CHAPTER 4

Chapter Overview
Section 1  defines force and introduces
free-body diagrams.
Section 2  discusses Newton’s first law
and the relationship between mass and
inertia.
Section 3  introduces the relationships
between net force, mass, and accelera-
tion and discusses action-reaction pairs.
Section 4  examines the familiar forces
of weight, normal force, and friction.

About the Image

Crash-test dummies are equipped with
up to 48 sensors: accelerometers and
force meters are placed at different
positions and depths to record the force
applied to the head, the bones, the
organs, and the skin. Dummies are
designed to resemble people of
different shapes and sizes, from a
six-month-old baby to a pregnant
woman to a 223-lb, 7-ft tall man.
At General Motors’ Milford Proving
Grounds in Michigan, technicians a
place a crash-test dummy behind the
steering wheel of a new car. When the
car crashes, the dummy continues
moving forward and hits the dash-
F
board. The dashboard then exerts a

©Nicholas Pinturas/Getty Images

force on the dummy that accelerates
the dummy backward, as shown in
the illustration. Sensors in the dummy
record the forces and accelerations
involved in the collision.

Lab 116
Preview
The following investigations support the QuickLabs
concepts
Untitled-309 116 presented in this chapter: Force and Changes in Motion 5/6/2011 12:00:58 PM

Labs Inertia
Discovering Newton’s Laws demonstrations
Force and Acceleration (Core Skill) Inertia
Force and Acceleration (Probeware) Mass and Acceleration
Static and Kinetic Friction (Probeware) Static vs. Kinetic Friction
Air Resistance (Probeware) Friction of Different Surfaces
Parachute (STEM) Friction and Surface Area

116  Chapter 4
 CHAPTER 4

Forces and
SECTION 1
Changes in
Motion
SECTION 2 Focus and Motivate 

the Laws of
Newton’s First
Law Activate Prior
SECTION 3
Newton’s Second
Knowledge
Knowledge to Review

Motion
and Third Laws
• Acceleration is the time rate of
SECTION 4
Everyday Forces change of velocity. Because velocity is
a vector quantity, acceleration is also
a vector quantity.
• Kinematics describes the motion of an
Why It Matters object without using the concept of
Forces play an important force. Kinematic equations for the
role in engineering. special case of constant acceleration
For example, technicians
study the accelerations
were discussed in the chapter “Two-
and forces involved Dimensional Motion and Vectors.”
in car crashes in order
• Vectors are quantities that have
to design safer cars
and more-effective both magnitude and direction; the
restraint systems. direction and magnitude of vectors
can be represented by arrows drawn in
the appropriate direction at the
appropriate length.

Items to Probe
• Vector addition:  Have students
practice resolving vectors into
components, adding the components,
ONLINE Physics and finding the resultant of the
HMDScience.com vector addition.
ONLINE LABS
(br) ©Jupiter Images/Getty Images

Discovering Newton’s Laws

PREMIUM
Force and Acceleration CONTENT

Static and Kinetic Friction Physics

Air Resistance HMDScience.com

Parachute Force

Why It Matters 117

Connecting to Chemistry bonds to break. The way material eventually of things that they have seen break. Then ask
Untitled-309 117
It may seem obvious that chemistry is breaks depends on how its atoms are orga-
5/6/2011 12:01:07 PM students to describe the force that caused

important in the making of materials, but it is nized. When a material breaks, it is said to the object to break. This might help students
also vital to the study of how materials break. have undergone failure. Even though materials to develop ideas of when they have seen
Everyday items have to be made to withstand are designed to withstand a certain amount forces in action.
various types of forces or they cannot be of force, the normal wear and tear that
used. When excessive force is applied to an materials experience over their lifetimes
object, the material that the object is made of creates defects in the materials. This process
will break. The object breaks because the is referred to as fatigue.
force creates stress on the bonds between After explaining how forces can cause
the atoms of the material and causes the things to break, ask students to give examples

Forces and the Laws of Motion  117

 SECTION  1 SECTION 1

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
Describe how force affects the
motion of an object.
Changes in Motion
Preview Vocabulary Interpret and construct
free-body diagrams.
Key Term
force

Academic Vocabulary  In common

usage, the words pressure and force Force
sometimes are used interchangeably. force an action exerted on an object You exert a force on a ball when you throw or kick the ball, and you exert a
that may change the object’s state of force on a chair when you sit in the chair. Forces describe the interactions
In physics, these words are distinctive. rest or motion
between an object and its environment.
Force is any effect or power that can
change the speed or direction of an Forces can cause accelerations.
object in motion. Pressure is used only In many situations, a force exerted on an object can change the object’s
to define the magnitude of a unit of velocity with respect to time. Some examples of these situations are shown
force exerted on a unit area. So, the in Figure 1.1. A force can cause a stationary object to move, as when you
throw a ball. Force also causes moving objects to stop, as when you catch a
magnitude of pressure in physics ball. A force can also cause a moving object to change direction, such as
depends in part on the magnitude of when a baseball collides with a bat and flies off in another direction.
the force involved. Notice that in each of these cases, the force is responsible for a change in
velocity with respect to time—an acceleration.

FIGURE 1.1

 Teach Three Ways That Forces Change Motion Force can cause objects to
(a) start moving, (b) stop moving, and/or (c) change direction.

Teaching Tip
Now that students have studied motion
as complex as projectile motion, explore
their understanding of force. Ask them
what mechanism causes motion and
why some objects accelerate at higher
rates than others do. Point out that
force is attributed to any mechanism (a) (b) (c)
that causes or may cause a change in an
object’s velocity with respect to time.
The SI unit of force is the newton.
The SI unit of force is the newton, named after Sir Isaac Newton (1642–
1727), whose work contributed much to the modern understanding of
TEACH FROM VISUALS force and motion. The newton (N) is defined as the amount of force that,
when acting on a 1 kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
FIGURE 1.1  Point out to students that Therefore, 1 N = 1 kg × 1 m/s2.
the ball is experiencing force in all three The weight of an object is a measure of the magnitude of the gravita-
pictures. tional force exerted on the object. It is the result of the interaction of an

Ask  How can you tell that the ball

Differentiated
118 Chapter 4
Instruction
experiences at least one force in each
picture? Below Level
Answer: by changes in the ball’s speed Remind students that photographs, such as
Untitled-310 118 5/6/2011 12:01:56 PM

or direction those on this page, do not actually show

objects “experiencing force.” This is because
forces cause changes in velocity with respect
to time or direction. Challenge students to
explain what they would need to see in each
photograph if it was a video that showed the
effect of forces.

