Principles of Management - Notes

LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working
together in groups to accomplish selected aims efficiently.
It connotes different meaning indifferent contexts. The concept management may be used as
Collective noun

Board of directors or Executive Committee

Field of study

A branch of knowledge including the principles,

techniques, functions and problem management.

Function

Functions to be performed to attain the

organizational objectives-planning, organizing
direction, co-ordination and control

In a more important sense, management is a vital function concerned wth all aspects of the working of
an enterprise. Here the management is considered as a body of knowledge consisting of several
concepts, principles, techniques and theories which can be adopted in any group Endeavour.
DEFINITIONS
Management is an art of knowing what do you want to do and then seeing that is is done in the best
and cheapest way.
-F. W. TAYLOR
To manage is to forecast, to plan, to organize, to command to co-ordinate and control.
-

HENRY FAYOL

Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling

performance t determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources,
- GEORGE R. TERRY
Management is the creation and maintenance of internal environment is an enterprise where
individuals working in groups can perform efficiently and effectively toward the attainment of group
goals. It is an art of getting the work done through and with people in formally organized groups.
-

KOONTZ ANDODONNEL

FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT
The important characteristics of management as a business function are:
1. It is an art of getting things done through and with people.
2. Art and science of decision making and leadership.
3. It is a universal process for achieving results.
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4. It is an profession which involves specialized training and is governed by an ethical code.
5. It coordinates human factor and physical resources for the accomplishment of group objectives.
by balancing and integration (or)
by innovation and adaptation
IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT STUDY
The need and significance of management functions in the modern organizations are given below.
1. To increase the efficiency
2. to give a definite shape to management function.
3. to improve research in management.
4. to attain social goals by effective utilization of resources.
NATURE OF MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
1.

Universality

2.

3.
4.

:
It has universal application in all kinds/nature and size of
business activities.

Dynamism :
This body of knowledge is going on changing
continuously with respect changes that are taking place in
the organizational environment.
Relativity :
It embraces all business functions at different levels.
Regularity of
human nature :
It helps to shape the human behaviour in the work
environment.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT

A brief discussion about different approaches of management is given below.
EMPIRICAL APPROACH
The empirical school of management bases its methods on a close study of past managerial experiences
and management cases. As such, it is also known as case approach or management experience
approach.
According to this approach, management is considered a study of manager in practice. The
intention of studying experience is to draw generalizations and to develop means to teaching
experiences to other practitioners and students. Attempts are made to duplicate successful experiences
while avoiding unsuccessful ones.
This approach offers the most conventional way of acquiring skills in management, that is,
learning through the experience of others. This approach also helps in classroom, situations for
developing diagnostic and analytical skills in management students. Following limitations of this
approach are quite obvious.
This empirical approach, basing its generalizations on cases and past experiences has not
contributed anything fundamental to the development of management as discipline because of obvious
contradictions in various management experiences.

HUMAN BEHAVIOR APPROACH

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The human behavior approach is the outcome of the thoughts developed by behavioral scientists who
look at the organization as collectivity of people. Since management involves getting things done with
and through people, the study on management must revolve round human behavior. This approach can
be divided into groups interpersonal behavior approach and group behavior approach. This approach
suggestion how the knowledge of human behavior can be used in making people more effective in the
organization.
However, this approach is not free from limitations. It is true that manage can be better placed by
understanding human behavior but equating management with human behavior is untenable. There is
something more than mere human relations management. Human behavior approach provides only the
diagnosis for human problems but problems have to be solved by taking many more factors which are
not explained by this approach.

SOCIAL SYSTEM APPROACH

Closely resembling the human behavior approach and often confused intermixed with it is the social
system approach. The real pioneer of social system approach is Vilfred Pareto, a sociologist. His ideas
were later developed by Chest Bernard who has really developed the concept of social systems
approach management. According to this approach, the organization is essentially a culture system
composed of people who work in cooperation. As such, for achieves organization goals, a co-operative
system of management can be developed only understanding the behavior of people in groups.
The social system approach has real significance to the practicing managers in the sense that
all managers operate n a social system and the organization is likely to succeed if the demands of the
society in which it operates as fully recognized. The approach, however, spreads the boundary and
application of management beyond the true concept of organizations.

SOCIAL TECHNICAL SYSTEMS APPROACH

This approach believes that to solve organizational problems, it is not enough to look at the cooperative
social systems alone but technical systems (methods and machines) and how it affects and is affected
by social systems and a technical system. The real pattern of behavior in the organization is determined
by the interaction of the two.
The major contribution of this approach is that while analyzing management problem of
getting things done by people, adequate consideration should be given to technology as well as
informal interactions of people. Thus any change in technology must be viewed in subsequent change
in social interactions at the workplace. However, this approach is more suitable for managing the
problems at the shop floor leave rather thandandling the total management problems.

DECISION THEORY APPROACH

The major emphasis of this approach is that decision making is the job of every manager. The manager
is a decision maker and organization is a decision-making unit. Therefore, the basic problem in
managing is to make rational decision.
The approach contributes to the sharpening of managerial tools specially for making suitable
decisions in the organization. The approach demonstrates how managers can discharge their functions
effectively. Decision-making is vital in every school of management. The vital aspect cannot be denied
but management is more than mere decision making.

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MANAGEMENT SCIENCE APPROACH
Management science approach also known as mathematical or quantitative measurement
approach, visualizes management as a logical entity, the action of which can be expressed in terms of
mathematical symbol relationships and measurement data.
Management science approach is a fast developing one in analyzing and understanding
management. This has contributed significantly in developing orderly thinking in management which
has provided exactness in management discipline. Various mathematical tools like sampling, linear
programming, games theory, time series analysis, emulation, waiting line theory etc, have provided
more exactness in solving managerial problems. However, it is very difficult to call it a separate school
of management because it does not provide the answer for the total managerial problems, Moreover,
many managerial activities are not really capable of being quantified because of involvement of human
being who are governed by many irrational factors also.

SYSTEMS APPROACH
This approach is of comparatively recent origin, starting late 1950, it ha assumed
considerable importance in analyzing the phenomena of management. It is an integrating approach
which considers management in its totality based on empirical data. The basic idea of systems approach
is that any object must rely on a method of analysis involving simultaneous variations of mutually
dependent variables. The implication of systems approach are given below.
System approach of management provides and integrated approach of managing. This
considers management in its totality.
System approach of management provides an integrated approach of managing. This
considers management in its totality.
System approach possesses the conceptual level of managerial analysis much higher than
any other approach. It provides a framework through which organization environment interaction can
be analyzed and facilitates decision-making, since the system within which managers make decisions
can be provided as a more explicit framework decision-making is easier to handle.
It is often suggested that system approach is too abstract to be of much use to practicing
managers. It merely indicate that various parts of the organization are interrelated.
System approach of management lacks universality and its precepts cannot be applied to all
organizations.

CONTINGENCY OR SITUATIONAL APPROACH

The basic idea of contingency approach is that there cannot be a particular management
action which will be suitable for all situations. Rather, and appropriate action is one which is designed
on the basis of external environment and internal states and needs. Contingency approach tries to fill
this gap by suggesting what should be done in response to an event in the environment.
Contingency approach, on the other hand suggests an active interrelationship between the
variables in a situation and the managerial actions devised. The implications of the contingency
approach are given below.
It is the sophisticated approach to understand the increasing complexity of organizations.
It emphasizes the multivariate nature of organizations and attempts tounderstand how organizations
operate under varying conditions. The approach is directed towards suggesting organizational designs
and managerial actins most appropriate to specific situations.
Inspite of the various contributions, contingency approach has not been acknowledged as
a unified theory of management because it suffers from some limitations.
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1.

Inadequate Literature
Contingency approach suffers from inadequacy of literature.

2.

Complex :

Determination of situation in which managerial action is to be taken involves

large number of variables with multifarious dimensions.
3.

analysis of a

Reactive not Proactive:

Contingency approach is basically reactive in nature. It merely suggests what managers can do
in given situation.

OPERATIONAL APPROACH
This approach attempts to draw together the pertinent knowledge of management by relating
it to the functions of managers, commonly known as management process. As such this approach is
also known as management process approach. This approach views the management as a social process
comprising a series of actions leading to the accomplishment of certain objectives. The significance of
operations approach is given below.
1.

2.
3.

1.
2.
3.

Operational approach offers a broad, easy to understand conceptual framework of

management. The approach includes the entire scope of management and recognizes it as a
separate discipline.
This approach suggests that management is a universal phenomenon irrespective of the type
of organizations or levels of an organization.
Operational approach provides useful concepts for practicing managers. It helps the
managers to put their knowledge to use. It offers practical suggestions by providing
classification of managerial functions at first level into planning, organizing, staffing,
directing and controlling. However the operational approach has been criticized on the
following grounds.
The basic tenets of operational management that is , various management functions, are not
universally accepted.
Another criticism against operational approach is that various terms used in this approach
are not commonly shared.
The analysis of various approaches suggests that no approach is fully free from
shortcomings. However, a positive sign is emerging in the form of convergence of various
approaches. The convergence is provided by operational approach as compared to any other
approach.

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
The basic aim of managing is to achieve certain objectives or goals. The manager must be sure of the
objectives he desires to attain or of the end result to be ensured. The precise and the complete statement
in this regard would make the objectives clear and understood by all concerned who have ot divert their
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activities towards its attainment. The desired result, objective or goal is attained by performing certain
fundamental management functions which can be grouped under basic heads, namely
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Motivating
Directing
Coordinating
Controlling

PLANNING
It means Preparing a sketch or an outline of any proposed plan of actions. It implies
considering and arranging in advance a projected course of action. It can also be definedas determining
what is to be done, making the decisions to do it, and devising a procedure, method and time table to do
it. Planning is a general activity. It is a necessary part of all operations of an enterprise, and for the
operations of each of the departments and sections. It stimulates people to action and also determines
their mode of action.
For eg. Sales manager plans his sales campaign
The purchasing Manager plans his purchasing and transporting operations
The production Manager plans his production programs.
Planning is an exercise in forecasting and decision making. It involves forecast of future conditions and
an estimate of how the proposed plans would be affected by them.
Thus planning involves two aspects. First it involves mental formulations of an idea of what is desired
to be achieved. Upto this, it remains at the thinking level and is based on forecasts and estimates.
Secondly it determines the mode of action to be pursued to achieve what has been thought up. At this
stage, the idea takes a definite shape with a due regard to the ordinary and immediate circumstances
facing the enterprise.

ORGANISATION
To organize means to put into working order and arrange in a system. In this sense, an
organization is an organized body or persons. Organising may be defined as arranging a number of
complex tasks into manageable units and defining the formal relationship among the people who are
assigned the various units of tasks. This definition is in the context of attainment of the goals and
objectives of an undertaking.
Generally, identifiable units of tasks are put under the charge of a department, section or
division. The head of that department, section or unit being given with the authority to perform those
tasks. For eg. Business activities in an industrial concern may be grouped under :
1.
Production
2.
Sales
3.
Finance and
4.
Personnel
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After classification and analysis of functions to be performed by each department, persons possessing
requisite qualifications and experience may be appointed as head of each of these departments. Such
persons should also be given proper authority to discharge their functions efficiently.
.
Thus basically organization is concerned with grouping the activities required to attain the
planned objectives, defining responsibilities of the people in the organization, delegating the
appropriate authority to them to discharge the respective responsibilities and establishing structural
relationships to enable Co-ordination of the individual efforts towards accomplishment of the enterprise
objectives. The main objective of organization is to establish well defined relationships as between
individuals and groups of individuals and between the activities performed by them.

