energy.
How to determine type of hybridization : The structure of any
molecule can be predicted on the basis of hybridization which in turn can
be known by the following general formulation,
)(
2
1
ACMVH 

Chemical Bonding 93
Where H = Number of orbitals involved in hybridization viz. 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7, hence nature of hybridization will be sp, sp2
, sp3
, sp3
d, sp3
d2
, sp3
d3
respectively.
V = Number electrons in valence shell of the central atom,
M = Number of monovalent atom
C = Charge on cation,
A = Charge on anion
Resonance
The phenomenon of resonance was put forward by Heisenberg to
explain the properties of certain molecules.
In case of certain molecules, a single Lewis structure cannot explain
all the properties of the molecule. The molecule is then supposed to have
many structures, each of which can explain most of the properties of the
molecule but none can explain all the properties of the molecule. The actual
structure is in between of all these contributing structures and is called
resonance hybrid and the different individual structures are called
resonating structures or canonical forms. This phenomenon is called
resonance.
To illustrate this, consider a molecule of ozone 3O . Its structure
can be written as
)()()( cba
OO
O
OO
O
OO
O
As a resonance hybrid of above two structures (a) and (b. For
simplicity, ozone may be represented by structure (c), which shows the
resonance hybrid having equal bonds between single and double.
Resonance is shown by benzene, toluene, O3
, allenes (>C = C =
C<), CO, CO2
, 
3CO , SO3
, NO, NO2
while it is not shown by H2
O2
, H2
O, NH3
,
CH4
, SiO2
.
As a result of resonance, the bond lengths of single and double bond
in a molecule become equal e.g. O–O bond lengths in ozone or C–O bond
lengths in –2
3CO ion.
The resonance hybrid has lower energy and hence greater stability
than any of the contributing structures.
Greater is the number of canonical forms especially with nearly
same energy, greater is the stability of the molecule.
Difference between the energy of resonance hybrid and that of the
most stable of the resonating structures (having least energy) is called
resonance energy. Thus,
Resonance energy = Energy of resonance hybrid – Energy of the
most stable of resonating structure.
In the case of molecules or ions having resonance, the bond order
changes and is calculated as follows,
structuresresonatingofno.Total
structuresall theinatomstwobetweenof bondsno.Total
orderBond 
In benzene 
5.1
2
12
2
bondinglebonddouble
orderBond 




s
In carbonate ion
OO
C
O
OO
C
O
OO
C
O





/
|
/
||
//
|
33.1
3
112
orderBond 


Bond characteristics
(1) Bond length
“The average distance between the centre of the nuclei of the two
bonded atoms is called bond length”.
It is expressed in terms of Angstrom (1 Å = 10
10
m) or picometer
(1pm = 12
10
m).
In an ionic compound, the bond length is the sum of their ionic
radii (   rrd ) and in a covalent compound, it is the sum of their
covalent radii (e.g., for HCl, ClH rrd  ).
Factors affecting bond length
(i) The bond length increases with increase in the size of the atoms.
For example, bond length of XH  are in the order,
HFHClHBrHI  .
(ii) The bond length decreases with the multiplicity of the bond.
Thus, bond length of carbon–carbon bonds are in the order,
CCCCCC – .
(iii) As an s-orbital is smaller in size, greater the s-character shorter
is the hybrid orbital and hence shorter is the bond length.
For example, HCspHCspHCsp ––– 23

(iv) Polar bond length is usually smaller than the theoretical non-
polar bond length.
(2) Bond energy
“The amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of a
particular type so as to separate them into gaseous atoms is called bond
dissociation energy or simply bond energy”. Greater is the bond energy,
stronger is the bond. Bond energy is usually expressed in 1–
molkJ .
Factors affecting bond energy
(i) Greater the size of the atom, greater is the bond length and less
is the bond dissociation energy i.e. less is the bond strength.
(ii) For the bond between the two similar atoms, greater is the
multiplicity of the bond, greater is the bond dissociation energy.
(iii) Greater the number of lone pairs of electrons present on the
bonded atoms, greater is the repulsion between the atoms and hence less is
the bond dissociation energy.
(iv) The bond energy increases as the hybrid orbitals have greater
amount of s orbital contribution. Thus, bond energy decreases in the
following order, 32
spspsp 
(v) Greater the electronegativity difference, greater is the bond
polarity and hence greater will be the bond strength i.e., bond energy,
IHBrHClHFH  ,
.
.
.
.
. .
. .
.
. . .
.
. . .
.
.
. .
. .
.
. . . . .
.
.
. .
. .. .