118  Chapter 4
 FIGURE 1.2
Did YOU Know?
UNITS OF MASS, ACCELERATION, AND FORCE The symbol for the pound, lb, comes TEACH FROM VISUALS
from libra, the Latin word for “pound,”
System Mass Acceleration Force a unit of measure that has been used
since medieval times to measure FIGURE 1.3  Tell students that
SI kg m/s2 N = kg•m/s2 weight. both contact and field forces are
cgs g cm/s2 dyne = g•cm/s2 demonstrated in this picture.
Avoirdupois slug ft/s2 lb = slug•ft/s2 Ask  Identify the contact and field force
examples in the picture.
object’s mass with the gravitational field of another object, such as Earth. Answer: contact forces: the figure
As shown in Figure 1.2, many of the terms and units you use every day to supporting the pieces of paper, a person
talk about weight are really units of force that can be converted to new-
1 lb stick of margarine has a weight equivalent to a supporting the balloon;
tons. For example, a _
4 field forces: gravitational force pulling
force of about 1 N, as shown in the following conversions:
1 lb = 4.448 N down on the paper and balloon, electric
1 N = 0.225 lb force pulling up on the paper

Forces can act through contact or at a distance.

If you pull on a spring, the spring stretches. If you pull on a wagon, the
wagon moves. When a football is caught, its motion is stopped. These
pushes and pulls are examples of contact forces, which are so named
because they result from physical contact between two objects. Contact
forces are usually easy to identify when you analyze a situation.
Another class of forces—called field forces—does not involve physical
contact between two objects. One example of this kind of force is gravita-
tional force. Whenever an object falls to Earth, the object is accelerated
by Earth’s gravity. In other words, Earth exerts a force on the object even
when Earth is not in immediate physical contact with the object.
Another common example of a field force is the attraction or repulsion
between electric charges. You can observe this force by rubbing a balloon
against your hair and then observing how little pieces of paper appear to FIGURE 1.3
jump up and cling to the balloon’s surface, as shown in Figure 1.3. The
paper is pulled by the balloon’s electric field. Electric Force The electric field
around the rubbed balloon exerts an
The theory of fields was developed as a tool to explain how objects
attractive electric force on the pieces
could exert force on each other without touching. According to this
of paper.
theory, masses create gravitational fields in the space around them.
An object falls to Earth because of the interaction between the object’s
mass and Earth’s gravitational field. Similarly, charged objects create
electromagnetic fields.
The distinction between contact forces and field forces is useful when
dealing with forces that we observe at the macroscopic level. (Macroscopic
refers to the realm of phenomena that are visible to the naked eye.) As we
will see later, all macroscopic contact forces are actually due to microscopic
field forces. For instance, contact forces in a collision are due to electric
fields between atoms and molecules. In fact, every force can be categorized
as one of four fundamental field forces.

Forces and the Laws of Motion 119

English Learners
Untitled-310 119
Write the prefixes macro- and micro- on the 5/6/2011 12:01:58 PM

board or overhead projector. Explain that the

prefix macro- refers to something large, while
the prefix micro- refers to something small.
Challenge students to come up with a definition
for words such as macroeconomics, microbe
macrobiology, microwave, and micrometer.
Allow students to use a dictionary to confirm
their definitions.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  119

 Force Diagrams

 Teach continued
When you push a toy car, it accelerates. If you push the car harder, the
acceleration will be greater. In other words, the acceleration of the car
depends on the force’s magnitude. The direction in which the car moves
MATERIALS depends on the direction of the force. For example, if you push the toy car
• 1 toy car from the front, the car will move in a different direction than if you push it
QuickLab • 1 book from behind.

FORCE AND CHANGES Force is a vector.

Teacher’s Notes IN MOTION
Because the effect of a force depends on both magnitude and direction,
If the toy car is rolled an appreciable Use a toy car and a book to
model a car colliding with a force is a vector quantity. Diagrams that show force vectors as arrows,
distance before the collision, students such as Figure 1.4(a), are called force diagrams. In this book, the arrows
brick wall. Observe the motion
may observe the car slowing down of the car before and after the used to represent forces are blue. The tail of an arrow is attached to the
because of friction. Give students a brief crash. Identify as many chang- object on which the force is acting. A force vector points in the direction
es in its motion as you can, of the force, and its length is proportional to the magnitude of the force.
explanation of friction. such as changes in speed or At this point, we will disregard the size and shape of objects and assume
direction. Make a list of all of that all forces act at the center of an object. In force diagrams, all forces are
the changes, and try to identify drawn as if they act at that point, no matter where the force is applied.
the forces that caused them.
Make a force diagram of the
collision. A free-body diagram helps analyze a situation.
After engineers analyzing a test-car crash have identified all of the forces
involved, they isolate the car from the other objects in its environment.
One of their goals is to determine which forces affect the car and its
passengers. Figure 1.4(b) is a free-body diagram. This diagram represents
the same collision that the force diagram (a) does but shows only the car
and the forces acting on the car. The forces exerted by the car on other
objects are not included in the free-body diagram because they do not
affect the motion of the car.
A free-body diagram is used to analyze only the forces affecting the
motion of a single object. Free-body diagrams are constructed and
analyzed just like other vector diagrams. In Sample Problem A, you will
learn to draw free-body diagrams for some situations described in this
book. Later, you will learn to use free-body diagrams to find component
and resultant forces.

FIGURE 1.4

Force Diagrams Versus Free-body

Diagrams (a) In a force diagram, vector
arrows represent all the forces acting in a
situation. (b) A free-body diagram shows only
the forces acting on the object of interest—in
this case, the car.
(a) (b)

PHYSICS
Differentiated
120 Chapter 4
Instruction Spec. Number PH 99 PE C04-001-006-A
Boston Graphics, Inc.
617.523.1333
Pre-AP so the sum of forces is all that is required.
Explain to students that forces acting on a
Untitled-310 120 For this reason, the forces can be drawn as 5/6/2011 12:02:00 PM

body at different points can produce transla- if they act on the body at a common point.
tional movement of the body without The concept of torque is discussed in the
rotation; rotation without translational chapter “Circular Motion and Gravitation.”
movement; or translational movement and Rotational equilibrium and dynamics are
rotation together, depending on exactly where covered in the Take It Further feature
the forces act on the body. Discuss examples “Rotational Dynamics.”
of each situation. Then explain that the
examples in this chapter are limited to
translational movement without rotation,

120  Chapter 4
 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams
Sample Problem A The photograph at right shows a person Misconception Alert!
pulling a sled. Draw a free-body diagram for this sled. The
magnitudes of the forces acting on the sled are 60 N by the string,
It is important to emphasize early and
130 N by Earth (gravitational force), and 90 N upward by consistently that a free-body diagram
the ground. shows only the forces acting on the
Identify the forces acting on the object object. A separate free-body diagram for
ANALYZE
and the directions of the forces. the person pulling the sled in Sample
• The string exerts 60 N on the sled in the direction that the Problem A can be used to emphasize
string pulls.
• Earth exerts a downward force of 130 N on the sled. this point and to introduce Newton’s
• The ground exerts an upward force of 90 N on the sled. third law.

