Spring protection

This Technical Brief looks at spring protection including the catchment area, the immediate area around the
spring and the construction of spring boxes. It also highlights two methods of reducing sediments in the
water coming from large springs and introduces alternative protection methods to spring boxes. This
Technical Brief does not discuss the distribution system between spring box and supply.

Springs Effects of natural disasters on springs

Springs occur where water from an underground Natural disasters such as earthquakes, droughts, volcanic
aquifer flows out of the ground to the surface. The eruptions, or landslides can affect springs. Some may move
spring can occur where the water flows out of the location and others may increase or decrease in yield.
ground by gravity, or it could be an artesian spring Earthquakes may also damage the structures associated
where the water appears at the surface under pressure with spring protection and the pipelines taking the spring
from a confined aquifer below. The point at which the water to villages. This can include the breakage of
water reaches the ground surface is known as the eye pipelines.
of the spring.
A reduction of vegetation cover and deforestation also pose
Spring water can be of good quality microbiologically if risks for the stability of spring sources due to increased
the spring is well protected. Spring water can in some erosion and the risk of slope failures.
areas however, can have the same levels of chemical
constituents as other forms of groundwater. In Challenges for spring users in the Caribbean island
particular this may include high levels of fluoride, or of Montserrat
high levels of carbonate hardness in the water, such as In 1995 the Caribbean Island of Montserrat faced a
found in some areas in Nepal where the Hill regions volcanic eruption with a series of heavy ash falls.
meet the Terai regions. This can lead to blocking of Montserrats water supply is reliant on 16 springs. Two of
pipes through encrustation after even a few years of the islands springs, which supplied 35% of the islands
use. water, were on the face most exposed to the volcano. As
Some springs flow all the year around and some the volcanic activity worsened the reliance had to be
springs only flow for part of the year. It is very switched to other sources in other parts of the islands.
important when deciding on which spring to protect Water catchments were also subject to acid rain and ash
that local knowledge is used, particularly the knowledge fall due to the volcanic activity and there was some
of women and elders, to identify which springs are concern that movements of joints could lead to the
known to be the most reliable. movement of springs and there could also be changes in
water quality.
(Lashley, D.A, 1997, in House & Reed, 1997)
Taking
water from
an
unprotected
spring in
northern
Tanzania

Outlet pipe from an open system protected spring

in a hill district in Nepal

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 1

Superstitions and beliefs 2. Have a collection chamber with valve chamber and an
open system where the water flows freely through a
surrounding springs pipe to the users. This system is called an open
There may be local superstitions about springs and care system.
should be taken to consult the communities so that 3. Have a collection chamber with valve chamber and
appropriate traditions are followed where necessary then the outlet pipe feeds into a storage reservoir
and permission sought when upgrading springs. where the water is collected over night. This reservoir
The supernatural power of springs feeds through another pipe to a tap. This system
retains as much water as possible and is called a
In Midlands Province of Zimbabwe (2006) it was closed system. It is used when the yield is lower in
reported that in one area springs are seen as proportion to the demand.
supernatural. This belief was reinforced during the
1992 drought in Southern Africa, as when the shallow 4. The second two systems may also have some form of
wells of the area had mostly dried up, the springs sedimentation tank or filter after the spring box if
continued to flow. It is believed that if someone there are particular problems with solids or turbidity in
undertakes construction near to a spring it will dry up. the water.
If this happens special rituals would be needed before Yields
the spring could recover.
A flow in excess of 0.1 l/s is sufficient to fill a 20 litre
container in just over 3 minutes. From such a spring a
useful yield of about 3,000 litres can be expected which is
enough water for 150 people @ 20 /p/d, or 200 people at
the Sphere standard of 15 l/p/d.
If the flow were only at 0.05 l/s then it could supply the
same number of people if a storage tank of 1,000 litres
capacity was also incorporated into the system.
(Ref: WaterAid Technology Notes)

Protection principles
1. Protect the catchment area above the spring from
A protected spring in eastern Zaire being used to animals and humans to prevent contamination.
supply two large refugee camps 2. Constructing a cut off drain above the spring prevents
contaminated water from entering or mixing with the
Selecting a spring spring water.