94 Chemical Bonding
(vi) Among halogens Cl – Cl > F – F > Br – Br > I – I, (Decreasing
order of bond energy) Resonance increases bond energy.
(3) Bond angle
In case of molecules made up of three or more atoms, the average
angle between the bonded orbitals (i.e., between the two covalent bonds) is
known as bond angle .
Factors affecting bond angle
(i) Repulsion between atoms or groups attached to the central atom
may increase or decrease the bond angle.
(ii) In hybridisation as the s character of the s hybrid bond
increases, the bond angle increases.
Bond type sp3
sp2
sp
Bond angle 109º28 120° 180°
(iii) By increasing lone pair of electron, bond angle decreases
approximately by 2.5%.
CH4
NH3
H2
O
Bond angle 109º 107o
105o
(iv) If the electronegativity of the central atom decreases, bond angle
decreases.
oooo
2222
5.892.912.925.104angleBond
TeHSeHSHOH 
In case the central atom remains the same, bond angle increases
with the decrease in electronegativity of the surrounding atom.
ooooo
333333
1015.1004.981025.101100
,
o
AsIAsBrAsClPIPBrPCl
angleBond
Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR )
The basic concept of the theory was suggested by Sidgwick and
Powell (1940). It provides useful idea for predicting shapes and geometries
of molecules. The concept tells that, the arrangement of bonds around the
central atom depends upon the repulsion’s operating between electron
pairs(bonded or non bonded) around the central atom. Gillespie and
Nyholm developed this concept as VSEPR theory.
The main postulates of VSEPR theory are
(1) For polyatomic molecules containing 3 or more atoms, one of the
atoms is called the central atom to which other atoms are linked.
(2) The geometry of a molecule depends upon the total number of
valence shell electron pairs (bonded or not bonded) present around the
central atom and their repulsion due to relative sizes and shapes.
(3) If the central atom is surrounded by bond pairs only. It gives the
symmetrical shape to the molecule.
(4) If the central atom is surrounded by lone pairs (lp) as well as
bond pairs (bp) of 
e then the molecule has a distorted geometry.
(5) The relative order of repulsion between electron pairs is as
follows : lp – lp > lp – bp > bp – bp.
A lone pair is concentrated around the central atom while a bond
pair is pulled out between two bonded atoms. As such repulsion becomes
greater when a lone pair is involved.
Table : 3.2 Geometry of Molecules/Ions having bond pair as well as lone pair of electrons
Type of
mole-cule
No. of bond
pairs of
electron
No. of lone
pairs of
electrons
Hybridi-
zation
Bond angle
Expected
geometry
Actual geometry Examples
3AX 2 1 2
sp < 120o
Trigonal planar
V-shape, Bent,
Angular
SO2
, SnCl2
, NO2
–
4AX 2 2 3
sp < 109o
28 Tetrahedral
V-shape,
Angular
H2
O, H2
S, SCl2
, OF2
, NH2
–
, ClO2
–
4AX 3 1 3
sp < 109o
28 Tetrahedral Pyramidal NH3
, NF3
, PCl3
, PH3
, AsH3
, ClO3
–
, H3
O+
5AX 4 1 dsp3
< 109o
28
Trigonal
bipyramidal
Irregular
tetrahedron
SF4
, SCl4
, TeCl4
5AX 3 2 dsp3 90o
Trigonal
bipyramidal
T-shaped ICl3
, IF3
, ClF3
5AX 2 3 dsp3 180o
Trigonal
bipyramidal
Linear XeF2
, I3
–
, ICl2
–
6AX 5 1 23
dsp < 90o
Octahedral
Square
pyramidal
ICl5
, BrF5
, IF5
6AX 4 2 23
dsp – Octahedral Square planar XeF4
, ICl4
–
AX7
6 1 33
dsp –
Pentagonal
pyramidal
Distorted
octahedral
XeF6
Molecular orbital theory or MOT
Molecular orbital theory was given by Hund and Mulliken in 1932.
The main ideas of this theory are,
(1) When two atomic orbitals combine or overlap, they lose their
identity and form new orbitals. The new orbitals thus formed are called
molecular orbitals.
(2) Molecular orbitals are the energy states of a molecule in which
the electrons of the molecule are filled just as atomic orbitals are the energy
states of an atom in which the electrons of the atom are filled.
(3) In terms of probability distribution, a molecular orbital gives
the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei just as an
atomic orbital gives the electron probability distribution around the single
nucleus.
(4) Only those atomic orbitals can combine to form molecular
orbitals which have comparable energies and proper orientation.