Tips and Tricks

Teaching Tip
In a free-body diagram, only include forces acting on
the object. Do not include forces that the object exerts
on other objects. In this problem, the forces are given,
but later in the chapter, you will need to identify the This Sample Problem focuses on drawing
forces when drawing a free-body diagram.
free-body diagrams for given forces.
Return to this skill after students have
PLAN Draw a diagram to represent the isolated object. (a) studied Newton’s laws and have learned
It is often helpful to draw a very simple shape with
some distinguishing characteristics that will help you about everyday forces. At that point, ask
visualize the object, as shown in (a). Free-body students to build on this skill by drawing
diagrams are often drawn using simple squares,
free-body diagrams for given situations
circles, or even points to represent the object.
where they must identify each force
SOLVE Draw and label vector arrows for all external forces
(b)
involved.
acting on the object. Fstring
A free-body diagram of the sled will show all the forces
acting on the sled as if the forces are acting on the center
of the sled. First, draw and label an arrow that represents
PROBLEM guide A
the force exerted by the string attached to the sled. The Use this guide to assign problems.
arrow should point in the same direction as the force
that the string exerts on the sled, as in (b). SE = Student Edition Textbook
(c)
Fstring PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
Tips and Tricks
When you draw an arrow representing a force, it is
PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
important to label the arrow with either the magnitude
of the force or a name that will distinguish it from the FEarth
Solving for:
other forces acting on the object. Also, be sure that
the length of the arrow approximately represents the free- SE Sample, 1–2;
magnitude of the force. body Ch. Rvw. 7–9
(d)
Fstring
diagrams PW Sample, 1–3
Fground
Next, draw and label the gravitational force, which is
©Birgit Koch/age fotostock

directed toward the center of Earth, as shown in (c).

PB Sample, 1–3
Finally, draw and label the upward force exerted by the
FEarth *Challenging Problem
ground, as shown in (d). Diagram (d) is the completed
free-body diagram of the sled being pulled.

Continued
Problem Solving Forces and the Laws of Motion 121

ntitled-310 121
Deconstructing Problems 5/6/2011 12:02:01 PM

A good understanding of free-body diagrams

is essential to developing strong physics
problem-solving skills. Take this time to make
sure students can properly dissect a situation
involving several forces.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  121

 Drawing Free-Body Diagrams (continued)

 Teach continued 1. A truck pulls a trailer on a flat stretch of road. The forces acting on the trailer are
the force due to gravity (250 000 N downward), the force exerted by the road
Answers (250 000 N upward), and the force exerted by the cable connecting the trailer to
the truck (20 000 N to the right). The forces acting on the truck are the force due to
Practice A gravity (80 000 N downward), the force exerted by the road (80 000 N upward), the
1. Each diagram should include all force exerted by the cable (20 000 N to the left), and the force causing the truck to
move forward (26 400 N to the right).
forces acting on the object, pointing
a. Draw and label a free-body diagram of the trailer.
in the correct directions and with
b. Draw and label a free-body diagram of the truck.
the lengths roughly proportional to
the magnitudes of the forces. Be sure 2. A physics book is at rest on a desk. Gravitational force pulls the book down.
The desk exerts an upward force on the book that is equal in magnitude to the
each vector is labeled. gravitational force. Draw a free-body diagram of the book.
2. Diagrams should include a downward
gravitational force and an upward
force of the desk on the book; both
vectors should have the same length SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
and should be labeled. Reviewing Main Ideas
1. List three examples of each of the following:
a. a force causing an object to start moving
 Assess and Reteach b. a force causing an object to stop moving
c. a force causing an object to change its direction of motion

Assess  Use the Formative Assessment 2. Give two examples of field forces described in this section and two ex-
on this page to evaluate student amples of contact forces you observe in everyday life. Explain why you
think that these are forces.
mastery of the section.
3. What is the SI unit of force? What is this unit equivalent to in terms of
Reteach  For students who need fundamental units?
additional instruction, download the
4. Why is force a vector quantity?
Section Study Guide.
5. Draw a free-body diagram of a football being kicked. Assume that the
Response to Intervention  To reassess only forces acting on the ball are the force due to gravity and the force
students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz, exerted by the kicker.
available to print or to take directly
online at HMDScience.com. Interpreting Graphics
6. Study the force diagram on the right.
Redraw the diagram, and label each
vector arrow with a description of the
force. In each description, include
the object exerting the force and the
object on which the force is acting.

Answers
122
to Section Assessment
Chapter 4

1. Answers will vary. PHYSICS

2. gravity
Untitled-310 122 and electric force, answers will vary; Spec. Number PH 99 PE C04-001-006-A
5/6/2011 12:02:02 PM
Boston Graphics, Inc.
because they can cause a change in motion 617.523.1333
3. the newton; 1 N = 1 kg•1 m/s2
4. because force has both magnitude and
direction
5. Fg points down, and Fkicker points in the
direction of the kick.
6. Each arrow should have a label identifying
the object exerting the force and the
object acted on by the force.

122  Chapter 4
 SECTION 2 SECTION  2

Newton’s First Law Main Ideas

Explain the relationship
between the motion of an object
Plan and Prepare 
Key Terms
inertia
net force
and the net external force
acting on the object. Preview Vocabulary
equilibrium Determine the net external Latin Word Origins  The root of inertia
force on an object. comes from Latin. The root word can
Inertia Calculate the force required to
mean “idleness,” “unskilled,” or “inactive.”
A hovercraft, such as the one in Figure 2.1, glides along the surface of the bring an object into equilibrium. Inertia has the same root word as the
water on a cushion of air. A common misconception is that an object on term inert, a word used in chemistry to
which no force is acting will always be at rest. This situation is not always describe something that is chemically
the case. If the hovercraft shown in Figure 2.1 is moving at a constant
velocity, then there is no net force acting on it. To see why this is the case, inactive. The Group 18 elements, such as
consider how a block will slide on different surfaces. neon and argon, are sometimes called
First, imagine a block on a deep, thick carpet. If FIGURE 2.1 the inert gases.
you apply a force by pushing the block, the block
will begin sliding, but soon after you remove the Hovercraft on Air A hovercraft floats on a cushion of air above
force, the block will come to rest. Next, imagine the water. Air provides less resistance to motion than water does.
pushing the same block across a smooth, waxed
floor. When you push with the same force, the block
Teach 
will slide much farther before coming to rest. In
fact, a block sliding on a perfectly smooth surface
would slide forever in the absence of an applied Demonstration
force.
In the 1630s, Galileo concluded correctly that it Inertia
is an object’s nature to maintain its state of motion
Purpose  Help students develop a
or rest. Note that an object on which no force is
acting is not necessarily at rest; the object could kinesthetic sense of inertia.
also be moving with a constant velocity. This Materials  physics book, calculator
concept was further developed by Newton in 1687
and has come to be known as Newton’s first law Procedure  Tell students that they will
of motion. be able to feel the effects of inertia.
First, tell them to hold the physics book
Newton’s First Law upright between their hands, palms
An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion continues facing inward. Have them move the
in motion with constant velocity (that is, constant speed in a book from side to side (oscillating a
straight line) unless the object experiences a net external force.
distance of 30 cm) at regular time
Inertia is the tendency of an object not to accelerate. Newton’s first law
intervals. Tell the students to note the
inertia the tendency of an object to effort involved in changing the motion
is often referred to as the law of inertia because it states that in the absence
resist being moved or, if the object is
©George Hunter/SuperStock

of a net force, a body will preserve its state of motion. In other words, moving, to resist a change in speed of the book. Repeat the demonstration
Newton’s first law says that when the net external force on an object is zero, or direction
the object’s acceleration (or the change in the object’s velocity) is zero.
with the calculator and have students
note the much smaller effort required.