STAFFING
It has been defined as manning and keeping manned the positions provided by the organization
structure. Thus staffing involves four things:
Assessment of personnel needs of the enterprise and selection and training of employees.
Determination of employees remuneration.
Evaluation of employees performance.
Establishment of effective communication skills.
Staffing is a difficult managerial function, because it is concerned with selection of properly qualified
and mentally well-adjusted persons and their retention in the enterprise as a contented and motivated
work force.

DIRECTING
To direct means to guide and supervise any action or conduct. It implies guidance or instructions about
what to do and how to do it. We have seen that in organisatin executives assign responsibilities and
duties to their subordinates and delegate to them with requisite authority to perform the assigned
responsibilities of duties. This in fact is of very essence of management the art and process of getting
things done by others. No doubt, executives have the authority to force their subordinates to comply
with their directives. In case any subordinates faisl or refuses to comply, be may be thrown out or
punished in some other manner. But this a wrong view of the enterprise entire process of management.
On any case, with strong trade unions and a number of labour laws to protect the worker, it would not
be wise to demand compliance from ones subordinated. For securing whole-hearted compliance from
subordinated, the function of direction assumes considerable significance.
Direction function involves
1. Issuing orders and instructions to subordinated.
2. Guiding, training, energizing and leading the subordinates to perform the work methodically.
3. Exercising supervision over the work done by subordinates to ensure tat it is n conformity with
aims and objectives of the enterprise.
From all accounts, the function of directions is very important. Thus to make the organization click, it
becomes necessary to direct ones subordinates in a manner that they become effective instruments in
the realization of enterprise goods. The process of direction comprises of the following elements viz.
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Leadership
Communication
Motivation and
Supervision

A detailed discussion about these aspects is given in the subsequent chapters.

CO-ORDINATION
Some authorities emphasis co-ordination as a separate function of Management. This approach has not
been adopted here because it is felt that co-ordination is emphasized in each of the functions of
management process. Co-ordination must be sought from the very first step, namely, planning, so that
plans of all departments are integrated into a master plan, issuing the adequate co-ordination. Similarly
organizing of people into groups and work into activities involves adequate co-ordination. It can also
be secured through proper motivation of the workers towards organized efforts in terms of
organizational objectives and personal objectives of the employees through an integration of such
objectives. Finally the controlling aspect also indicates further co-ordination is required resulting in
improvements and fresh plans.

CONTROL
Controlling can be defined as comparing results with plans and taking corrective actin when
results deviate from plans.
In an organizational set up, It every Managers responsibility to control the performance of
work and workers places under his charge.
Pre-requisites of control:
1. Control is possible only where is there is a plan according to which actual performance is
intended to proceed.
2. The second requirement of control to measurement of the results of actual operations.
3. The third requirement of control is taking corrective action as soon as deviation from the plan is
discovered.
Fundamentally, control is any process that guides activity towards some pre-determined goal. The
essence of this concept is in determining in whether the activity is achieving the desire results. This
is what control is all about. For control to be effective and fruitful, it must be based on a plan. Then
on the basis of information received from the operational level, there must be measurement of
actual performance to ascertain deviations.
Thus the above functions are said to be the important functions of Management.

ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

The two terms administration and management are being used interchangeably for all practical
purposes. However these two terms are different from each other. Oliver Sheldon summaries the
distinction as follows.
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Administration is the function in the industry concerned in the determination of corporate policy,
the co-ordination of finance production and distribution, the settlement of complaints of the
organization and ultimate control of executive.
Management is the function in the industry concerned in the execution of policy within the limits
setup by the administration and the employment of the organization for the particular object set
before it.
William sprigeal distinguishes Administration as the determinate function and management as
the executive function.
Management is primarly concerned with carrying out of the broad policies laid down by the
administration. Thus the administration is concerned with the thinking function and management
with doing function.
The essence of management is highlighted by the definition given by KOONTZ and O DONEL
and by DONALD CLAGH. The later describe management a the art and science of decision
making and leadership. Art of getting things done through people and with people. Human factor in
industry has endless capacity for work provided planning and resources are made available to it.
The managers goal of attainment of enterprise objectives in the more efficient manner can be
accomplished only when the people in the enterprise work to the best of their ability in the spirit of
cooperation and zeal.

MANAGEMENT : AN ART OR SCIENCE

MANAGEMENT AN ART
According to G. TERRY; Art is Bringing about a desired result through the application of will in
any activity is called as an art, The emphasis is on applying skills with knowledge and
accomplishing an end through deliberate effort. Thus the function of the art is accomplishing
concrete ends efforts, results; predict situations that would not come about without the deliberate
effort, to secure them.

MANAGEMENT IS A SCIENCE
Science has been defined as body of systemized knowledge accumulated and accepted with
respect to the under standing of general tools concerning particular phenomenon subject or object
of study.
It is absolutely necessary that it should have codified principles and techniques that explains certain
truth with respect to basic phenomenon.
In this sense management is certainly regarded as science as it has also develop in to a systemized
knowledge regarding a particular phenomenon, namely, managerial function.
MANAGEMENT AS PROFESSION
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Profession is defined as an occupation based upon the specialized intellectual study and training,
the purpose of which is to supply skilled service or advice to others for the definite fee or salary.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFESSION
1. Existence of knowledge :
Profession emerges from the establishment of fact that there is a body of knowledge which cannot
started around but has to be studied for being a successful professional.
2. Acquisition of knowledge :
An individual can enter profession only after acquiring knowledge and skills through formal training
for example, only the law graduates can enter the profession of legal practice.
3. Professional association :
An occupation which claims to be profession should have an association. However manager do not
have single unified professional group like Indian medical council for medical practitioners from this
new management cannot be termed as trade profession.
4. Ethical code :
For every profession some ethical standards are provided and every individual of the profession is
expected to maintain conformity with these standards. In management also, code of conduct has been
formulated to suggest the behavioral pattern for professional managers.

5. Service motive:
It is essential because the monetary value of professional service cannot be measured easily in absence
of market mechanism except the competition among the professionals themselves. The success of any
profession is measured not in terms of money. It earns but by the amount of social service it provides.
Similarly contributions of management cannot be measured in terms of money alone because without
integrating effort of management, resources worth millions of rupees may be useless.
Once organization grows beyond certain size, changes in the nature of management process demands
that ownership and management should be divorced. So management positions should be held by
persons who have professional skill and adequate training.

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LESSON 2
PLANNING
MEANING
It means determining what is to be done, how, when and by whom it is to be done. It lays down and
object to pursuit and chalks out a specific course of action to achieve it. It is the first step in the
management process concerned with establishment of objectives and goals to be attained in the future
in the light of an analysis of present limitations for attaining such goals with a views to their removal or
reduction, anticipation and designing the course of action and programmes for attaining such predetermined goals.

DEFINITION
Planning is the selecting and relating of facts and the making and using of assumptions regarding the
future in the visualization to achieve desire results.
GEORGE TERRY
Planning is deciding advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, who is to do it. It bridges the gap
form where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible for things to occur which would not
otherwise happen.
- KOONTZ & ODONNEL
Planning is the thinking process, the organized, foresight, the vision based on facts and experience that
is required for intelligent action.
- ALFORD & BEATTY

FEATURES
As a process, planning has certain features as given below.
- It s the thinking process.
- Choosing is at the root of planning.
- It is pervasive prevailing in all activities
- Accomplishment of enterprise objectives.
- Primacy of planning Prime
- It is all embracing.
- It leads to increase in efficiency.
- It is an integrated process consisting of objectives, policies, procedures

IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
The significance of planning function could be indentified from the follows
To tackle increasing complexity in modern business.
To face increasing competition.
To provide for complex technological changes.
To insure against business failure.
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-

To meet the changing economic and political situations.

To exercise effective control.
To bring greater economy.

Merits of planning
Planning process facilities the managerial function on the following ways:
-Selection of best objectives can be made with the help of planning Profits, prestige, Favourable
consumer reaction, High morale of workers, Man-power development.
- Unity of action could be ensured.
- Aid to co-ordination and control
- Aid to growth and Expansion.
- Aid to employee co-operation.
- Aid to economy.
- Aid to foreseeing the future.
- Increases the effectiveness of manager.
Limitations of planning
The effectiveness of planning process may be affected on the following reasos

1. Uncertainty

Planning is based on forecasted results which will not

Hold good in uncertain situations.

2. Rigidity

Prior determination of policy, programme, etc.

Makes it regid.

3. Unsuitability

Business is a dynamic activity and hence plan

May not be suitable in all situations.

4. Costly

Planning is time consuming and costly affair

KINDS OF PLANNING
On the basis of the time factor, planning may be
Long Ranging planning
Short Range planning

5 10 years
Not more than one year

On the basis of business function for when planning is to be drawn Product planning, project and
activity planning.

DECISION MAKING
It is ht process selection an alternative from two or more alternatives to determine an opinion or a
course of action.
- GEORGE TERRY
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Factors involved in decision making :
Tangible factors:
Profits, Quality of output and all other quantitative factors
Such as Man-hours, Machine hours.

Intangible factors:

a.)
b.)
c.)
d.)

Employee morale.
The prestige of business concern.
Consumer behaviour.
Such other abstract factors.

Need :
Weighing the consequences of each alternative course of action.
Steps in Decision-making process:
Defining and analyzing the problem,
Finding relevant facts.
Developing alternative solutions.
Selecting the best solution.
Converting the decision into effective action.
Decision-making Process
Formulation
Selection
Deliberation
Investigation
Conception
Ption

CRITERIA
Some of the rationales to be adopted indecision-making process are:
Reduction of cost, Maximization of profit, saving of time, development of managerial skill, increasing
productivity etc.

TYPES OF PLANS
1.

Standing or repeated use plans

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.

Objectives
Policies
Procedures.
Rules
Strategies.

Single use of plans:

1. Programmes.
2. Budgets

A brief description about these sub-types of plans are given below:

a.) Objectives
It may be defined as the specific goals or targets to be accomplished viz., profit making, cost reduction,
increase in productivity goodwill, personnel development. Healthy employee relations, social
responsibility.
Fixing of objectives in an organizational planning function ensures the following advantages.
It is vital to planning function.
It helps to Integrate planning.
It ensure performance control.
Limitations :
However, fixation of objectives is subject to certain limitations viz.,
Difficult to define the objectives.
Difficult to devise suitable means.
Difficult to avoid conflict.
Remedies:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Objectives should be specific,

Objective should be realistic,
Objective should be backed by suitable sub-goals.
Objectives should be flexible.

b. Policies
It may be defined as a guide to thinking and action of those who have to make decisions in the course
of accomplishment of the enterprise objectives. They are formulated in broad forms and provide a
compressive and flexible course of action to be pursued to attain the given objectives

FEATURES
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It is a broad outlines about the things to be done and the way in which they an to e done.
It is Consistent with that of the organizational plan.
It is to be adequate in number to achieve organisationals goals.
It should be a sound one.
It must ensure flexibility.

KINDS OF POLICIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Internal or originated polices.

External or imposed policies.
Addealed policies.
State or explicit policies.
Unstated or implied policies.

Factors to be considered while formulation policies are :

1. Values, Beliefs, Ambitions, and Foresight of the owners and members of the top management.
2. Prevalent Technology.
3. Finance availability.
4. Employee reaction.
5. Accomplishment and activities of competitors,
6. Governmental regulation and control.
7. General business environment.
8. Price levels.
9. Public attitudes and behaviour.
Merits :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Guide to think and act.

Ensures Consistency in all actions.
Broader applicability.
Confidence booster.

Demerits :
1.
2.
3.
4.

It wont help to solve all problems.

Instant solutions to problems may not be available.
It cannot substitute human judgment.
It may nor encourage initiative.

c. Procedures
The process of establishing time sequences for work to be done.
They may be described as plans prescribing the exact chronological sequence of specific tasks required
to perform designated work.
To determine the specific tasks to be performed.
The time when those tasks will be performed.
The person who will perform them.
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Merits :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Basis of control
Standardisation of activities can be done.
Ensure consistency in all operations.
Aid to communication and co-ordination.