The selection of springs to protect for emergency water 3. No latrines should be located within 30m upstream or
supply should consider the springs yield versus the downstream of a spring.
demand, its reliability through the seasons and during 4. After cleaning or opening up the area around the eye
years of drought, the quality of the water, vulnerability of the spring, the spring should be protected with
to landslides and erosion, and who the existing users loose stones and gravel and then a soil cover behind
are and in particular whether they will accept the spring the catchment wall, in addition to possibly also a
being protected and used for new communities. spring box and a pipe for delivering the water to the
Wherever possible the springs yield should be users.
measured at the end of the dry season to determine
the minimum expected flow. 5. The area around the spring should be fenced to
prevent access by animals, but overflow water should
Checks should be made that the spring is not in fact a be directed to an area outside the protection zone
stream which has passed underground and re-appeared where the animals can take water, particularly in
downstream as the water quality is then likely to be pastoral areas.
poorer.
6. The spring box should be cleaned out on an occasional
Sometimes water is also taken from a stream which is basis.
fed from one or more springs. The problem is that
when it rains the water turbidity will have increase 7. The local community and users of the spring should be
which will cause additional problems for treatment, trained in the correct maintenance of the spring inlet
particularly if chlorination without pre-treatment is and system and in the rationale for the protection of
being undertaken in a camp scenario or a local the catchment areas. Local legislation may also be
settlement. useful in protecting the catchment area above the
spring.
Springs can be protected and supply water in the
following ways:
Protection of catchment area
1. Simply have a free flowing pipe passing through a
catchment structure where water can be directly A surface water drainage ditch is dug above and around
collected by users. the spring area to divert surface water run off from
polluting the source. This should be dug a minimum of 8m

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 2

from the source and ideally further away. The area constructed to allow the various sources of water to drain
should then be fenced to keep animals and people out into one collection chamber.
of the area.
Earth should also be mounded up against the collection
tank walls to divert any surface water away.
If the stability of the area around a spring intake works
is in doubt or erosion is a risk, then gabions or dry
stone masonry can be used to stabilise the area.
Ideally an area leaving a minimum distance of 50m
above the spring should be left where there is no
human habitation and animals are not allowed to graze.
Reforesting and the planting of grass and bushes in the
area directly above a spring can help to protect the
catchment area, to reduce run-off and erosion.

Opening up the eye of the spring

Opening up the eye of the spring:
Protection of a spring catchment
1. This must be undertaken with great care as any (Ref: Jordan, 1984)
form of back-pressure on the water could cause
it to change its route and the eye of the spring to
move. Spring water follows the path of least Constructing the catchment wall or
resistance. spring box
2. A temporary drainage channel should be The structure which is required to catch the water from a
constructed to ensure that the water can continue spring will depend on a number of factors. These include
flowing during construction and to prevent the size of the spring and whether the users will come to
puddling. the spring or the water will be taken in a pipe to the users.
A number of different designs are shown on the following
3. The area immediately beneath the point of
few pages of this Technical Brief.
discharge (or seepage area) should be excavated
until either the horizontal water layer or firm rock
are reached. Construction of retaining wall, catchment dam or
cut off wall, spring box and valve chamber
4. The excavation should proceed into the slope until
a height of earth above the discharge point is a 1. A dry stone retaining wall should be built against the
minimum of 1m. A spring from a rock face requires excavated slope. This wall is built using brick sized
minimal excavation, but a spring with widespread stones and both acts as a retaining wall and allows the
seepage may require an excavation of several water to pass through into the collection areas with
cubic metres. minimal sediment.

5. For artesian springs the excavation is likely to be 2. A catchment dam or cut-off wall with wing walls, is
vertical into the ground, and this poses additional designed to catch as much water as possible and
problems for preventing back-pressure. Two direct it into the collection chamber (see the diagram
recommended strategies are: a) construct a trench below). It should be constructed in an excavated
around the area and locate the intake several trench of minimum depth 20cm to help ensure that
meters away from the eye of the spring, and b) water does not seep under the wall.
sink large concrete rings around the eye of the 3. The collection chamber and valve chamber are then
spring as the excavation continues to prevent the constructed on the downstream side of the catchment
surrounding soil from falling back in to the wall and the bottom of the collection chamber should
excavation hole. The spring may have to be left be concreted.
relatively exposed and hence a manhole cover may
be required. The outlet should also be as low as 4. The overflow pipe from the collection chamber should
possible to prevent back-pressure. be lower than the catchment dam wall to prevent
back-pressure.
6. Place loose stones and gravel over the area of the
eye of the spring for some initial protection. 5. The area behind the catchment dam is filled with
stones and gravel to the same level as the catchment
7. After excavation the spring area should be left for chamber lid, with smaller stones nearer the eye and
24-48 hours to enable it to stabilise, before larger nearer the wall. Heavy duty sheeting is then
additional construction work. placed over the catchment area and the edges sealed
(Ref: Neku & Hillman, 1996) with clay. The sheet is then covered with the
excavated soil and then a layer of topsoil. Shallow root
If there is more than one spring or seepage point in an thorny-type vegetation can then be planted to deter
area then the excavation may need to be wider or vandalism and stabilise the soil.
drains or catchment structures and pipes can be
(Ref: Neku & Hillman, 1996)

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 3

Spring box with open side Spring box with open bottom
(Ref: Water for the World, Technical Note No RWS.1.C.1) (Ref: Water for the World, Technical Note No RWS.1.C.1)