Differentiated Instruction Forces and the Laws of Motion 123

Inclusion After students have completed their run,

ntitled-311 123
Kinesthetic learners may benefit from a simple ask them to describe what they experienced.
5/6/2011 12:03:03 PM

activity which demonstrates inertia. Take They should have noticed that while it was
students outside or into the gymnasium. Mark easy to stop their feet, they may have felt as
off a 25-meter race course. Set cones at 23 if their upper body was still moving forward.
and 25 meters. Tell students that the goal is for Explain to them that they were experiencing
them to run as fast as possible and then to inertia. Use this experience as a starting point
come to a complete stop between the cones. for a classroom discussion about Newton’s
Allow students to warm up and then start first law.
from one end.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  123

 FIGURE 2.2 The sum of forces acting on an object is the net force.
Consider a car traveling at a constant velocity. Newton’s first law tells us
 Teach continued Net Force Although several forces
are acting on this car, the vector sum
of the forces is zero, so the car moves
that the net external force on the car must be equal to zero. However,
Figure 2.2 shows that many forces act on a car in motion. The vector Fforward

at a constant velocity. represents the forward force of the road on the tires. The vector Fresistance,
which acts in the opposite direction, is due partly to friction between the
QuickLab Fground-on-car
road surface and tires and is due partly to air resistance. The vector Fgravity
represents the downward gravitational force on the car, and the vector
Fresistance
Fground-on-car represents the upward force that the road exerts on the car.
Teacher’s Notes Fforward
To understand how a car under the influence of so many forces can
If students have trouble keeping the ball maintain a constant velocity, you must understand the distinction between
in place while accelerating the skate- external force and net external force. An external force is a single force that
board, they can tape a wooden block Fgravity acts on an object as a result of the interaction between the object and its
environment. All four forces in Figure 2.2 are external forces acting on the
onto the skateboard to keep the ball car. The net force is the vector sum of all forces acting on an object.
from rolling off the back. Students When many forces act on an object, it may move in a particular
should recognize that when the skate- net force a single force whose direction with a particular velocity and acceleration. The net force is the
PHYSICS
external effects on a rigid body are the
board hits the wall, the ball continues same as the effects of several actual
force, which
Spec. when
Number PHacting
99 PEalone, produces exactly the same change in
C04-002-002-A
Boston
motion. Graphics,
When Inc.
all external forces acting on an object are known, the net
moving forward due to its inertia. forces acting on the body
617.523.1333
force can be found by using the methods for finding resultant vectors.
Although four forces are acting on the car in Figure 2.2, the car will main-
tain a constant velocity if the vector sum of these forces is equal to zero.

Mass is a measure of inertia.

Imagine a basketball and a bowling ball at rest side by side on the ground.
Newton’s first law states that both balls remain at rest as long as no net
external force acts on them. Now, imagine supplying a net force by
pushing each ball. If the two are pushed with equal force, the basketball
will accelerate more than the bowling ball. The bowling ball experiences
a smaller acceleration because it has more inertia than the basketball.
As the example of the bowling ball and the basketball shows, the
inertia of an object is proportional to the object’s mass. The greater the
mass of a body, the less the body accelerates under an applied force.
Similarly, a light object undergoes a larger acceleration than does a heavy
object under the same force. Therefore, mass, which is a measure of the
amount of matter in an object, is also a measure of the inertia of an object.

INERTIA

Place a small ball on the rear end in place. Observe what happens MATERIALS
of a skateboard or cart. Push the to the ball when the skateboard • skateboard or cart
skateboard across the floor and hits the wall. Can you explain • toy balls with various masses
into a wall. You may need to either your observation in terms of SAFETY
hold the ball in place while push- inertia? Repeat the procedure Perform this experiment
ing the skateboard up to speed or using balls with different masses, away from walls and
accelerate the skateboard slowly and compare the results. furniture that can be
so that friction holds the ball damaged.

Problem
124
Solving
Chapter 4

Take it Further
During liftoff, astronauts on a space shuttle
Untitled-311 124 5/6/2011 12:03:05 PM

experience tremendous forces. Challenge

students to research the forces that act on
astronauts as they lift off the launch pad and
leave Earth’s atmosphere. Ask students to
choose one segment of the astronauts’ path
and create a drawing illustrating the net forces
working at that point in time. Suggest that
students research education websites hosted
by NASA in order to get started.

124  Chapter 4
 Determining Net Force
Sample Problem B Derek leaves his physics book on top of a
F table-on-book = 18 N
Classroom Practice
drafting table that is inclined at a 35° angle. The free-body Determining Net Force
diagram at right shows the forces acting on the book. Find the net
force acting on the book.
F friction = 11 N An agriculture student is designing a
support to keep a tree upright. Two
Define the problem, and identify F gravity-on-book = 22 N
ANALYZE wires have been attached to the tree
the variables.
Given: Fgravity-on-book = Fg = 22 N and placed at right angles to each other.
Ffriction = Ff = 11 N One wire exerts a force of 30.0 N on the
Tips and Tricks
Ftable-on-book = Ft = 18 N tree; the other wire exerts a 40.0 N
11 N 18 N
To simplify the problem,
Unknown: Fnet = ?
force. Determine where to place a third
always choose the
coordinate system in which wire and how much force it should exert
as many forces as possible
lie on the x- and y-axes.
Select a coordinate system, and apply it to the free-body diagram. so that the net force acting on the tree
22 N
Choose the x-axis parallel to and the y-axis perpendicular (a) is equal to zero.
to the incline of the table, as shown in (a). This coordinate
system is the most convenient because only one force Answer: 50.0 N at 143° from the 40.0 N
needs to be resolved into x and y components. TSI Graphics force and at 127° from the 30.0 N force
HRW • Holt Physics
PH99PE-C04-002-007-A A flying, stationary kite is acted on by
PLAN Find the x and y components of all vectors.
Draw a sketch, as shown in (b), to help find the components a force of 9.8 N downward. The wind
of the vector Fg. The angle θ is equal to 180°- 90° - 35° = 55°.
(b)
35° exerts a force of 45 N at an angle of
Fg, x Fg, y 50.0° above the horizontal. Find the
cos θ = _ sin θ = _
Fg Fg
18 N
force that the string exerts on the kite.
Fg,x = Fg cos θ Fg,y = Fg sin θ
11 N 13 N
Answer: 38 N, 40° below the horizontal
Fg,x = (22 N)(cos 55°) = 13 N Fg,y = (22 N)(sin 55°) = 18 N
18 N
Add both components to the free-body diagram, as shown in (c). (c) 22 N

SOLVE Find the net force in both the x and y directions.