Limitations :
1. Redundacy may takes place in course of time.
2. Updating becomes must.

d. Rule :
It is decision made by the management regarding what is to be done and what is not to be done in a
given situation. It applies to specific situations. Rules do not leave any scope for decision making nor
do they permit any deviation.
e. Strategies :
It is derived form the greek word strategies, meaning general,
It means the art of projecting and planning the choice of means by which the enterprises forces ay be
employed most effectively in order to accomplish its intended goal. It is said to be formulated only to
meet the challenge posed by competitions policies and activity. The following factors may be
considered for formulating strategies.
Correct assessment of reaction of the parties concerned.
What human and physical resources are available to draw up a strategy.
Temperamental make-up of the persons to check-mate whom the strategy is being would up.

TYPES OF STRATEGIES
-

Strike while the iron is hot-act prompt a while the action is likely to get results.
Camels head in the tent creation of confidence regarding plan to some
Unity is strength
Time is greater heater.
Offence if the best form of a defence.
Divide and rule.

Successful implementation of strategies :

1.
Communicating strategies to all key decision-making managers.
2.
Developing and communicating planning premises.
3.
Ensuring that action plans contribute to and reflect major objectives and strategies.
4.
Reviewing strategies regularly.
5.
Developing contingency strategies and program.
6.
Making the organization structure fit planning needs.
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7.
8.

Continuing to emphasis planning implementing strategy.

Creating a company climate that forces planning.

f.
Programme
It lays down the operation to be carried out to accomplish a given work. It prescribes how enterprise
resources should be used.
Merits
Action based practical guide to managerial action.
Greater motivation.

1.
2.
Demerits
1.
2.

Greater risk of failure

Inadequate motivation.

g.
Budget
It is a plan relating to a period of time expressed in numerical terms. as a pre-determined statement of
management policy, during a given period, which provide a standard for comparison with the results
actual achieved.
Objectives of Budgeting :
1.
2.
3.
4.

To ensure effective planning.

to facilitate Co-ordination function.
To exercise Controlling effective and achieving desire goals.
To motivate the workforce for achieving desired results.

Merits :
Instrument of management policy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Time bound
Specific targets.
Synthesis of past, present and future.
Right motivation.
Basis of control.

Limitations
1.
Cabined and confined.
2.
Excessive reliance on past experience.
3.
Danger of inaccuracy in estimates.
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4.

Hampers initiative rational and pragmatic initiative is stiffed.

PLANNING PREMISES
Managerial plans are based on certain assumptions which are called planning premises. They constitute
the ground on which plans will stand. Meaningful premises facilitate consistency and coordination of
plans. The premises may be of
Non-controllable premises such as economic conditions, political situations, tastes, preferences of
people etc.
Semi-controllable premises such as firms market shares, union management relations etc.
Controllable premises such as policies of the organization, procedures, rules etc.
Effective Premising :
To effectuate the planning premises following guidelines may be adopted.
Selection of the premises that bear materially on program.
Development of alternative premises for contingency planning.
Verification of the consistency of premises
Communication of the premises.

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LESSON 3
ORGANISATION
The term organization is derived form the word organism which means structure with parts so
integrated that their relation to each other is governed by their relation to whole.
The term organization is used both structural and functional sense. As a structure it means a developed
enterprise being operated t achieve the given goals. As a function it refers to establishing relationship
between activities and authority pertaining to an enterprise.
Organization is nothing but a process of integrating and co-ordinating the efforts of men and materials
for the accomplishment of a set objective.

DEFINITION
Orgnisation is the process of identifying and grouping work to be performed defining and delegating
responsibility and authority and establishing relationship for the purpose of enabling people to work
most effectively together in accomplishing objectives.
-ALLEN
Organisation thus is an arrangement for internal administration of the enterprise. It describes the part
which each employee is intended to play in the operation of an enterprise and ensures that concerned
endeavour of all of them will be conductive to the full implementation of the plans of the enterprise.

FACTORS INCLUDED IN THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION

a)
b)
c)
d)

Assembly of business elements such as men, money and materials.

Creation of formal relationships between men employed at different levels through a
hierarchy of authority.
Defining the functional role of the personnel and laying down the range of their
responsibility for business performance.
Operating the organizational activities in conformity with the establishment
objectives of the enterprise.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Principles of objectives.
Principles of authority.
Principles of ultimate authority.
Principles of formal authority
Principles of the span of control
Principles of decision
Principles of Exception
Principles of Definition
Principles of Balance

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10.
11.
12.

Principles of Continuity
Principles of Organisation cost
Principles of Effective communication.

ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Division of work
Grouping of activities.
Assignment of Duties.
Delegation of Authority
Establishment of relationship.

Hence internal organization, implies designing an administrative set-up consisting of individuals with
defined task and responsibility to be performed according to an orderly sequence procedures for
attaining the result.

ORGANISATIONAL CHART
It is important tool for portraying net work of an organization structure. It shows
1.
The main portion, nature of relationship between
2.
Levels of management.
It is diagrammatic form which shows important aspects of an organization, including the major
function and their respective relationship, the channels of supervision and the relative authority of each
employees who is incharge of each respective functions.
-FEORGE TERRY

TYPES OF CHARTS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Vertical chart
Horizontal chart
Circular chart
Tree chart

Merits of Organisational Chart :

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Clarity in relationship
Easy to understand at a glance
Familiarizing new employees
Helps in formulating training programme
Helps to organizational change
It serves as a better method of visualizing the tone and character of an organisation.

Limitations
1.
2.
3.
4.

Likely to be outdated
Rigidity
It shows only relationships
Shifting of responsibility to somebody else

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5.
6.
7.

Does not show extents of authority or responsibility.

It may go against teamsprit
It ignores the informal aspects of orgnisation.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATION
The problem of organization is to select and combine the efforts of men of proper characteristics so as
to produce the desired result. Although character and type of organization would depend largely on the
size and nature of enterprise, the following broad patterns of organizing the personnel have been
evolved.
Line organization
Functional Organisation
Matrix Organisation

Staff Organisation
Line and Staff Organisation
Projectised Organisation

A brief outline about the three basic organization structures are given below

LINE ORGANISATION
It is the oldest type of organisation in use in which authority flows from the men at the top to the lowest
man vertically. i.e., the directionsare issued by the person incharge of the whole organization and are
directly conveyed to the persons responsible forhte execution of the work. The advantages of this
structure are:
Simple to understand and develop.
Clear-cut division of authority and responsibility is possible
Discipline can be easily maintained.
It makes for quick action
However, this structure has following shortcomings:
Makes the organization more regid and inflexible
Lack of expert advice may be there.
Key man are loaded heavily.
Loss of one or two capable men may mar the organisatioin.

Line Organisation Chart

General Manager

Manager
Eastern Region

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Manager
Western Region

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Manager 1

Manager 2

Manager 3

Manager 4

Manager 5

Manager 6

LINE AND STAFF ORGNISATION

A manager today cannot hope to think of all possible factors in a given situation. Therefore, he hs a set
of expert advisers. Those functions which have direct responsibility for accomplishing the major
objectives of the firm are called line functions. The staff functions are supposed to help and assist the
line in discharging their responsibility. The staff position established as a measure of support for the
line organization may be of personal staff, specialished staff and general staff. This form has certain
advantages and limitations. They are
It is based planned specialization
It brings expert knowledge to bear upon management
It provides more opportunity for advancement for able workers.
Limitations:
Relationship between line and staff member may creates confusion.
Lack of authority may affect the interest of the staff member.
Prestige and influence of line member ay suffer in front of specialist.

FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION
Here the whole task of management and direction of subordinates should be divided according to
the type of the work involved. The functional management carries this idea to its logical limit and
divides up management into a number of functions such as production, sales, finance and personae, and
research and development etc. Each of these departments would serve its best for the organization. Its
advantages are;
It ensures a greater division of labour
It Improves the efficiency of the organization.
It brings specialization and innovations.
It facilitates mass productin.
However, it has certain limitations as given below;
Strict enforcement of discipline is questionable.
Creates complexity in structuring activities.
Responsibility cannot be fixed effectively.
A model of line staff and functional organization structure is given below.
Chairman
PA to Chairman

Director Personal

Director Production

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Director Purchasing

Director Finance
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GM 1

GM 2

Manager Manager
Manager Finance
Personal Production

Manager
Personal

Manager
Production

Manager
Finance

FORMAL ORGANISATION
A Network of personal and social relation not established or required by the formal organization but
arising spontaneously as people associate with one another.
Types of informal groups
1.
Social overlays
2.
Functional overlays
3.
Decision overlays
4.
Power overlays
5.
Communication overlays
Benefits
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Sense of belonging
Safety value for emotional problem
Aid to the job
Breeding ground for innovation and originality
Important channel of communication
Social control
Check of authority
Self policing
Fills gaps in a managers abilities
Gives the managers feedback about employees and their work experience

Limitations
1.
Resistance to change
2.
Suboptimization
3.
Rumor
4.
Group think philosophy

AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY

Authority is the basis of organization in as much as organization is described as a system of
authority relationships. Authority is the power to command others to act in a manner deemed by the
possessor of the authority to further enterprise or departmental purpose. It is the power to make
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decisions which guide the actions of others. The person who makes the decisions is the superior and the
person who accepts them and is guided by them is called one subordinate.
Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact obedience.
-

HENRI FAYOL

Authority may be of formal authority, acceptance authority, authority of situation, position authority,
and technical authority.
Authority
Power
1
It is the institutionalized right of a It is the ability of a person to influence
superior to command and compel his another person to perform an act.
subordinates to perform a certain act.
2

It rests in the chair

It rests in the person

It is delegated

It is earned by own efforts

It is well defined

It is undefined

It is what exists in the eye

It is a dejure concept

It exists in fact.
It is defacto concept

Basis for formal organization

Basis for informal organ

Responsibility is an obligation of the individual to perform assigned duties to the best of his ability
under the direction of his executive leader.
- KEITH DAVIS
Responsibility refers to duty, activity or sometimes even authority. It really means that the obligation of
a subordinate to perform the duty assigned to him. The essence of responsibility is, then obligation. In
the normal functioning of an enterprise much of the responsibility in the nature of continuing obligation
which means that the subordinate has an obligation to discharge his functions as required by the
superior continually. Responsibility involves Compliance, obedience and Dependability. A failure to
observe these elements may call forth a penalty, punishment or disciplinary action against the erring
subordinate.
The term accountability can also be used as a substitute for responsibility. Accountability
refers to the liability of a subordinate for a proper discharge of his functions. It includes responsibility
and arises from it. But accountability cannot be delegated. Thus to be accountable is to be answerable
for the fulfillment or non-fulfillment of the authority or responsibility assigned.

DELEGATION
To delegate means to grant or confer. Delegation means conferring authority from one manager
to organizational unit to another in order to accomplish particular assignments. Delegation determines
the effectiveness of the manager in his work. The way in which delegation will influence the
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relationship between the subordinate and his superior and through it the performance of the
subordinate. In the absence of delegation, he may receive orders from many people and may, therefore,
be unsure of his job.

ELEMENTS OF DELEGATION
The process of delegation involves three basic actions whether expressed or implied. They are
The delegator should assign duties to subordinates.
He has to grant authority to subordinates to the delegated part of his work.
Delegation should create obligation on the part of subordinate to complete the job.
Merits
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Relieves managers workload.

Leads to better decisions.
Speed up decision builds up morale.
Train subordinates and
Helps to create formal organization structure.

