Module 4

Lecture 21
Understanding Diversity

 The nature of biological diversity

 How evolutionary processes contribute to creating and maintain this variation.
 What four evolutionary forces contributed to generating diversity
 What are the three requirements for natural selection?
How do co evolutionary processes involve adaption and counter adaptation.

Biological Diversity between/within species

 Between: diff kinds of species, traits/characteristics that vary in the species
 Within: phenotype variation and genotype variation
 Due to product of evolutionary processes

Species
 Approx. 1.5 m names species
 Actual is estimated at 3-80 m
 Half of all insects are beetles.
Traits
 Insect antennae are used to detect chemical signals, why is there so much variation
in antennae?
Phenotypic diversity: observes variation among individuals in morphology, development or
behaviour
Genotypic diversity: the genes in an organism inherits

Mutations:
Occur at random, and may be disadvantages, neutral or advantageous.
 Germline: in cells that produce eggs and sperm, can be passed on
 Somatic: only affect the individual in which they occur, may not be passed on

Migration (Gene flow)

Movement of genes between populations
Change in frequency within population when genes move to another population
 Maize: wind-pollinated: low gene flow
Vinegar fly- can fly more than 15km therefore higher gene flow
 Can introduce t or reintroduce genes to different parts of the population hence
increasing the genetic variation of that population
 Less gene flow between two populations, more likely to evolve into separate species.

Genetic drift
Random changed to the genetic makeup of a population
 Doesn’t produce adaptions
 Associated with small population size: either the pop is greatly reduced. (genetic
bottleneck) or it is established with very few individuals (founder effects)
  E.g. founder effect: Amish people having Ellis van creveld syndrome.

Natural selection
 Individuals vary in some attribute trait (colour) (some are green, some are brown)
 Trait is heritable (has a genetic basis) (brown parents have brown offspring)
 Trait affects fitness (individual with a particular form of the train more likely to
survive or reproduce (bird has a preference towards a certain colour beetle (green),
therefore green beetles are less likely to survive.
 Consequence: genes for the more advantageous trait increase in frequency.
 Acts on individuals not species, selection DOES not operate on species not correct to
say “for the good of the species”
Selection pressures
Natural selection acts through the abiotic and biotic environment.
 Abiotic: physical resources required to live and survive (food, water, shelter,
temperature)
 Biotic: organisms that share the environment or habitat form a part of an animals
environment and can exert an important selection pressure
o Can be detrimental to one species, or may be mutually beneficial
o May create co-evolutionary processes where adaptions in one species
constitute a new selective force on the other species.
o E.g camouflage: animal is not detected because its shape and colour matches
the background. Defensive (titan stick insect) and Offensive (orchid mantis)
o Batesian mimicry (species make them look more dangerous to have a higher
chance of surviving)
 Benign batesian mimc resembles a noxous or dangerous model
 Predators avoid eating both the model and mimic
 Venomous wasps and hoverfly mimics.
 Bateisan aggressive mimicry
 Frogfish: evolved lure that attacks prey by mimicking worms, small
shrimps or fish. The prey approaches the lure and is awalled up
 Salticid spider: surface oder looks like a green tree ants allowing it to
gain access to nest where it feeds on ant larvae.
 Mutualisms
 Facultative: miletus chinesis larvae are sometimes protected by a few ants
who feed on nutrients seceted by the larva
 Obligated: kalmenus evagoras larvae are always tended by ants, who defend
the larvae from predators while drinking the sugar and nitrofen rich
secretions of the larvae
 Both can evolve into predatory relationships
 Predatory/parasitics: lyphra bassolis larvae are taken into the nest of green
tree ants, but the larva then eats the ant eggs.
Interactions between species may be reciprocal
 Evolutionary change in one species may become a new selective force on the other,
which may respond in turn
 These co evolutionary processes generate examples of evological and evolutionary
phenomena.
  Can generate extreme morphological specialistiation.
 Eg. Flower favours longer floral tube (forces moth to press up against the column to
reach nectar, thereby picking up pollen to fertilise the next plant), selection on
moths favours longer probosicis, so nectar is reached more easily without getting
smothered in pollen.