Diagram (d) shows another free-body diagram of the
book, now with forces acting only along the x- and y-axes.
18 N
For the x direction: For the y direction:
11 N
ΣFx = Fg,x - Ff ΣFy = Ft - Fg,y 13 N

ΣFx = 13 N - 11 N = 2 N ΣFy = 18 N - 18 N = 0 N 18 N
(d)
Find the net force.
Add the net forces in the x and y directions together as
vectors to find the total net force. In this case, Fnet = 2 N Fnet = 2 N
in the +x direction, as shown in (e). Thus, the book
accelerates down the incline.
(e)

CHECK YOUR The box should accelerate down the incline, so the answer
WORK is reasonable.

Continued
Forces and the Laws of Motion 125

Alternative Approaches
ntitled-311 125
For free-body diagrams, it sometimes helps to 5/6/2011 12:03:06 PM

try a different arrangement of the vectors.

Show students that, by arranging the force
vectors on the coordinate system in such a way
that more vectors lie on one of the axes, there
will be fewer vectors to resolve into compo-
nents. As a result, calculating the solution will
take fewer steps.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  125

 Determining Net Force (continued)

 Teach continued
Tips and Tricks
If there is a net force in both the x and y directions, use vector
Answers addition to find the total net force.

Practice B 1. A man is pulling on his dog with a force of 70.0 N directed at an angle of +30.0° to
1. Fx = 60.6 N; Fy = 35.0 N the horizontal. Find the x and y components of this force.

2. 2.48 N at 25.0° counterclockwise 2. A gust of wind blows an apple from a tree. As the apple falls, the gravitational force
from straight down on the apple is 2.25 N downward, and the force of the wind on the apple is 1.05 N
to the right. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on the apple.
3. 557 N at 35.7° west of north
3. The wind exerts a force of 452 N north on a sailboat, while the water exerts a force
of 325 N west on the sailboat. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on
PROBLEM guide B the sailboat.

Use this guide to assign problems.

SE = Student Edition Textbook
PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
Solving for:
Fx , Fy SE Sample, 1;
Astronaut
Ch. Rvw. 11–12
PW 3, 4*, 5*
Workouts
PB 7–10

G
ravity helps to keep bones strong. Loss of bone
Fnet SE Sample, 2–3; density is a serious outcome of time spent in
Ch. Rvw. 10, 22a* space. Astronauts routinely exercise on treadmills
PW Sample, 1–2 to counteract the effects of microgravity on their skeletal
systems. But is it possible to increase the value of their
PB 1–6 workouts by increasing their mass? And does it matter if
*Challenging Problem they run or walk?
A team of scientists recruited runners to help find out.
The runners used treadmills that measured the net force
on their legs, or ground reaction force, while they ran and
Why It Matters walked. The runners’ inertia was changed by adding The scientists were surprised to discover that ground
masses to a weighted vest. A spring system supported reaction force did not increase with mass while the
Scientists have determined that the them as they exercised. Although the spring system did subjects were running. Ground reaction force did increase
body adjusts its stride to changes in not simulate weightless conditions, it kept their weight the with mass while the subjects were walking. But overall,
inertia differently than it adjusts to same even as their inertia was changed by the added ground reaction force for running was still greater. So

©NASA/Reuters/Corbis
changes in weight. Point out that this mass. This mimicked the situation in Earth orbit, where a astronauts still need to run, not walk—and they can’t
change in mass does not result in a change in weight. shorten their workouts by carrying more mass.
experiment suggests that changing
inertia (mass) does not increase the net
force on runners in microgravity. Ask
students to think about resistance Problem
126
Solving
Chapter 4

training and list ways that astronauts

could replace the resistance of gravity Take It Further
while in space. Then explain that After solving Practice B(1), ask students to find
Untitled-311 126 5/6/2011 12:03:10 PM

astronauts use bungee cords to replace the net force of the x and y components. The
the resistance of gravity during exercise. net force on the x component is 9.4 N and the
However, bungees replace only about net force on the y component is 35 N. Such
60% of the astronauts’ weight on Earth. extension of the problem can be considered
as the evaluation method.

126  Chapter 4
 Equilibrium
Objects that are either at rest or moving with constant velocity are said to TEACH FROM VISUALS
be in equilibrium. Newton’s first law describes objects in equilibrium, equilibrium the state in which the net
whether they are at rest or moving with a constant velocity. Newton’s first force on an object is zero
FIGURE 2.3  Point out that in order for
law states one condition that must be true for equilibrium: the net force
acting on a body in equilibrium must be equal to zero. the bob to be in equilibrium, all the
The net force on the fishing bob in forces must cancel. You may want to
FIGURE 2.3
Figure 2.3(a) is equal to zero because the bob is diagram this situation on the board and
at rest. Imagine that a fish bites the bait, as Forces on a Fishing Line (a) The bob on this fishing line is at include the force of the water on the
shown in Figure 2.3(b). Because a net force is rest. (b) When the bob is acted on by a net force, it accelerates. (c) If
acting on the line, the bob accelerates toward an equal and opposite force is applied, the net force remains zero. bob (buoyant force).
the hooked fish. Ask  Other than the forces applied by
(a)
Now, consider a different scenario. Suppose the person and the fish, do any other
that at the instant the fish begins pulling on the
line, the person reacts by applying a force to
forces act on the bob?
the bob that is equal and opposite to the force Answer: yes, the upward (buoyant) force
exerted by the fish. In this case, the net force
on the bob remains zero, as shown in
of the water on the bob and the
Figure 2.3(c), and the bob remains at rest. In this downward gravitational force
example, the bob is at rest while in equilib-
rium, but an object can also be in equilibrium
while moving at a constant velocity.
An object is in equilibrium when the vector Assess and Reteach 
sum of the forces acting on the object is equal
to zero. To determine whether a body is in Assess  Use the Formative Assessment
equilibrium, find the net force, as shown in
Sample Problem B. If the net force is zero, the on this page to evaluate student
body is in equilibrium. If there is a net force, a
(b)
mastery of the section.
(c)
second force equal and opposite to this net
force will put the body in equilibrium.
Reteach  For students who need
additional instruction, download the
Section Study Guide.
SECTION 2 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Response to Intervention  To reassess
Reviewing Main Ideas students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
1. If a car is traveling westward with a constant velocity of 20 m/s, what is available to print or to take directly
the net force acting on the car?
online at HMDScience.com.
2. If a car is accelerating downhill under a net force of 3674 N, what addi-
tional force would cause the car to have a constant velocity?
3. The sensor in the torso of a crash-test dummy records the magnitude and
direction of the net force acting on the dummy. If the dummy is thrown
forward with a force of 130.0 N while simultaneously being hit from the
side with a force of 4500.0 N, what force will the sensor report?
4. What force will the seat belt have to exert on the dummy in item 3 to hold
©Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit

the dummy in the seat?