BARRIERS TO DELEGATION.
On the managers side:
1.
Fear of loss of power
2.
Lack of confidence in subordinates.
3.
Fear of being exposed.
4.
Difficulty in briefing.
On the subordinates side:
1.
Fear of criticism
2.
Lack of adequate information
3.
Lack of self confidence and initiative and resources.
4.
No positive personal gain.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE DELEGATION

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Clarity in assigning the task

Proportionate authority.
Limits of subordinates authority.
Positive incentive for accepting responsibility.
Proper training of subordinates.
Create climate for mutual trust and goodwill
No over laps or slips in delegation.

STEPS IN DELEGATION
The entire process of delegation of authority can be completed through the following steps.
Determination of results protected.
Assignment of duties.
Authorization for action.
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Creation of obligation.

SPAN OF MANAGEMENT
It is one of the organization principle. It refers to the number of subordinates for whose activities an
executive should be held responsible. The limit to the number of subordinates who can be effectively
managed by a manager.
The factors determining span of control of a superior are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Nature of activities involved.

Ability of the superior (knowledge)
Nature and ability of subordinates.
Time available.
Place available etc.

GRAICUNAS FORMULA
French management consultant V. A. Graicuna offer analyzing subordinate and superior relationship
developed a mathematical formula. His theory identifies three types of the subordinates & superior
relationships namely.
1.
2.
3.

Direct single relationships.

Direct group relationships.
Cross relationship between subordinates.

These relationships vary (considenancy) with the size of the subordinates group while the supervisions
own direct relationship with individuals increase n (proption) to the addition to subordinates the groups
and cross relationships increase much more than proportionately.
He said the total number of relationships grows in geometrical ratio, every time a new subordinates is
added.

FORMULA
R=
Where N =
R=

Nx [2n-1+(n-1)
Number of subordinates
Total relations.

1.

When two subordinates

R=6

2.

4 Subordinates

R = 44

= 4 x ( 24-1+(4-1))
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= 4 x [23+(3)}

= 4 x{8+3}
= 44
Span of supervision require following skills :
Supervision requires attention.
Supervision requires Emotional stability.
Supervision requires time.
Supervision requires ability of subordinates.
Supervision requires nature of work.

USE OF GRAICUNAS FORMULA

It clearly shows complexity and difficulty of wider spans.
1.
It reminds manager of wisdom of striking to narrower spans.
Limitation
1.
Mathematical precision is debatable
2.
Direct group relation may be far fetched.
3.
The main problem is not number of RL but their frequency and the volume of stress and
strain they generate.
4.
It does apply in cases of cross relations of a big enterprise.
Limited span of control ensures the following
1.
2.
3.

Tighter control and closer supervision

Ease of managing fewer.
Availability of time to think and plan

On the other hand limited span of control has some shortcomings also as given below
1.
2.
3.

Additional costs having more manager

Complexities in communication will arise
Prevention of democratic participation

DECENTRALIZATION
It is the situation which exists as a result of systematic delegation of authority through out the
organization.
The term decentralization carries different meanings to different people.
Decentralization is an extension of delegation.
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Decentralization implies a systematic delegation of authority through out the whole organization.

WHY DECENTRALIZATION ?
Large companies having independent product or service lines may adopt a form of decentralization.
Under decentralization the whole organization is divided in to self-sufficient divisions.
Having experienced many difficulties in the smooth running of such centralizes organizations,
decentralizations of authority has been suggested and largely resorted to particularly to achieve the
following purposes.
-

Easing burden of chief executive.

Facilitating diversification,
Providing product of market emphasis.
Developing managers and
Improving motivation.

ADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALIZATION
-

Decentralization leads to specialization.

Encourages decision making and assumption of authority and responsibility.
Decentralization makes the sub ordinates to work with involvement
Facilitates diversification in large scale.
Promote the development of general managers.
Aids in adoption of fast changing Environment.

DISADVANTAGES OF DECENTRALIZATION
-

Makes it more difficult to have a uniform policy.

Decentralization leads to problem in co ordination.
May be limited to External forces.
Leads to increase in cost.
May some time leads to mis-use of power in high levels.
Leads to expenses in training a manager.
May be limited by the availability of qualified managers.

DELEGATION Vs DECENTRALIZATION
1.
2.
3.

Delegation is the process while decentralization is the end result.

Superior is responsible for delegation where as in decentralization subordinates are
responsible.
Delegation is vital and decentralization is optional.

DEPARTMENTATION
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First task in designing an organization structure is the identification of activities and to group them
properly. The process of grouping activities is commonly known as departmentation.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF DEPARTMENTATIN

The basic need for departmentation arises because of specialization of work and the limitation on the
number of subordinates controlled by a superior.
1.

Advantages of specialization :

Thus if the managerial function is conceived as a set of activities facilitating the work of organization,
these activities can be carried out more efficiently and effectively through the division of work leading
to a specialization of managerial function.
2.

Fixation of responsibility

Departmentation helps in fixing the responsibility and consequently accountability for the results.
3.

Developed of managers

Departmentation helps in the development of managers.

4.

Facility in Appraisal

Managerial performance can be measured when the area of activities can be specified and standards in
respect of these can fixed. Depertmentation provides helps in both these areas.

5. Feeling of Autonomy :
Deprtmentation provides motivation by developing feeling of autonomy to the extent possible. There
are several bases of departmentation. The more commonly used bases are function, produt, territory,
process, customer, time etc. Some of these bases are internal-operation oriented like function,
process, time while others like product, territory and customer are output-oriented.

FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTATION
The grouping of common or homogeneous activities to form an organization unit is known as
functional departmentation. Functional departmentation is the most widely used basis for organizing
activities and is present almost in every large organization at some level.
Functional departmentation is most commonly used because it offers certain advantages which
include advantages of specialization, ensuring performance of activities necessary for the achievement
of organizational objectives, elimination of un-necessary activities, easier control over functions, easier
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way for pinpointing training need of the managers and maintaining the relative importance of functions
in the organization.

PRODUCT WISE DEPARTMENTATION

Product departmentation involves the grouping together of all actibities necessary to
manufacture a product or product line. Product departmentation is preferred for product expansion and
diversification when manufacturing and marketing characteristics of each product are of primary
concern. Product departmentation offers several advantages places attention to product lines, reduces
problems of coordination for different products, provides opportunities for further diversification and
expansion of organization and provides product specialization necessary for managers specially when
each product is different from other.

TERRITORY WISE DEPARTMENTATION

Territorial or geographical departmentation is specially useful to large-sized organizations
having activities which are physically or geographically spread such as banking, insurance,
transportation etc., Territorial departmentatin provides certain efficiency in operation. Local factors
such as customers, culture, styles, preferences etc., always affect organizational functioning.

PRODUCTION PROCESSES WISE DEPARTMENTATION

In process departmentation, processes involved in production or various types of equipments
used are taken as basis for departmentation. When the production activities involve the use of several
distinctive processes, these can be used as the base for grouping of activities. Such activities may be
textiles, oil production etc., The process are set in such a way that a series of operations is feasible
making operations economic. It provides advantages of specialization required at each level of total
processes, maintenance of plant can be done in better way, and manpower can be utilized effectively.
CUSTOMER WISE DEPARTMENTATION
Customer based departmentation is basically market oriented in which departments are created
around the markets served or around marketing channels. The basic idea of this departmentation is to
provide services to clearly identified groups of customers. Each group of customers has different
purchase behavior, payment schedule, demand pattern etc., Therefore they can be attracted to the
organizations business by satisfying them by providing services, payment schedule demand pattern
etc.

CHOICE OF BASES FOR DEPARTMENTATION

The selection of bases for departemntation involves a consideration of the relative advantages of each
base for the organization. Ideally speaking, a suitable basis of departmentation is one which facilitates
the performance of organizational functions efficiently and effectively so that its objective are
achieved.
1.

Specialization:

The basis of departmentation should reflect the specialization in performing the work.
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2.

Coordination:

Coordination involves that all the related activities are performed in a way that their performance is
synchronized so that each activity contributes to others.
3.

Economy

A balance should be maintained between the cost of creating a department and its contribution. The
existence of a department is desirable only when it contributes more than its cost.
4.

Focus on Result

Those activities which contribute to the achievement to these results should be given proper attention.
5.

Local Conditions :

Local requirements of the organization should also the taken into account while creating departments.
6.

Human Considerations :

Departments should be created on the basis of availability of personnel, their aspirations and value
systems, informal work groups and attitudes of people towards various forms of organization structure.

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Lesson 4
Direction
Direction is instructing the subordinates to follow a certain process to attain a give objectives. It is
getting the work done through instructions and orders. It is the function of diversion in the management
process to get the work from the subordinates by means of guiding, motivation, communication,
supervising, leading and if need be commanding.
It is sum of total of managerial efforts that is applied for guiding and inspiring the working teams to
make better accomplishments in the organization.
It is the heart and soul of management.

PROCESS OF DIRECTION
1.
2.
3.
4.

Defining the objectives.

Organizing the efforts.
Measuring the work.
Developing the people.

Ever manager in the organization gives direction to his subordinates as superior and receives direction s
subordinate from his superior.
Direction may be defined as the function of management which is related with instructing, guiding and
inspiring human factor in the organization to achieve organization objective. The direction is not
merely issuing orders and instructions by a superior to his subordinates, but is includes the process of
guiding and inspiring them. The analysis of definition reveals that direction function consist of three
elements.
-

Motivation
Leadership
Communication

Direction has the following characteristics

Direction is an important managerial function. Through direction management can initiates
actions in the organization.
Direction function is performed at every level of management.
Direction is a continuous process and it continuous through out the life of the organization.
Direction initiates at the top level in the organization follows and bottom through there
hierarchy. It emphasizes that a subordinates is to be directed by his own superior only.

IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTION
The importance of direction function in the organization can be presented as follows.
Direction initiates action.
Direction integrates employees efforts.
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-

Direction attempts to get maximum out of individuals.

Direction facilitates charges in the organization.
Direction provides stability and balance in the organization.

PRINCIPLES OF DIRECTION
Direction is one of the most complex function of the management as it ideals with people whose nature
itself is quite complex and unpredictable.
1.

Principles of relating to the purpose of directing

a. Principles of maximum individual contribution.
b. Principle of harmony of objectives.
c. Principle of efficiency of direction.

2.

Principle relating to direction process:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Principle of unity of command.

Principle of appropriateness of direction technique.
Principle of managerial communication.
Principle of comprehension.
Principle of use of informal organization.
Principle of leadership.
Principle of follow through.

Thus one of the basics functions of management is direction. Direction means the use of leadership and
motivation to guide the performance of subordinates towards the achievement of the organizations
goals. Important requirements for effective direction are : Harmony of objectives, Unity of command,
direct supervision, efficient communication and follow-up.

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LESSON 5
MOTIVATION
Motivation is an art of stimulating someone or oneself or oneself to get designed course of action, to
push the right button to get desire action. Motivation is an act of inducement.
Motivation
M
S

Results
=
=

Satisfaction

is a drive t satisfy a want

is experienced when the outcome has been achieved.

The basic principle of motivation is based upon the following policy i.e., carrot or stick policy.
Put a carrot in front of donkey to make it move or Jab his with a stick being.

NATURE OF MOTIVATION
-

It is a psychological concept
It is total not piecemeal.
Determined by human needs.
May be financial or non financial.
Constant process

NEED FOR MOTIVATION

*
*
*
*
*

Maximum utilization of factors of production.

Reduce labour turnover.
Easy availability of right personnel.
Increased the efficiency and output.
Create sense of belonging.

KINDS OF MOTIVATION
1.
2.
3.
4.

Positive motivation
Negative motivation
Financial motivation
Non-financial motivation

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Management experts have formulated different theories on motivation at different dimensions. They
are :
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1.
2.
3.
4.

Maslows theory of motivation.