Chemical Bonding 95
(5) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number
of combining atomic orbitals.
(6) When two atomic orbitals combine, they form two new orbitals
called bonding molecular orbital and antibonding molecular orbital.
(7) The bonding molecular orbital has lower energy and hence
greater stability than the corresponding antibonding molecular orbital.
(8) The bonding molecular orbitals are represented by , etc,
whereas the corresponding antibonding molecular orbitals are represented
by **
,  etc.
(9) The shapes of the molecular orbitals formed depend upon the
type of combining atomic orbitals.
(10) The filling of molecular orbitals in a molecule takes place in
accordance with Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's
rule. The general order of increasing energy among the molecular orbitals
formed by the elements of second period and hydrogen and their general
electronic configurations are given below.
(11) Electrons are filled in the increasing energy of the MO which is
in order
(a) ,2,2,2,1,1 **
xpssss  yp2 xy pp 2,2 **

,2 zp zp2*

Increasing energy (for electrons > 14)
(b) ,2,2,1,1 **
ssss  yp2 , ,2 xp
zp2*

Increasing energy (for electrons  14)
(12) Number of bonds between two atoms is called bond
order and is given by





 

2
orderBond AB NN
where BN number of electrons in bonding MO.
AN number of electrons in antibonding MO.
For a stable molecule/ion, AB NN 
(13) Bond order  Stability of molecule  Dissociation energy 
lengthBond
1
.
(14) If all the electrons in a molecule are paired then the substance
is a diamagnetic on the other hand if there are unpaired electrons in the
molecule, then the substance is paramagnetic. More the number of unpaired
electron in the molecule greater is the paramagnetism of the substance.
Hydrogen bonding
In 1920, Latimer and Rodebush introduced the idea of “hydrogen
bond”.
For the formation of H-bonding the molecule should contain an
atom of high electronegativity such as F, O or N bonded to hydrogen atom
and the size of the electronegative atom should be quite small.
Types of hydrogen bonding
(1) Intermolecular hydrogen bond : Intermolecular hydrogen bond is
formed between two different molecules of the same or different
substances.
(i) Hydrogen bond between the molecules of hydrogen fluoride.
(ii) Hydrogen bond in alcohol and water molecules
(2) Intramolecular hydrogen bond (Chelation)
Intramolecular hydrogen bond is formed between the hydrogen atom
and the highly electronegative atom (F, O or N) present in the same
molecule. Intramolecular hydrogen bond results in the cyclisation of the
molecules and prevents their association. Consequently, the effect of
intramolecular hydrogen bond on the physical properties is negligible.
For example : Intramolecular hydrogen bonds are present in
molecules such as o-nitrophenol, o-nitrobenzoic acid, etc.
O
H
O
N
||
O
Ortho nitrophenol
O
||
C
O
O
N
||
O
Ortho nitrobenzoic acid
H
H
|
C
O
H
O
Salicyldehyde
(o-hydroxy benzaldehyde)
*(2py)
*(2pz)
*(2px)
 (2py)  (2px)
 (2pz)
2p 2p
*(2s)
 (2s)
2s 2s
*(1s)
 (1s)
1s 1s
Atomic
orbitals
Molecular
orbitals
Atomic
orbitals
Molecular orbital energy level diagram
(Applicable for elements with Z > 7)
Increasingenergy
*(2py)
*(2pz)
*(2px)
 (2pz)
 (2py)
2p 2p
*
(2s)
 (2s)
2s 2s
*
(1s)
 (1s)
1s 1s
Atomic
orbitals
Molecular
orbitals
Atomic
orbitals
Molecular orbital energy level diagram obtained by the overlap of 2s and 2pz
atomic orbitals after mixing
(Applicable for elements with Z < 7)
Increasingenergy
 (2px)