Critical Thinking
5. Can an object be in equilibrium if only one force acts on the object?

Answers to Section Assessment Forces and the Laws of Motion 127

1. zero
Untitled-311 127 2. -3674 N 5/6/2011 12:03:11 PM

3. 4502 N at 1.655° forward of the side

4. the same magnitude as the net force in
item 3 but in the opposite direction
5. No, either no force or two or more forces
are required for equilibrium.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  127

 SECTION  3 SECTION 3

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
Describe an object’s Newton’s Second
and Third Laws
acceleration in terms of its

Preview Vocabulary mass and the net force acting

on it.
Scientific Meanings  In everyday Predict the direction and
speech, the word law usually refers to magnitude of the acceleration Newton’s Second Law
a system of rules established by a caused by a known net force. From Newton’s first law, we know that an object with no net force acting
on it is in a state of equilibrium. We also know that an object experiencing
government for the behavior of humans Identify action-reaction pairs.
a net force undergoes a change in its velocity. But exactly how much does
and their organizations. Inherent in this a known force affect the motion of an object?
meaning is the idea that people can
disobey the law and that certain Force is proportional to mass and acceleration.
behaviors are illegal or against the law. Imagine pushing a stalled car through a level intersection, as shown in
Explain to students that a scientific law Figure 3.1. Because a net force causes an object to accelerate, the speed of
the car will increase. When you push the car by yourself, however,
describes events in the natural world the acceleration will be so small that it will take a long time for you to
that always occur in the same way, each notice an increase in the car’s speed. If you get several friends to help you,
time the events are observed. It is not the net force on the car is much greater, and the car will soon be moving
so fast that you will have to run to keep up with it. This change happens
possible to break a scientific law in because the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net
the same sense that a human law force acting on the object. (Note that this is an idealized example that
can be broken. disregards any friction forces that would hinder the motion. In reality, the
car accelerates when the push is greater than the frictional force. However,
when the force exerted by the pushers equals the frictional force, the net
force becomes zero, and the car moves at a constant velocity.)
 Teach Experience reveals that the mass of an object also affects the
object’s acceleration. A lightweight car accelerates more than a heavy
truck if the same force is applied to both. Thus, it requires less force to

Demonstration accelerate a low-mass object than it does to accelerate a high-mass

object at the same rate.

FIGURE 3.1
Mass and Acceleration
Relationship Between Force and Acceleration (a) A small force on an
Purpose  Visualize the acceleration of object causes a small acceleration, but (b) a larger force causes a larger acceleration.
objects with different masses.
Materials  balls of similar diameter but
different mass, such as a Styrofoam ball,
rubber ball, and large steel ball bearing

(bl), (br) ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Procedure  Place the balls in a row near
one edge of a long table. Invite a
student to accelerate each ball by hitting
it with a forefinger gently flicked off a (a) (b)
thumb. Ask students to observe the
distance each ball moves. Point out that,
although the force used on each ball is Differentiated
128 Chapter 4
Instruction
roughly the same, the balls with greater
mass do not roll as far as the ones with Inclusion read the spring scale to get that information.
Tactile learners might benefit from a quick
Untitled-249 128 Ask students how they could increase the 5/4/2011 2:56:31 PM
lesser mass. (If results are not as ex-
activity to demonstrate Newton’s second law. acceleration of the mass. They would need to
pected, discuss friction between the
Provide small groups of students with a spring add more mass. Emphasize for the students
surface of the balls and the table as an
scale and a 1-kg mass. Ask students to demon- that this demonstrates the relationship
additional force acting on the balls.)
strate a force of 1 N using the spring scale. between F, m, and a: force is equal to the mass
Students should recall that 1 N is equal to the times the acceleration.
force needed to accelerate a 1-kg mass 1 m/s2.
Ask students to explain how they know
how much force was needed to accelerate the
mass. They should recognize that they need to

128  Chapter 4
 Newton’s second law relates force, mass, and acceleration.
The relationships between mass, force, and acceleration are quantified in
Newton’s second law. Classroom Practice
Newton’s Second Law
Newton’s Second Law Space-shuttle astronauts experience
The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force accelerations of about 35 m/s2 during
acting on the object and inversely proportional to the object’s mass. takeoff. What force does a 75-kg
astronaut experience during an accelera-
According to Newton’s second law, if equal forces are applied to two tion of this magnitude?
objects of different masses, the object with greater mass will experience a
smaller acceleration, and the object with less mass will experience a Answer: 2600 N
greater acceleration.
An 8.5-kg bowling ball initially at rest
In equation form, we can state Newton’s law as follows:
is dropped from the top of an 11-m
building. The ball hits the ground 1.5 s
Newton’s Second Law
later. Find the net force on the
ΣF = ma
net force = mass × acceleration falling ball.
Answer: 83 N
In this equation, a is the acceleration of the object and m is the object’s
mass. Note that Σ is the Greek capital letter sigma, which represents the
sum of the quantities that come after it. In this case, ΣF represents the PROBLEM guide C
vector sum of all external forces acting on the object, or the net force.
Use this guide to assign problems.
SE = Student Edition Textbook
PREMIUM CONTENT
PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
Newton’s Second Law Interactive Demo
HMDScience.com PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
Sample Problem C Roberto and Laura are studying across
Solving for:
from each other at a wide table. Laura slides a 2.2 kg book toward
Roberto. If the net force acting on the book is 1.6 N to the right, a SE Sample, 1–3; Ch.
what is the book’s acceleration? Rvw. 20, 22b*, 42a,
44a, 45a*, 48a*
ANALYZE Given: m = 2.2 kg
PW 2b, 9–11, 12*, 13b*, 14b
Fnet = ΣF = 1.6 N to the right
PB 7–10
Unknown: a=?
Fnet SE 5*; Ch. Rvw. 19, 21, 40*,
SOLVE Use Newton’s second law, and solve for a.
Tips and Tricks 41, 42b*, 43, 44b, 45a*,
ΣF = ma, so a = _ ΣF If more than one force is acting on an 50*, 51
m object, you must find the net force as
1.6 N = 0.73 m/s2 shown in Sample Problem B before PW Sample, 1–2a, 3–5, 6*,
a=_
2.2 kg applying Newton’s second law. The
acceleration will be in the direction
7*, 8*, 13a*
a = 0.73 m/s2 to the right of the net force. PB 4–6
Continued m SE 4
Continued
PW 14a
PB Sample, 1–3
Problem Solving Forces and the Laws of Motion 129 *Challenging Problem