Herzbergs theory
Mcgegors theory
Vrooms theory.

Need hierarchy theory: Abraham Maslows book on motivation and personality

multiplicity of human needs are arranged in an order.

*
*
*
*
*

emphasizes

Physiological needs
Safety needs
Social needs
Esteem needs
Self actualization.

The first two sets of needs are called Lower order needs (1,2)
The other sets of needs are called Higher order needs (3,4)
According to him when one needs fulfils another need will emerge automatically. While going for
achieving the particular need, people like to give priority to the pressing needs first and the rest in next.
Short coming of Maslows theory are:
-

Order cannot be regarded as rigid.

No indication regarding satisfaction of needs.
It may not have universal applicatibility.
Motivation is piecemeal exercise by means of splitting of human needs.

HERZBERGS THEORY
According to Herzberg, factors that give real satisfaction to an individual are motiators. He classified
the factors in to two viz,
Factors that prevent dissatisfaction

Factors that give satisfaction

Motivators (feeling of achievement,

significance of growth)

Maintenance factors
1.

Fair co policy and administration

2.
3.
4.
5.

Supervisor knows the work

Supervisors relationship
Peers relationship
Fair salary

6.

Job security

Tejaswini Patil Course Faculty

Hygiene factors.

Motivators
Opportunity to accomplish
something significant.
Recongnition.
Chance for development
Opportunity to grow
Chance
for
increased
responsibility
The job inself
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Principles of Management - Notes

7.
8.
9.
10.

Subordinates relationship
Personal life
Status
Good working condition

Needs priority, to a great extent, characterizes the types of behavior. It will be either directed towards
achieving certain desirable positive goals, or conversely, towards avoiding other undesirable negative
consequences. Thus, a question may arise as to what variables are perceived to be desirable goals to
achieve and conversely undesirable conditions to avoid. In this connection a research study was
conducted by Frederick. Herzbergls of Case-Western reserve University and associates. This study
consisted of an intensive analysis of the experiences and feeling of 200 Engineers and accountants in 9
different companies in Pittsbrug area, U.S.A. During the structured interview. They were agreed to
desirable a few previous job experience in which they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad
about jobs. They were also agreed to rate the degree to which their feelings were influenced for better
or worse by each experience which they described.
In concluding the information from the interview, Herzberg concluded that there were two categories
of needs essentially independent of each other affecting behavior indifferent ways. His findings are that
there are some job conditions which operate primarily to dis-satisfy employees when the conditions are
absent, their presence does not motivate them in a strong way. Another set of job conditions operates
primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction, but their absence carely proves strongly
dissatisfying. The first 80 job conditions has refused to as maintain or hygiene factors and second set
job conditions as motivational factors.

HYGIENE FACTORS
According to Herzberg there are 10 maintenance or hygiene factors. They are company
policy and Administration technical supervision, inter-personal relationship with supervisors with
peers, with subordinates, salary, job security, personal life, working conditions and status. These are
not intrinsic part of job but they are related to conditions under which a job is performed. They produce
no growth in a workers output; they only prevent prevent losses in workers performance due to work
restrictions. These maintenance factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level to satisfaction
employees; however any cut below this level will dis-satisfactory them. As such these are also called
dis-satisfiers since any increase to these factors will not affect employees level of satisfaction. Hence,
these are in no way motivation them.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
These factors are capable of having a positive effort on job satisfaction often resulting in
an increasing ones total output. Herzberg includes 6 factors that motivate employees. These are
achievement, recognition, advancement work itself, possibility of growth and responsibility. Most of
these factors are related with job contents. An increase in these factors will satisfy the employees;
however, any decrease will not affect their level of satisfaction. Since, thee increase level of
satisfaction in the employees can be used in motivating them for higher output. Herzgerg maintains that
potency to various factors is not entirely a function to factors themselves. It is also influenced by the
personality characteristics to the individuals. From this point of view, individuals may be classified into
two parts. Motivation seekers, maintenance seekers. The motivation seekers generally are individuals
who are primarily motivated by the satisfiers such as advancement, achievement and other factors
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associated with work itself. On the other-hand, the maintenance seekers tend to be more concerned
with factors surrounding the job such as supervision; working conditions, pay etc.
The shortcomings of Herzbergs theory are:
1.
Infact job satisfaction and dis-satisfaction are two opposite points on a single continuum
Individuals on the job are affected by any change either in the job environment or in the job
content.
2.
Herzberg model is method bound and a number of other methods used for similar study
have shown different results not supporting his contentions other the theory has limitation is
general acceptability.
3.
This theory does not attach much importance to pay, status, or inter-personal relationships
which are help generally as important contents of satisfaction.

Comparison of maslows and herzberg theory

MASLOWS NEED THEORY

1.

Self actualization

2.

Esteem or status

3.

5.

Social needs

Physiological needs

HERZBERG THEORY
M
O
T
I
V
A
T
O
R
M
A
I
N
T
E
N
A
N
C
E

Challenging work, achievement, growth in

the job.

Responsibility, Advancement and

recognition

Status, Interpersonal, working conditions.

F
A
C
U
L
T
Y

Job security, salary

MC GREGORES THEORY
Prof. Douglas Mc. Gregore has introduced a fresh dimension in the discussion on theories relating to
motivation. He has classified the prevalent theories into two groups viz.,
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1.
2.

Traditional or X theory and

Modern or y theory.

Traditional or X theory.
It completely excludes workers from the process of managerial decision making the theory stress
that would here only when forced to do so through ruthless exercise of managerial authority over them
through constant rebuking scolding reprimanding. Decisions whether right or wrong have to be made
by managers only, the only rule assigned to workers being to mainly incline the decision.
Assumptions of X theory
1.
Lack of inclination to work.
2.
Fear can alone force action.
3.
Inbuilt dislike for responsibility
4.
Living off others.
5.
Obession with security.
6.
Money alone can make the people to work.
7.
Labour is only a factor of production.
8.
Authority is synonymous with control.
Modern theory or Y theory
It is the exact opposite of x theory, it gives workers a pride of place in the process of management. It
emphasis fuel and active cooperation, between workers and management to accomplish the enterprise
objectives as per theory if workers are properly maturated, they would willingly accept responsibility
and show the sense of creativity and imagination in their work performance. It can be said to be
positive and optimistic outlook.
Assumptions of Y theory
1.
Work is reward in itself
2.
Inherent sense of responsibility
3.
Recongnition.
4.
Sense of security.
5.
Financial reward is not the only inspiration.
6.
Decision making ability is not the monopoly
7.
Democratically inclined

GROUP DYNAMICS
Essentially dynamics is a branch of physics which means any matter in motion. It also
means a moral force that produce activity or change. Group dynamics means the action of a group
engaged in a common endeavor. The world dynamics comes from the Greek work meaning force. The
phrase Group Dynamics thus means a study of cohesive and disruptive force operating within a group.
The importance of group dynamic to a manager lies in the fact that many people tent to
behave differently as individual and member of a group. The manager must thus study them both as
individual and as group, as these are two interrelated elements of a motivational situation. The group
dynamic will be structured around the three key element such as basic element of group behaviour,
group cohesiveness and the group structure.

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The three basic elements which generally of use in understanding the behavior of a group
are activities, interactions and sentiments. Group cohesiveness refers to the degree to which its
members are attracted to the group, are motivated to remain in the group, and mutually influence on
another. Highly cohesive groups are more likely to conform to group pressures than are members of
low-cohesive groups. Group structure if meant that the nature and characteristics of the
interrelationships among the members of a group and the roles they play in it.

THE EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION VICTOR H. VROOM

People will be motivated to do things to reach a goal if they believe in the worth of that goal and
if they can see that what they do will help them in achieve it.
Vroom makes the point that motivate is a product of the anticipated worth that an individual
places on a goal and the chances the or she sees of achieving that goal. He states that:

FORCE

VALENCE * EXPECTANCY

Force
Valence
Expectancy

=
Strength of the person motivation.
=
Strength of an individual preference for an outcome.
=
Probability that a particular action will lead to a desired
outcomes.

Basic concepts of the theory are :

1.
First and second level outcomes.
2.
Instrumentality
3.
Expectancy
4.
Motivation.
Motivation is the multiplicative function of the valence for each first level outcome (Vi) and the
believed expectancy (E) that a given effort will be followed by a particular first level outcome.
Merits of Vrooms Theory are:
1.
It recognizes the importance of various individual needs and motivations.
2.
It fits the concept of harmony of objectives
3.
It is completely consistent with the system of management by objectives.
Demerits of Vrooms Theory are
1.
Perception of value vary among individuals at different times and in various places.
2.
Difficulty to apply the practice.

THE PORTER AND LAWLER MODEL

Lyman W Porter and Edward Lawler III derived a substantially more complete model of motivation.
The strength of motivation and energy exected = value of reward + amount of energy required +
probability of receiving reward.
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Motivation is an extremely significant subject for managers get work done through others. Important
characteristics of motivation are individual differ in their motivation, individuals are unaware of
motivation sometimes, motivation may change and vary, motivation is a complex one. Maslow,
Herzberg, Mc Gregore, V Room and Porter and Lawler are some the important writers on motivation.

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LESSON 6
COMMUNICATION
The word communication originates from the latin word communis denoting common. It involves
imparting a common idea or understanding and covers any type of behavior resulting in an exchange
of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or more persons.
Management tasks of planning, directing, coordinating and motivation can be carried out by the process
of receiving issuing recording and interpreting.
The information of facts and figures related to the varied aspects of business activities necessarily
implies transmission of information intended to convey the idea of what is desired or required to be
done. This would necessitate determination of information to link all the leavels and enable the
concerned officers and operative to act upon such information. This process of transmitting information
as between different levels of authority and among the officers at the same level is called
communication.
-

Louise Allen

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Giving information on matters regarding things done or to be done.

Receiving information on matters of actins expedited or yet to be expedted
Creating under standing in others about their responsibility and position and prospects of a
situation concerning then.
Making others listen attentively to the facts, figures, views, opinions under transmissions.
Identifying the common intentions and interest by interaction of views through channels of
commutations.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATIONS
Communication is described as one of the crucial fouls of management. It helps in handling the
major managerial tasks of planning direction coordination motivating and controlling. It enables the
top management.
To formulate the comprehensive plans and policies on scientific basis.
To put the policies and decisions into action results in accurate and efficient performance.
Helps the management to remain informed to the problems difficulties, grievances of personnel.
They arise mainly due to communication gap.
It is essential for coordination which is the essence of management. It brings about mutual
understanding between the officers and personnels at all levels and fosters the sprit of cooperation.
It helps in securing largest possible participation or consumption indecision making, planning and
general administration. This will give democratic character to managerial process and strengthen
the moral of the staff.
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ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Communicator or sender or issuer.
Communicate or rece4iver or addressee
Message orders reports
Communication channel.
Response reply reaction.

ESSENTIALS OR PRINCIPLES OF GOOD COMMUNICATION

1. Principle of clarity

It must give clear message n simple words

and easily understandable form.