Catchment wall, spring box and valve chamber (Ref: Neku & Hillman, 1996)

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 4

 will require a gate valve with an air vent located just
Protecting a downstream (see the pictures above).
spring works in
progress, for a
local community
Filtering or sedimentation of solids
living near to a coming from springs
number of large Large springs may contain suspended particles which can
refugee camps in sediment out in the system or be passed down the
eastern Zaire pipeline to the consumer. Where this is a problem, the
An inner wall was system should be designed to settle or filter out the
being used to divert solids. See the photographs below for a roughing filter
the water while the system which has been built onto the outlet of a large
outer spring box wall spring in Eastern Zaire.
was being
constructed

Overflow, washout and outlet

Spring box with roughing filter on the outlet (to

the right) prior to the water entering the
pipeline

Covers to the
roughing filter
treating
spring water,
Eastern Zaire

Typical pipe-work from a spring box

(Ref: Jordan, T, 1984)

Overflows - The size of the overflow pipework must

allow the maximum water flow to pass easily and safely
away from the spring without causing erosion.

A GI pipe of 20-50 cm length with the following fall (H)

will allow the following flow (l/s)
(Ref: Jordan, T. D. Jr, 1984)

GI pipe size H = 5cm H = 10cm Sedimentation tanks

1 0.62 0.85
1.5 1.4 1.9 The following retention times are recommended for
2 2.1 3.0 sedimentation tanks to be constructed post the spring box:
3 5.2 7.3 1. Small, clean spring sources no sedimentation tank
needed although the intake should have a settling chamber
Washouts - These allow the intake box to be drained so
and screening.
that the chamber can be cleaned. They should be 2 to
3 and be set slightly into the bottom of the chamber and 2. Systems with reservoir storage tanks 15-20 mins
closed with an end cap. 3. Systems without reservoirs 60 mins minimum.
Outlets This is the starting point of a pipeline and Capacity (l) = Flow (l/s) x T (retention time, s)
should be the same size or larger than the pipe for the
design at that point. The outlet should be screened and (For more info Jordan, T.D. Jr, 1984, pp114-119)

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 5

Alternative protection for springs Maintenance of the spring box and
Alternatives to spring boxes catchment area
If water from a spring can be collected without a spring A sanitary inspection should be undertaken once or twice
box, and no sedimentation is needed because the water a year to identify if there are any sources of potential
is of low turbidity, and no storage is needed, as the yield contamination of the spring water.
is high enough for the demand, then a spring box may Each year the catchment drain should be cleaned as well
not be necessary. Alternative methods include: as the area inside the fencing. Repairs should also be
1. Digging a 1m deep trench down to relatively made of any damage to the fencing or other protection
impermeable strata running from the eye of the works.
spring to the collection point Use 100mm depth of The spring box and the sedimentation chamber or
stones of size 10 to 40mm in the bottom of the roughing filter, where appropriate, should also
trench and then add a layer of puddled clay about occasionally be emptied of any sediment which may have
100mm deep on top. The remainder of the trench accumulated and the inside of the spring box can be
should be backfilled with the excavated material. The cleaned with disinfectant.
final layer should be topsoil and this should be
slightly heaped. Creeping grasses can be planted Further information
into the topsoil to prevent erosion. A marker should
be put in place to remember the location of the eye Jordan, T. D. Jr (1984) A Handbook of gravity-flow water
of the spring (see the diagram below). systems for small communities, Intermediate Technology
Publications
2. A 30-50mm internal diameter plastic pipe can be
used to carry the water from the eye of the spring to Neku, A & Hillmann, E (1996) Rural gravity flow water
the collection point (see the diagram below). systems (Design Technique and Standard Structures),
UNICEF, Nepal the updated version of Jordan, T.D. Jr,
3. For both of the above construct a headwall through above, but not published
which a pipe can pass, with a small concrete slab to
direct the water from the stone filled trench into the Skinner, B & Shaw, R in: Shaw, R (ed) (1999) Protecting
pipe, and a stone pack behind it. The headwall will springs an alternative to spring boxes, Technical Brief
also require wing walls for stability and a drainage No 34, In: Running Water: more technical briefs on
platform for the users to stand on as they collect the health, water and sanitation, Intermediate Technology
water. The headwall should be placed at a lower Publications
position than the eye of the spring to prevent back WaterAid (no date) Technology Notes
pressure (see the diagrams below).
Water for the World (no date) Constructing Structures for
(Ref: Skinner & Shaw, in Shaw, ed, 1999) Springs, Technical Note No RWS.1.C.1

(Ref: WaterAid Technical Notes)

Collection point headwall and drainage slab

(Ref: Skinner & Shaw, in Shaw, 1999)

Trench or pipeline from spring to collection headwall (Ref: Skinner & Shaw, in Shaw, 1999)

OXFAM Technical Brief Spring protection 6