Deconstructing Problems the Sample Problem. They can then plug in the
Untitled-249 129
When solving problems of Newton’s second numbers that they have and solve for accelera-
5/4/2011 2:56:32 PM

law, encourage students to begin by writing tion. Students who have difficulty seeing why
the formula ƩF = ma. They should then read the rearranged equation is equivalent will
through the problem and identify the variables benefit from seeing the division and cancella-
that they have been given. Work through tion of mass:
ƩF _ ma ƩF
Sample Problem C with the students. Point ƩF = ma   ​ _ _
m ​  = ​  m ​    a = ​  m ​  
out that they know the force and the mass.
They need to solve for the acceleration.
Call attention to the need to rearrange the
equation to solve for acceleration, as shown in

Forces and the Laws of Motion  129

 Newton’s Second Law (continued)

 Teach continued
Tips and Tricks

Answers
For some problems, it may be easier to use the equation for Newton’s second law twice:
once for all of the forces acting in the x direction (ΣFx = max ) and once for all of the forces
acting in the y direction (ΣFy = may ). If the net force in both directions is zero, then a = 0,
which corresponds to the equilibrium situation in which v is either constant or zero.
Practice C
1. 2.2 m/s2 forward 1. The net force on the propeller of a 3.2 kg model airplane is 7.0 N forward. What is
2. 1.4 m/s2 north the acceleration of the airplane?
2. The net force on a golf cart is 390 N north. If the cart has a total mass of 270 kg,
3. 4.50 m/s2 to the east
what are the magnitude and direction of the cart’s acceleration?
4. 2.1 kg 3. A car has a mass of 1.50 × 103 kg. If the force acting on the car is 6.75 × 103 N to
5. 14 N the east, what is the car’s acceleration?
4. A soccer ball kicked with a force of 13.5 N accelerates at 6.5 m/s2 to the right.
What is the mass of the ball?
5. A 2.0 kg otter starts from rest at the top of a muddy incline 85 cm long and slides
Answers down to the bottom in 0.50 s. What net force acts on the otter along the incline?

Conceptual Challenge
1. A greater force acts on the heavier Newton’s Third Law
rock, but the heavier rock also has A force is exerted on an object when that object interacts with another
greater mass, so the acceleration is object in its environment. Consider a moving car colliding with a concrete
the same. Free-fall acceleration is barrier. The car exerts a force on the barrier at the moment of collision.
Furthermore, the barrier exerts a force on the car so that the car rapidly
independent of mass.
slows down after coming into contact with the barrier. Similarly, when your
2. The acceleration will increase as the hand applies a force to a door to push it open, the door simultaneously
mass decreases. exerts a force back on your hand.

Forces always exist in pairs.

From examples like those discussed in the previous paragraph, Newton
recognized that a single isolated force cannot exist. Instead, forces always
exist in pairs. The car exerts a force on the barrier, and at the same time, the
barrier exerts a force on the car. Newton described this type of situation
with his third law of motion.

Conceptual Challenge
1. Gravity and Rocks The force 2. Leaking Truck A truck loaded
due to gravity is twice as great on with sand accelerates at 0.5 m/s2
a 2 kg rock as it is on a 1 kg rock. on the highway. If the driving force
Why doesn’t the 2 kg rock have a on the truck remains constant, what
greater free-fall acceleration? happens to the truck’s acceleration
if sand leaks at a constant rate from
a hole in the truck bed?

Differentiated
130 Chapter 4
Instruction
English Learners the force exerted on (acting on) object 1 by
English learners will benefit from careful
Untitled-249 130 object 2 is equal to the magnitude (size) of 5/4/2011 2:56:33 PM

attention to the meaning of each word in the the force simultaneously exerted (acting at
statement of Newton’s third law. Walk through the same time) on object 2 by object 1, and
the statement of the law, asking students to these two forces are opposite in direction
restate key words using simpler language. For (push against each other).”
example, here is the third law with the terms
interact, magnitude, exerted, simultaneously,
and opposite redefined:
“If two objects interact, (have something to
do with each other) the magnitude (size) of

130  Chapter 4
 Newton’s Third Law

If two objects interact, the magnitude of the force exerted

Misconception Alert!
on object 1 by object 2 is equal to the magnitude of the force It is important to clear up any miscon-
simultaneously exerted on object 2 by object 1, and these two ception that action and reaction forces
forces are opposite in direction.
cancel each other. One way to reinforce
the true nature of Newton’s third law is
An alternative statement of this law is that for every action, there is an
to use free-body diagrams. On the
equal and opposite reaction. When two objects interact with one another,
the forces that the objects exert on each other are called an action- board, draw separate free-body diagrams
reaction pair. The force that object 1 exerts on object 2 is sometimes for two or more interacting objects,
called the action force, while the force that object 2 exerts on object 1 is such as a book on a table. Identify the
called the reaction force. The action force is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the reaction force. The terms action and reaction pairs of forces and point out that the
FIGURE 3.2
sometimes cause confusion because they are used a little differently in force arrows are on separate bodies. The
physics than they are in everyday speech. In everyday speech, the word Forces on a Hammer and
motion of the book is affected only by
reaction is used to refer to something that happens after and in response Nail The force that the nail exerts
to an event. In physics, however, the reaction force occurs at exactly the on the hammer is equal and opposite forces on the book. The motion of the
same time as the action force. to the force that the hammer exerts table is affected only by forces on the
on the nail.
Because the action and reaction forces coexist, either force can be table. Have students practice drawing
called the action or the reaction. For example, you could call the force free-body diagrams for multiple objects,
that the car exerts on the barrier the action and the force that the barrier
exerts on the car the reaction. Likewise, you could choose to call the force
building up levels of complexity with
that the barrier exerts on the car the action and the force that the car each new diagram (for example, a book
exerts on the barrier the reaction. on an inclined plane on a table on Earth).

Action and reaction forces each act on different objects.