2. Principle of attention
3.
Principle of adequacy

It should be consistent with plans, policies

program and objective of the enterprise.
It must be a complete one.
It should be give at proper time.
It should ensure cooperation at all levels.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Principle of adequacy
Principle of time
Principle of integration
Principle of informality
Principle of feed back

and suggestions etc

Communication must be a two way traffic

message polices, programs, direction,
opinions etc are communicated downwardGrievances, complaints
are communicated upward.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
On the basis of nature of passing information
-

Formal communication
Informal communication

On the basis of direction i.e. flow of message :

On the basis of mode of operation
-

Oral communication
Written communication
Gesture communication

Each business house is concerned with two types of communication, external and internal.
Externally, it has to communicate with the other business houses, banks, government officers. The
press the customers and the general public Internal communication consists in transmitting
information with in the organization. Here we discuss about internal communication.
Internal communication may again the be f two types.
1. Formal or official
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2. Informal
Formal communication flows along prescribed channel which all members desires of communicating
with one another are obliged to follow. Formally a clerk in any of the sections cannot directly
communicate with the managing director.
He must talk to his supervisor who wil pass on the passage to departmental managers, from where it
will go to the managing director. Formal communication may more vertically or horizontally.
Vertical communication can flow downward or upward. Horizontal communication flows between
employees of equal or comparable status. When a number of people irrespective of status sit down and
confer with another to arrive at a decision acceptable to all. It is called consensus. The format for this
communication is predetermined and cannot be altered.
In addition to this formal channels of communication, there exists in every organization an informal
channel, often called a grape vine, that does not arise out of the organizational needs but that is never
the less, an integral part of his communication system.

DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
As explained earlier communication flows from a superior to a subordinate. The managing
director communicating with the departmental heads. A manager giving a directive an assistant
manager or supervisor, a foreman instructing a worker. Orders, individual instructions policies, a
statement job sheets, circular etc fall under downward communication. It is eminently suited to an
organization in which the line of authority runs distinctly downwards with each tank clearly below
another t which it is directly related.
Main objectives of downward communication
1.

2.

To give specific direction about the job being entrusted to a subordinate. The decision fallen
at managerial levels are transmitted to states in the form of directives so an action may be
initiated.
To explain the policies and organizational procedures.

A clear understanding of policies given the lower state. A wider perspective so that they can grasp
and relay their role more meaningfully.
3.

To appraise the subordinates of their performance:

If the performance of the subordinates is objectively assessed and the assessment communicated to him
in a considerate tone, it will definitely promote efficiency. Appreciation to good work will raise his
morale and strengthen his dedication pointing out has shortcomings will enable him to over come them.
4.

To give information about the rational of the job.

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i.e. To explain to a subordinate the significance of the job assigned to him and why he has been
entrusted with it. The importance of the objective of downward communication has only been recently
recognized.

MEDIA FOR DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

Downward communication may be both oral and written. Important directives to initiate action may be
communicated through letters policies and procedures may be announced house organs, manuals,
bulletins etc, But the downward follow of communication is dominated by oral means.
It is more natural to the foreman to issue oral instructions to his workers.

LIMITATION OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

1. Under Communication and over communication
Downward communication is often made by either under communication or over communication i.e.
a superior may either talk to little or too much about a job under communication may also involved
incomplete instructions, which will inevitably lead to unsatisfactory performance over communication
or talking too much, on the other hand may lead to the leakage of confidential information.
2. Delay :
The lines of communication in downward communication being very long transmitting information to
the lowest worker in time consuming process. By the time information reaches him it may have lost
much of as significance, or it may have caused damaging delay.
3. Loss of information :
Unless the communication is fully written, it is not likely to be transmitted downwards in its entirely. A
part of it is almost contains to be lost.
4. Distortion
In long lines of communication, information is not only distorted. Exaggerating
statements giving unconscious taints to facts are a part of human nature.

making under

5. Built in resistance
Downward communication causes of too much authority flow. The subordinates do not get any
opportunity of participating in the decision making process they are expected to receive policy
decisions and directive without questioning their appropriateness, utility or validity which they resent.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVENESS DOWNWARDS COMMUNICATION.

1.

2.

Managers should keep themselves well informed of the objectives and achievements of their
organization. It they are themselves in possession of adequate information, they will be also
to transmit information to their re-subordinated in an effective manner.
Managers must work according to communication plan. They must decide before how
much information is to be communicated and at what time.

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3.

4.

There should not be over communication of authority at the highest level. If an organization
is so structured that orders and instructions can originate at various levels, the lines of
communication will be shortened.
The information must be passed on to correct persons inherently.

UPWARD COMMUNICATION
If the managers have transmit information down the lines of authority they have also to receive
information continuously emanation from levels below them the communication channel which pushes
the flow of information upwards is known as the upward channels of communications. Managers have
only recently come to the recognize the importance of upward communication.

IMPORTANCE OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

1.

Providing feed back

This communication provides the management with necessary feed back. The management is able to
ascertain whether the directive issued the lower statuses have been properly understood and followed it
also gets the valuable information on what the employees think of the organization and its policies.
2.

Out let for the sent-up emotions:

Upward communication is the employee and opportunity to sent their problems and grievances.
Although the management often these things and it knows and realizes the grievances of the
employees, The later hardly feel convinced and satisfied.
3.

Constructive suggestions

Often employees often constructive suggestion to promote the welfare of the organization. Some of
these suggestion when implemented definitely prove beneficial. They develop source of participation in
the decision making process.
4.

Easier introduction of new schemes

Since the employees feels themselves to be party to the decision making process, it helps the
organization to introduce new schemes without unduly antagonizing the employees.
5.

Greater harmony and cohesion :

It art as a kind of lubricant. It makes the atmosphere more congenial are creates great harmony and
cohesion between the management and the employees.

METHODS OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Some of the more commonly used methods of upward communication are discussed below.
1.

Open door policy:

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The employees are given a feeling that the managers doors are always open to them, whenever the like
they can walk in to his room, without any hesitation what so where and talk to him about their
problems.
2.

Complaints and suggestions boxes:

In some convenient places n the offer or the factory complaints and suggestions boxes are installed.
The employees are encouraged to drop their complaints or suggestion if any, in to these boxes. These
boxes are opened at regular intervals and the inform gathered scrutinized.
3.

Social gatherings:

Social gathering are frequently arranged in different departments. These gatherings offer a very
informal atmosphere in which ate employees shed the inhibitions and feel free to talk about their
problems.
4.

Direct correspondence:

Some times the manager may directly write to an employees and ask him to communicate with him.
5.

Reports:

Employees may be required to submit repatriates about the progress of their work a regular intervals.
6.

Counseling

In some organization workers are encouraged to seek the counsel of their superiors on their personal
problems. As they feel encouraged to talk about themselves freely, they provide the managers with
valuable information.

LIMITATIONS OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

The shortcomings of the upward communication are:
1.
Employees are usually reluctant to initiative upward communication. The managers might
keep their doors open, but they cannot force the employees to walk in to their problem.
2.
Employees often feel that if they communicate their problems to their superiors, it may
adversely reflect on their own efficiency.
3.
Upward communication is more prone to distortion them downward communication. In
downward communicate distortion is often unconscious. But upward communication is
deliberately distorted.
4.
Sometimes in the process of upward communication, workers become to bold, ignore their
immediate superiors and directly approaches the top most authorities with their suggestions
or complaints.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE UPWARD COMMUNICATION

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1.
2.
3.

In order to enable the workers to over come the awe of authority, the managers should keep
on encouraging them to come out of their shell and communicate freely.
Distortion by editing can be avoided if the lines of communication are kept as shortest
possible.
All communicate should be properly analyzed genuine grievances deserve to be
immediately resolved.

HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
Communication between departments or people on the same level in the managerial hierarchy of an
organization may be termed as horizontal or lateral communication. It is the most frequently used
channels of communication. Workers communicating with one another, &&&&&&& exchanging
information with one another, supervisors holding a coffee break section s to discuss some organization
are all engage in horizontal communication.
Diagrammatical representation of horizontal communication

Production

Purchase

Accounts

Sales

Public relations

Administration

IMPORTANCE OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

Horizontal communication is extremely important for promoting understanding and
coordinating among various departments. Not much imagination is needed to visualize he embracing
situations that the lack of co-ordination might create for the organization. The purchasing department
might keep on purchasing material which is neither immediately needed nor can be adequately stored.
The stores may report shortage of material when production is fully given up. Scarcity of raw material
may cause the production to slow down but the sales department may continue booking orders free
flow of horizontal communication among various departments can easily avert the incidents of such
situations.
In a small organization these functions are concentrated the same person or in the few person
who are stationed in close proximity to one another. They do not face any communication problem for
the moment problem crops up, it is thronged out through mutual consultation. But in large organization
with complex routines, a deliberate effort has to be made to maintain a free of horizontal
communication.
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Some managers discourage horizontal communication feeling that workers may get
friendly with one another and may tops and insist on their unqualified acceptance.

METHODS OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

Horizontal communication is most effectively carried on through oral means. Face to face
exchanges of views or a brief conversation over the telephone in very convenient for horizontal
communication. Formal channels tend to move managers status conscious so that they express their
view in extremely measured items. This includes the free flow of communication takes place allow
freedom of expression there is immediate feed back and all doubts and misunderstanding are sorted out.

GRAPEVINE
So for we have been discussing the formal channels of communication which follow certain
definite predetermined directions apart from them, they operates in every organization an informal
channel of communication called the grapevine. It follows no set lines, nor any definite rules, but
spreads like the grapevine, in any direction any where and spared fast.
It is quite natural for to group of people working together to be entrusted in one another and
talk about appointments promotions retrenchments or even domestic affairs like the estranged relation
of an employee with his wife or the romantic involvements of another. Information on most of these
matters is supposed to be secret. But some people drive great pleasure from gathering such secret
information ad transmitting it to others. They are the leaders who control the grapevine. When one of
them come across any peace of information interesting enough to be transmitted to the grape vine in a
very mysterious manner he whispers it to another exhorting him to keep the information secret.
Keith davis rightly pointed out that the grapevine is more a product of the situation then it is of the
person. The grapevine is basically a channel of horizontal communication, for it is only people working
at the same level of hierarchy who can informally communicate with one another with prefect case.
Thus the workers may have one grapevine and the first line supervisors another. But the fact is that the
grapevine does not follow any set pattern and it can be effective horizontal, vertically, and even
diagonally.

HOW THE GRAPEVINES OPERATES

Professor Keith davis who has done some research in the nature of grapevine or the informal
channel of communication classifies in the four basic types:
Single strand, Gossi, Probability and Cluster.
The single strand chain involves the passing of information through a long line of persons to the
ultimate recipient. A tells B who tells C who tells D and son on, till the information has reached most
of the persons concerned. In the gossip chain, A actively seeks and tells every one. This chain is just
like the wheel where A is at the centre and the information passes along the spokes of the wheel to
others stationed on the rim. The probability chain is a random process in which a transmits the
information to others in accordance with the law of probability and them these others tell still others in
a ultra manner. This chain may also be called random. In the cluster chain, A feels selected persons
who may in turn relay the information communication follows this chain.
A model if different forms of grapevines are depicted in the chart.
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IMPORTANCE OF THE GRAPEVINE
1.

Safety value:

Apprehension experienced by workers on matters like promotion and retrenchments become an

obsertion with them. Talking about them may not alleviate their fears, but it certainly provides them
emotional relief. Since the grapevine does not follow any formal channel, nobody can held accumulate
for any thing he has said.

TYPES OF INFORMAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

I
H

While relaying the information to another fellow, a person is quit free to give it any twists he likes.
G
This twists helps him to express his Fpersonal emotions.
Thus the
H grapevine act as a kind of safety
GOSSIP
value for the dent up emotions of the subordinates.
2.

Organizational solidarity and cohesion :

CLUSTER
The existence of grapevine provides that the workers are interest in the associates. The very facts
that they talk among themselves helps to promote organizational solidarity and cohesion. Properly
used grapevine may even raise the morale of the
workers.B
J
F
3.

Supplement to other channels :

All information cannot be transmitted to the employees through he official channels. If there is some
for being transmitted through officials
channels. It can be transmitted
A
Cuseful information and suitable
G
I
through the grapevine. Thus the grapevine supplements others channel of communication.
4.

Twice Transmission :

The speed with which information is transmitted through the grapevine is just remarkable.
D
E
H
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5.