Antimicrobial resistance: adaption that allows survival in the presence of antibiotics, like
penicillin.

Lecture 21

Predators and prey

Frog eating bats, use sophisticated hearing to detect frogs in the dark
Frogs respond to this by producing toxins which make them unplatable
Bats have then learned to discriminate btween posinous and non-poisonous frogs

External parasites: cuckoos

 Mother adds egg to clutch of host species
 Cuckoo chick ejects the host eggs
 Selection on host to identify cuckoo egg
 Selection on the cuckoo to avoid being detected
 Horsfields bronze cuckoo has evolved a mimetic egg that fairy wrens are unable to
distinguish from their own. As a response, fairy wrens have acquired the ability to
recognise and reject cuckoo chicks. It is possible that the cuckoo chicks will be visual
mimics of fairy wren chicks in the future.
Parasitism-internal
 The parasitic species derives nutrition from licing tissues of another host species
 Parasite bengits but the hosts fitness is lowered
 Selection favours parasites that maximise the likelihood of transmission to the next
host
As a result, intense selection onhots to resists infection, similary intense sselection on the
parasite eto evade or compromise the hosts immune system.

Four forces of evolution

 Mutation: what cause the irish famine?
Potatoes were susceptible to rot caused them to rot, skins could be used to grow more
potato plants. The lumper potatos are clones of their parent stock, therefore no variety
hence all were susceptible to rotting. Would be better if a larger variety of potatoes were
there as not all would rot.
Without mutations; no opportunity for evolution to take place

Genetically uniformed crops

 Advantage cheap groceries, more efficient
 Disadvantage: vulnerable to disease
  Migration: do biological races exist in humans
No
Race: sub population within a species, with sharp geographic boundaries and the
boundaries characterized by a high degree of genetic differentiation
Biological race does not exist in humans; race is only due to human culture intervention as
we are too homologous.
Chipanzees and humans share about 96% of the genome
Proof?
 Obtained dna samples from inidivusals cross, geographic populations and found
genetic variance.

 Drift: can this be an issue for conservation

Endangered species lose genetic variation as populations and dwindle and suffer from drift.
Lack of genetic variation therefore hard to restore
 Eg virus in captive cats in Oregon: 50% cheestahs died, no symptons in the more
genetically divserse lions
Message: consider conserving genetic cariation as well as individuals.

 Selection: resistance to human control measures,

Head lice
 Obligate ectoparasite of humans
 Can’t fly or jump
 6-12 million people treated anunually for head lice in USA alone
 Lice can develop resistance eg permethrin-resistance lice,, prevents permethrin from
acting upon it./
Antimicrobial resistanceL: adaption that allows survival in the presence of antibiotics like
pencicillion
Natural selection can depend upon generation time
 Bacteria and viruses grow rapidly and thus have short generation times
 Small insects also have relatively short generation times
 New mutations and gene combinations arise in every generation
 Bacterial growth 15 mins.
Solution?
 Don’t use antibiotics to treat viral infections as it promotes unnecessary resistance
 Take complete course of antibiotics
 Reduce of eliminate preventative use of antibiotics on live stock and crops because it
creates a widespread, weak selective pressue.
Pests have short generation times, large population sizes, and can quizkly evolve resistance.
Resistance has been noted for every class of insecticide.
Solution, get nonresistant insects to interbreed with resistant ones, slowing the evolution of
resistance.

Evolution theory tells us that pathogens do little harm to their hosts. They evolve to
maximize transmission to the next host.
Rabbits
 Population grew resistance a decade later as death rates were lowered. More
restsiatant as time increases and virus also became less virulent
 Level of virulence marimised transmtissionL higher or lower levels of virulence were
less effective

Why do women go through menopause

 Giving birth is more dangerous at an older age therefore greater chance of
grandparents surving if they don’t give birth.
 Preindustrial sociteies show that every 10 years of life post menopause ensure the
survival of two more grandchildren
 Can help their children reproduce therefore greater overall fitness