96 Chemical Bonding
The extent of both intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen
bonding depends on temperature.
Effects of hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bond helps in explaining the abnormal physical properties
in several cases. Some of the properties affected by H-bond are given below,
(1) Dissociation : In aqueous solution, hydrogen fluoride dissociates
and gives the difluoride ion )( 2

HF instead of fluoride ion )( 
F . This is
due to H-bonding in HF. This explains the existence of 2KHF . H-bond
formed is usually longer than the covalent bond present in the molecule
(e.g. in H2
O, O–H bond = 0.99 Å but H-bond = 1.77 Å).
(2) Association : The molecules of carboxylic acids exist as dimers
because of the hydrogen bonding. The molecular masses of such compounds
are found to be double than those calculated from their simple formulae.
For example, molecular mass of acetic acid is found to be 120.
(3) High melting and boiling point : The compounds having
hydrogen bonding show abnormally high melting and boiling points.
The high melting points and boiling points of the compounds
HFOH ,( 2 and )3NH containing hydrogen bonds is due to the fact that
some extra energy is needed to break these bonds.
(4) Solubility : The compound which can form hydrogen bonds with
the covalent molecules are soluble in such solvents. For example, lower
alcohols are soluble in water because of the hydrogen bonding which can
take place between water and alcohol molecules as shown below,
5252
...............................
HCHHC
OHOHOH



The intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases solubility of the
compound in water while, the intramolecular hydrogen bonding decreases.
(5) As the compounds involving hydrogen bonding between
different molecules (intermolecular hydrogen bonding) have higher boiling
points, so they are less volatile.
(6) The substances which contain hydrogen bonding have higher
viscosity and high surface tension.
(7) Explanation of lower density of ice than water and maximum
density of water at 277K : In case of solid ice, the hydrogen bonding gives
rise to a cage like structure of water molecules as shown in following figure.
As a matter of fact, each water molecule is linked tetrahedrally to four other
water molecules. Due to this structure ice has lower density than water at
.273K That is why ice floats on water. On heating, the hydrogen bonds
start collapsing, obviously the molecules are not so closely packed as they
are in the liquid state and thus the molecules start coming together
resulting in the decrease of volume and hence increase of density. This goes
on upto 277K. After 277 K, the increase in volume due to expansion of the
liquid water becomes much more than the decrease in volume due to
breaking of H-bonds. Thus, after K277 , there is net increase of
volume on heating which means decrease in density. Hence density of water
is maximum K277 .
O  N = O
Due to chelation, – OH group is not
available to form hydrogen bond with
water hence it is sparingly soluble in
water.
O
H
O
N
||
O
o- Nitrophenol
– OH group available to form
hydrogen bond with water, hence it
is completely soluble in water.
H – O …… H – O – H
p- Nitrophenol
H
H
H
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
HH
H
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
O
H
H
O
H
O
O
0.90 Å
(99 pm)
1.77 Å
(177 pm)
Vacant spaces
Cage like structure of H2O in the ice

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