Feed Back:

The grapevine provide feed back to the management. It enable them to know what the subordinates
think about the organization and its various activates

Demerits of grapevine:
1.
Distortion : One of the major drawbacks of the grapevine is that it may speed baseless or
distorted news which may sometimes prove harmful even to the employees.
2.
Incomplete information: The grapevine information is usually incomplete. So here is lively
likelihood of its being misunderstood or misinterpreted.
3.
Damaging swiftness: The swiftness with which the grapevine transmits information may
even be damaging.

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION
Their might be a number of such barriers impeding the flow of communication in the organization.
This may be classified as
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

External
Organizational,
Personal factors.

EXTERNAL BARRIERS
Barriers to communication may be either external to the parties involved or they might be internal to
them.
1.

Semantic barriers :

Semantic barriers are obstruction caused in the process of receiving or understanding of the message
during the process of encoding and decoding ideas and words.
2.

Badly expressed message.

Faulty translations
Un-clarified Assumption.
Specialists language.
Emotional or psychological barriers

Emotional or psychological factors are the prime barriers in inter-personal communication. The
meaning ascribed to a message depends upon the emotional or psychological status of both the parties
involved.
-

Premature evaluation.
Inattention
Loss by transmission and poor retention.

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-

Undue reliance on the return word.

Distrust of communicator.
Failure to communicate.
3.

Organizational barriers :

An organization being a deliberate creations for the attainment of certain specified objectives, day-today happening within it require being regulated in such a manner that they contribute to attain these
objectives in the most efficient manner.
-

Organizational policy
Organizational rules and regulations.
Status relationships.
Complexity in organization structure
Organizational facilities.
4.

Personal barriers :

While the organizational factors discussed above are, no doubt important influences operating on
communication, a host of factors internal to the two parties-sender and receiver-to this process also
exert important influences on its operation, s communication is basically an inter personal processes.

METHODS OF OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS

Considering the importance of effective communication in the successful functioning of
business organizations, it is essential on the part of the management to overcome these barriers.
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

It is imperative that organizational policy must be clear explicit and encouraging the
communication flow so that people at all levels realize the full significance of
communication.
This policy should also specify the subject matter to be communicated.
Though the communication through proper channel is essential for orderly flow of
information.
Even person in the organization shares the responsibility of good communication.
Organization should have adequate facilities for promoting communication.
Communication being an inter-personal process, the development of inter-personal
relationship based on mutual respects, trust and confidence is essential for its promotion.
There should be continuous programme of evaluating the flow of communication in
different directions.

Thus communication may be defined as the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another. Communication provides employees both the skill to work and the will to work. It
may be formal and informal. Whether it is formal or informal it must be done in a proper manner to
serve the purpose. Ideation, encoding, transmission, receiving, decoding and acting are some of
important steps in communication process. Badly expressed messages, faulty organization, distrust of

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the communicator, restricting communication, poor retention, different backgrounds are called as
barriers to effective communication.

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Lesson 7
Leadership
Leadership is an abstract quality in a human being to induce his followers to do whatever he is directed
to do with the zeal and confidence.
Leadership is generally defined simply as the art of influencing people so that they will strive willingly
towards the achievement of group goals.
KOONTZ & O DONNEL

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
1.
2.
3.
4.

Driving force group efforts.

Aid to authority
Better utilization of man power.
Basis for co-operation.

INGREDIENTS OF LEADERSHIP
-

Ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner.

Ability to comprehend the temperaments of human beings.
Ability to inspire.
Ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate conducive to and arousing

motivations.

LEADERSHIP QUALITIES
I.

Physical qualities

1.
2.
3.

Sound health to fulfill his obligation.

Vitality and endurance to face al hardships.

II.

Psychological qualities.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Personal magnetism
Enthusiasm.
Co-operation.
Exerting
Resourcefulness.
Ability to inspire and integrate.
Tact and skillful handling.

III.
Intellectual traits
1. High degree of intelligence.
2. Sound judgment.
3. Capacity to deal with every situation.
4. Scientific approach.
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5. Open mind.
6. Best teacher.
IV.
Qualities of character
1. Integrity
2. Self discipline
3. Good natured
4. Willingness to work hard.
5. Willingness to accept and share responsibilities.

APPROACHES TO STUDY OF LEADERSHIP :

A.
Personal Trait Approach
This approach says that all of us are possessing certain abilities and share responsibilities. Such
qualities are considered as god given and hence leaders are born.
B. Situational / Contingency approach : (Fielders model) :
This is viewing that leadership qualities are determined by the situation in which he/she operates. It is
not individuals characteristics.
C. Group approach :
A leader is one who comes attuned to he feelings and actins of people whom he is supposed to lead.
Thus, the leader is one who comes closest to living up to the norms and standards of his group.
D. Path goal theory:
It suggests that the main functions of the leader is to clarify and set goals with subordinates the them
find the best path for achieving the goals and remove obstacles.

Leader behavior may be grouped into four :

1.
2.
3.
4.

Supportive leadership.
Participative leadership.
Instrumental leadership.
Achievement oriented leadership.

TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
From the point of view of authority, leadership can be autocratic and democratic or free rein.

AUTOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
The leader alone determines policies and makes plans. He demands strict obedience and relies on
power.
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Merits:
1.
It can increases the efficiency, save time and get good result.
2.
It works well employees who have a low tolerance for ambiguity feel insecure
freedom.
3.
Chain of command, and division of work are clear and full understood by all.

with

Demerits :
1.
2.
3.

One way communication may create costly errors.

Individual decision making may be dangerous in the changing environment.
Resentment in form of massive resistance, low morale and low productivity.

DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP
The entire group is involved in and accepts responsibility for goal setting and achievement.
Subordinates have considerable freedom of action.
Merits :
1.
2.

The leader has the built-in personal motivation working for him.
The leader consistently receives the benefit of the best information, ideas, suggestions and
talents of his people.

This style permits and encourages people to develop grow and rise in the organization.
Demerits :
1.
2.

Time consuming.
Leaders may avoid responsibility.

Free rein leadership :

Leader exercises absolutely no control. He provides only information, materials and facilities to hi
men to enable them to accomplish group objectives. This type does not hold good when the leader
does not know well the competence and integrity of his people and their ability to handle this kind of
freedom
Spectrum of Leadership Styles :
Leader centered
[Autocratic]

Participative
[Democratic]

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Area of freedom permitted to

subordinates
1

This spectrum depicts that a leader can adopt number of ways to relate himself with a group. The left
side of the spectrum emphasizes that his style is leader centered. Such leaders are more care about
production than for the welfare of his subordinates.

The right side of the spectrum denotes that the leadership style employee centered. They care about
more for the welfare of their subordinates than for production.
The centre of the spectrum finds a more equitable balance between the authority exercised by the leader
and the amount of participation the grotto exercise.
The different scales in the spectrum describe the following :
Point 1 :
Leader makes decision and announces it.
Point 2:
Making the subordinate to accept the decision.
Point 3:
Leader presents his idea and initiate discussion.
Point 4:
Presents tentative decision subject to change.
Point 5:
Present the problem, gets opinion and makes decision.
Point 6:
Leader allows the group to make decision within limits.
Point 7:
Leader allows the group to make decision within limits defined the
situation.

MANAGERIAL GRID
It is a form of continuum which emphasize that leadership style consist of factors of both the
task-oriented and people relations oriented behavior in variying degrees. It explains that whatever may
be the type of leadership styles it ultimately relates with tasks to e performed and people with whom it
is to be performed. Some styles emphasize on concern for production which means that the attitudes of
superiors towards a variety of things, such as, quality of policy decisions, procedures and processes,
creativeness of research, quality of staff service, work efficiency and volume of output. On the other
hand there are certain leadership styles which emphasize on concern for people which means that
degree of personal commitment towards goal achievement, maintaining the self-esteem of workers,
responsibility based on trust, and satisfying inter-personal relations, Based on these two factors
leadership styles can be identified n to 5 types as given in the diagram.

1.9
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9
8
7
6
5.5

5
4
3
2
1
1.1
1

9.1
2

Low

Concern for Production

High

This managerial grid concept has been developed by Blame and Mour The 5 styles depicted by
the diagram are :
Impoverished style where exertion of minimum effort is require get work done and sustain
organization morale.
1.9 Country club style where thoughtful attention to needs of people leads to friendly and comfortable
organization atmosphere and work tempo.
Task oriented style which says that efficiency results from arranging work in such a way that
human elements have little effect.
Team model style which highlights that work accomplished is from committed people with
interdependence through a common stake in organization purpose and with trust and respect.
Middle Road style rightly pointed out that adequate performance through balance of work
requirements and maintaining satisfactory morale.
Among the five different styles, the most desirable leader behaviour is 9.9. So efforts have to be taken
by developing suitable training programs that attempts to change managers towards 9.9 leadership
style. Managerial gird helps the managers to identify and classify managerial styles and it helps to
understand why he gets the reaction that he does from his subordinates. However, the mid point of the
grid i.e. 5.5 is highly emphasized in the pure form of working conditions.
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To summarize, leadership may be defined as the ability to influence and direct the task-related
activities of the members of group. A leader is a goal-setter, planner, executive, expert, group
representative, administrator of rewards and punishments and a symbol of the group. There are three
approaches to the study of leader ship such as. The trans approach, Behavioral approach and
Contingency approach. In that Behavioral approach has emphasized different leadership styles.

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LESSON 8
CO-ORDINATION
It is the integration, synchronization or orderly pattern of group efforts in the enterprise towards the
accomplishment of objectives. It may be defined as balancing and keeping the teams together by
ensuring a suitable allocation of working activities to the various members and seeing that they are
performed with due harmony among the members themselves.

NEED FOR COORDINATION

Systematic sequence of operation

Fulfillment of activities as per planned schedules
Avoidance of interruptions in the operations
Eliminating inconsistencies in objectives and policies
Removal of conflicts among individuals
Developing the team spirit and cooperation.

ADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATION
1.
2.
3.

Increases the efficiency, Increases in the productivity, economizing the activities etc.
Improve the morale of the employees
Develop and retain good personnel

TYPES OF CO-ORDINATION
1.
2.

Internal co-ordination. It is the establishment of relationship with a view to coordinate the

employees of all the departments. It may be vertical or horizontal.
Eternal Co-ordination. It refers to establishment or relationship with a view to coordinate
the activity of those who are not part of the organization.

PRINCIPLES OF COORDINATION
1.
2.
3.
4.

Early beginning
Direct contact
Reciprocity
Continuity

TECHNIQUES OF COORDINATION
A manager in managing must coordinate the work for which he is accountable by balancing, timing
and integrating.
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Balancing
Timing
Integrating

Support,
Time schedule
Unification

PROBLEMS OF COORDINATION
-

Complex organizational structure

Improper communication
Higher labour turnover
Lack of motivation and morale
Favoritism
Red-tapism
Improper leadership
Weak public relations

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LESSON 9
CONTROL SYSTEM AND PROCESS
CONTROLLING
Control is any process that guide activity towards some predetermined goals. Thus control can
be applied is n any field such as price control, distribution control pollution control etc. Thus control
process tries to find out deviations between planned performance and actual performance and to
suggest corrective action wherever these are needed. For example terry has defined control as follows :
controlling is determining what is being accomplish, that is evaluating the performance and, if
necessary, applying corrected measures so that the performance takes place according to plan.
Control is checking event performance against pre-determined standards contained in the plans, with a
view to ensuring adequate progress and satisfactory performance.
Controlling consists in verifying whether everything occurs inconformity with the plan adopted, the
instructions issued and principles established. Its object is to point but weakness and errors in order to
rectify them and prevent recurrence.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Control is forward looking

Control is both executive process and from the point of view of the organization of the
system, a result
Control is a continuous process.
A control system is a coordinated integrated system.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL
Thus control is an integrated action of an organization or manager. It offers help in the
following directions.
1.

Adjustment in operations

A control system acts as an adjustment in organizational operations. Every organization has certain
objectives to achieve which become the basis for control.
2.

Policy verification

Various policies in the organization generate the need for control. For organizational functioning,
managers set certain policies and other planning elements which later become the basis and reason for
control.
3.

Managerial responsibility

In every organization, managerial responsibility is created through assignment of activities to various

individuals. This process starts at the top level and goes to the lower levels.
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4.

Psychological pressure

Control process puts a psychological pressure on the individuals for the better performance. The
performance of the individuals is evaluated in the light of targets set for them.
5.

Coordination in action

Control system area designed n such a way that they focus not only on the operating responsibility of a
manager but also on his ultimate responsibility. This forces a manager to co-ordinate the activities of
his subordinate in such a way that each of them contributes positively towards the objectives of the
superior.
6.

Organizational efficiency and effectiveness

Proper control ensures organizational efficient and effectiveness various factors of control, namely,
making managers responsible, motivating them for higher performance, and achieving coordination in
their performance, control, ensures that their organization works efficiently.

STEPS IN CONTROLLING
The various steps in control process which are necessary for its relationship to planning. This steps may
broadly be classified into four parts.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Establishment of control standards

Measurement of performance
Comparison between performance and standards and the communication and
Correction of deviations from standards

(1)

Establishment of control standards

Every function in the organizations begins with plans which are goals, objectives or targets to be
achieved. In the light of these standards are established which are criteria against which actual results
are measured.
(2)

Measurement of performance

The second major step in control process is the measurement of performance. The step involves
measuring the performance in respect of a work in terms of control standards.
(3)

Comparing Actual and Standard Performance

The third major step in control process is the comparison of actual and standard performance. It
involves two steps
-

finding out the extent of deviations and

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-

identifying the causes of such deviations.

(4)

Correction of deviations

This is the last step in the control process which requires that actins should be taken to maintain the
desired degree of control in the system or operation.

ESSENTIALS OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM

Control is necessary in every organization to ensure that everything is going properly. Every manager,
therefore, should have an effective and adequate control system to assist him in making sure that events
conform to plans.
In this tailoring of control system, there are certain requirements which should be kept in mind.
1.

Reflecting Organizational Needs ;

All control systems and techniques should reflect the jobs they are to perform.
2.

Forward Looking :

Control should be forward looking. Though many of the controls are instance, they must focus
attention as to how future actions can be conformed with plans.
3.

Promptness in Reporting Deviations

The success of a thermostat lies in the fact that it points the deviation promptly and takes corrective
actions immediately.
4.

Pointing out Exceptions at Critical points :

Control should point exception at critical points and suggest whether action is to be taken for
deviations or not.
5.

Objectives :

The control should be objective, definite and determinable in a clear and positive way.
6.

Flexible

Control system should be flexible so that it remains workable in the case of changed plans, unforeseen
circumstances or failures.
7.

Economical

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Control should be economical and must be worth its costs. Economy is relative since the benefits vary
with the importance of the activity, the size of the operation the expense that might be incurred in the
absence of control and the contribution the control system can make.

8.
Simple
Control system must be simple and understandable so that all managers can use it effectively.
9.
Motivating :
Control system should motivate both controller and controlled
10.
Reflecting Organizational Pattern:
The control should reflect organizational pattern by focusing attention on positions in organization
structure through which deviations are corrected.
Feed back loop of management control

Desired
performance

Implementation of

Actual

corrections

performance

Programme

of

corrective action

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Analysis of causes

Comparison

of

Performance

Identification

of

deviations.

TECHNIQUES OF CONTROL
To control the activities in the organization, managers can use variety f tools and techniques. They are
broadly grouped under two heads.
1.
2.

Traditional techniques.
Modern techniques.

Traditional techniques are those which have long been used by the managers. Some of the important
techniques under this heads are budgetary control, financial statement and ratio analysis, auditing,
break-even analysis and report writing etc.
Budgetary control is a process of comparing the actual results with the corresponding budgeting data
in order to approve accomplishments or to remedy differences by either adjusting the budget estimates
or correcting the cause of the difference.
-

GEORGE R TERRY

The different budgets such as production budget, sales budget, overhead budget, labour budget etc.
clearly indicate the limits for expenses and also the results to be achieved in a given period. It ensures
effective co-ordination of the work of the entire organization. It promotes co-operation and team spirit
among the employees
Standard Costing is one of the techniques of cost control and it is being increasingly used by modern
business concerns for the purpose of cost reduction and cost control. It involves a comparison of actual
with the standards and the discrepancy is called variance.
Break-even analysis is useful in planning and control because it emphasize the marginal cost and
benefit concept. It helps to make profit estimation at the different levels of activity, ascertaining
turnover for desire profit and estimating the impact of the variations of fixed and variable costs. It
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magnifies a set of relationships of fixed costs, variable cost, price, level of output and sales mix to the
profitability of the organization.
Financial statement analysis such as Found Flow analysis, Cash Flow analysis and Ratio analysis
help to know the financial performance and financial position of the business unit. The liquidity,
profitability and solvency position of the business unit can be ascertained and efforts can be taken to
maintain these factors in an optimum proportion,
Auditing is the process of investigating financial and other operation of a business establishment. It
may be carried out by internal and external members. It helps to scrutinizes the applicability and
relevance of policy, procedure and method which have a tendency to become obsolete. This it helps in
choosing a suitable working procedures and methods.
Adoption of reporting system helps to analyse a particular problem and to take necessary corrective
action over it. Reports may be prepared regarding taxation, legislation and its effect on profit, make or
buy decisions, replacement f capital equipment, social pricing analysis etc.
A manager can also exercise effective control over his subordinates by observing them while they are
engaging in work. Personal observation helps the managers not only in knowing the workers attitude
towards work but also n correcting their work and method, if necessary.

MODERN TECHNIQUES
These are of recent origin, which provide information not readily available with traditional methods.
These techniques help to give sharper focus and promise increasingly to improve the quality of control.
Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) are two major
techniques coming under this head.
PERT has been, developed by an U.S. Office in 1958 in connection with the Polaris Weapon System
and is credited with reduction the completion time of the program by two years. CPM has been jointly
developed by DUPoint and Remington Rand USA in order to facilitate the control of large, complex
industrial projects. These techniques are used to minimize total time, minimize to cost, minimize idle
resources etc. It is helpful in solving problems of scheduling the activities of on-time projects. These
tools re widely being used in construction industry, planning and launching a new projects, scheduling
ship construction etc. It ensures improved management of resources by facilitating better decision
making. It aims to have future oriented control mechanism for the organization.
Management Information System provides needed information to each manager at the right time, in
right form which aids his understanding and stimulate his action. MIS is a refined form of traditional
information collection and supply to the organization points.
Management Audit is an evaluation of management as a whole. It examine the total managerial
process of planning, staffing, directing and controlling. To evaluate the management achievement, the
organization plans, policies, procedures, organization structure, system of control personnel relation
should be measure with its end results.

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1.
2.
3.

Budgetary control
Cost control
Production control

4.
5.

Inventory control
Profit & Loss
Control ROL control

6.
7.

External audit control

Management self audit

Financial performance
Cost performance
PERT CPM
Production, performance, quality
Stores function performance

Overall organizational objective

performance.
Statutory performance
-

DIRECT CONTROL VERSUS PREVENTIVE CONTROL

DIRECT CONTROL:
1.

Cause of negative Deviations from standards.

Un certain, Lac of knowledge, experience or judgment

2.

Questionable assumptions underlying direct control

Assumption that that performance can be measured
Assumption that personal responsibility exists
Assumption that time expenditure if warranted
Assumption that mistake can be discovered in time
Assumption that the person responsible will take.
Corrective steps.

PREVENTIVE CONTROL
Assumption :
Qualified managers make a minimum of errors.
Management fundamental can e used to measure performance
Application of management fundamentals can be evaluated.
Advantages :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Greater accuracy
Encourage self control
Lighten the managerial burden
Impressive

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Thus control is a very important process through which managers ensure that actual activities confirm
to planned activities. It is mainly used to measure progress, to uncover deviations and to indicate
corrective action.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES
It is a process whereby the superior and subordinate managers of an enterprise jointly identify its
common goals, define each individuals major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of
him and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its
members.
-

GEORGE S. ODIORNE

MBO is comprehensive managerial system that integrates many key managerial activities in a
systematic manner and that is consciously directed toward the effective and efficient achievement of
organizational and objective.

MBO PROCESS
Step 1:

Set down informally the goals of the enterprise.

Step 2:

Objective the goal so set out and define measures of performance.

Step 3:

The goals and sub-goals at all management levels must them be set out.

Step 4 :

Adjustment in the organization structure.

Step 5:

The goals to be set at all levels must be joint and agreed ones.

Step 6:

Continuous feedback from appraisal of internal

Goals and the enterprise goal as it is set.

Step 7:

Appraisal of results proceed continuously against the goals at all levels.

Step 8:

Review of sub-results throws light on organization results.

BENEFITS OF MBO
1.
2.
3.
4.

Improvement of managing
Clarification of organization.
Encouragement of personal commitment
Development of effective controls.

WEAKNESS OF MBO
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Failure to teach the philosophy of MBO

Failure to give guidelines to goal setters.
Difficulty of setting goals
Emphasis on short-term goals
Danger of inflexibility
Other dangers.

MANAGEMENT BY EXCEPTION (M.B.E.)

It is a system of identification and communication that signals the manager when his attention is
needed: conversely, it remains silent when his attention is not required.
The primary purpose of such a system is to simplify the management process itself.
It permits the manager to find the problems that need his action and to avoid dealing with these the are
better handled by his subordinates.

ELEMENTS OF MBE
The MBE systems structure is constituted by the following elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Measurement
Projection
Selection
Observation
Comparison

by assigning values to performance

towards business objective & expectations.
follow progress towards its objectives
to know current state of performance.
actual with expected and identify the
exceptions.
6.
Decision making
Prescribes the action that must be fallen in
order
(i) Bring performance back into control
(ii) Adjust expectations to reflect changing
conditions
(iii) Exploit opportunity
It is also deeply rooted in the principles of the decision of labour, delegation or responsibility and
authority and span of control.
Merits
The practice of MBE in management yields benefit in the following way :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It save personal time

Concentrative executive effort
Reduces distortions
Facilitates broader management coverage
Lessens frequency of decision making.

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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Makes fuller use of knowledge of trends history and available business data.
Fully utilizes highly paid people on high-return work.
Identify crises and critical problems.
Provides qualitative and quantitative yardsticks for judging situations and people.
Enables inexperienced managers to handle new assignments with a minimum of related
experience and training.
Alerts management to opportunity as well as difficulties.
Encourages more comprehensive knowledge of all phases of business operations.
Stimulates communication between different segments of an organization.

Demerits :
Peter Drukers critically viewed MBE as follows :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

It breeds organization man thinking

It is often dependent upon unbelievable data.
It rewires a comprehensive observing and reporting system.
It tends to proliferate paper work
It often assumes an un relational stability in business affairs.
It gives false sense of security to management.
Standard of comparison tend to become obsolete.
Some critical business factors are difficult to measure
It cant be a substitute for thinking.

PRINCIPLES OF MBE
The make the MBE system effective the following principles may be followed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Practice of Self-control
Discard pre-conceived notions.
Be guided by policy
Learn to live with accountants.
Delegate for result.
Sharpen your observational power
Use MBE to describe subordinates in different phases.
Invite enough participation
Expect some people to call you lazy
Differentiate between Big and Little jobs
Dont be an Over-the-Shoulder supervisor
Avoid the organization man attitude
Expect to work harder but to enjoy it more.

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