One important thing to remember about action-reaction pairs is that
each force acts on a different object. Consider the task of driving a nail
into wood, as illustrated in Figure 3.2. To accelerate the nail and drive it
into the wood, the hammer exerts a force on the nail. According to
Newton’s third law, the nail exerts a force on the hammer that is equal to
the magnitude of the force that the hammer exerts on the nail.
The concept of action-reaction pairs is a common source of confusion
because some people assume incorrectly that the equal and opposite
forces balance one another and make any change in the state of motion
impossible. If the force that the nail exerts on the hammer is equal to the
force the hammer exerts on the nail, why doesn’t the nail remain at rest?
The motion of the nail is affected only by the forces acting on the nail. FIGURE3.3
To determine whether the nail will accelerate, draw a free-body diagram Net Force on a Hammer The
to isolate the forces acting on the nail, as shown in Figure 3.3. The force of net force acting on the nail drives the
the nail on the hammer is not included in the diagram because it does nail into the wood.
not act on the nail. According to the diagram, the nail will be driven into
©Mark Richards/PhotoEdit

Fhammer-on-nail
the wood because there is a net force acting on the nail. Thus, action-
reaction pairs do not imply that the net force on either object is zero. The
action-reaction forces are equal and opposite, but either object may still F wood-on-nail
have a net force acting on it.

Forces and the Laws of Motion 131

Untitled-249 131 5/4/2011 2:56:34 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  131

 Field forces also exist in pairs.
Newton’s third law also applies to field forces. For example, consider the
 Assess and Reteach gravitational force exerted by Earth on an object. During calibration at the
crash-test site, engineers calibrate the sensors in the heads of crash-test
Assess  Use the Formative Assessment dummies by removing the heads and dropping them from a known height.

on this page to evaluate student The force that Earth exerts on a dummy’s head is Fg. Let’s call this
force the action. What is the reaction? Because Fg is the force exerted on
mastery of the section. the falling head by Earth, the reaction to Fg is the force exerted on Earth
Reteach  For students who need by the falling head.
additional instruction, download the According to Newton’s third law, the force of the dummy on Earth
is equal to the force of Earth on the dummy. Thus, as a falling object
Section Study Guide. accelerates toward Earth, Earth also accelerates toward the object.
Response to Intervention  To reassess The thought that Earth accelerates toward the dummy’s head may
students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz, seem to contradict our experience. One way to make sense of this idea
is to refer to Newton’s second law. The mass of Earth is much greater
available to print or to take directly than that of the dummy’s head. Therefore, while the dummy’s head
online at HMDScience.com. undergoes a large acceleration due to the force of Earth, the acceleration
of Earth due to this reaction force is negligibly small because of Earth’s
enormous mass.

SECTION 3 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas
1. A 6.0 kg object undergoes an acceleration of 2.0 m/s2.
a. What is the magnitude of the net force acting on the object?
b. If this same force is applied to a 4.0 kg object, what acceleration is
produced?
2. A child causes a wagon to accelerate by pulling it with a horizontal force.
Newton’s third law says that the wagon exerts an equal and opposite force
on the child. How can the wagon accelerate? (Hint: Draw a free-body
diagram for each object.)
3. Identify the action-reaction pairs in the following situations:
a. A person takes a step.
b. A snowball hits someone in the back.
c. A baseball player catches a ball.
d. A gust of wind strikes a window.
4. The forces acting on a sailboat are 390 N north and 180 N east. If the boat
(including crew) has a mass of 270 kg, what are the magnitude and direc-
tion of the boat’s acceleration?

Critical Thinking
5. If a small sports car collides head-on with a massive truck, which vehicle
experiences the greater impact force? Which vehicle experiences the
greater acceleration? Explain your answers.

Answers
132
to Section Assessment
Chapter 4

1. a. 12 N d. wind exerts force on window; window

b. 1323.0 m/s2
Untitled-249 exerts force on wind 5/4/2011 2:56:34 PM

2. The reaction force acts on the child, not 4. 1.6 m/s2 at an angle of 65° north of east
on the wagon itself, so there is still a net 5. Each impact force has the same magnitude.
force on the wagon. The sports car experiences the larger
3. a. person pushes on ground; ground acceleration because it has a smaller mass,
pushes on person and acceleration is inversely proportional
b. snowball exerts force on back; back to mass.
exerts force on snowball
c. ball exerts force on glove; glove exerts
force on ball

132  Chapter 4
 SECTION 4 SECTION  4

Everyday Forces Main Ideas

Explain the difference between
mass and weight.
Plan and Prepare 
Key Terms
weight static friction coefficient of friction
Find the direction and
magnitude of normal forces.
Preview Vocabulary
normal force kinetic friction Visual Vocabulary  Students may have
Describe air resistance as a difficulty understanding the difference
form of friction.
Weight between the weight of an object and its
How do you know that a bowling ball weighs more than a tennis ball? If you Use coefficients of friction to mass. Sketch a diagram showing an
imagine holding one ball in each hand, you can imagine the downward calculate frictional force.
astronaut with a weight on Earth of
forces acting on your hands. Because the bowling ball has more mass than
the tennis ball does, gravitational force pulls more strongly on the bowling 180 lb. Then sketch the same astronaut
ball. Thus, the bowling ball pushes your hand down with more force than on different planets with different
the tennis ball does.
gravitational forces. Make the astronaut
The gravitational force exerted on the ball by Earth, F g, is a vector
the same size to emphasize that mass is
quantity, directed toward the center of Earth. The magnitude of this
force, F g, is a scalar quantity called weight. The weight of an object can the same everywhere. A person who
weight a measure of the gravitational
be calculated using the equation F g = ma g, where a g is the magnitude force exerted on an object; its value can weighs 180 lb on Earth would have these
of the acceleration due to gravity, or free-fall acceleration. On the surface change with the location of the object in
the universe weights on different bodies in the solar
of Earth, a g = g, and F g = mg. In this book, g = 9.81 m/s2 unless other-
wise specified. system: Mercury: 68 lb, Venus: 163 lb,
Weight, unlike mass, is not an inherent property of an
FIGURE 4.1 moon: 30 lb, Jupiter: 426 lb.
object. Because it is equal to the magnitude of the force due Weight on the Moon On the moon, astronauts
to gravity, weight depends on location. For example, if the weigh much less than they do on Earth.
astronaut in Figure 4.1 weighs 800 N (180 lb) on Earth, he
would weigh only about 130 N (30 lb) on the moon. The Teach 
value of a g on the surface of a planet depends on the planet’s
mass and radius. On the moon, a g is about 1.6 m/s2—much
smaller than 9.81 m/s2. TEACH FROM VISUALS
Even on Earth, an object’s weight may vary with location.
Objects weigh less at higher altitudes than they do at sea FIGURE 4.1  Point out that it is easier to
level because the value of a g decreases as distance from the lift a massive object on the moon than
surface of Earth increases. The value of a g also varies slightly on Earth because the object weighs less
with changes in latitude. on the moon, even though its mass
remains the same. Also, an object’s
inertia is the same regardless of the
The Normal Force magnitude of free-fall acceleration.
Imagine a television set at rest on a table. We know that the gravitational
force is acting on the television. How can we use Newton’s laws to explain Ask  Will a dart shot from a dart gun go
why the television does not continue to fall toward the center of Earth? farther horizontally on Earth or on the
An analysis of the forces acting on the television will reveal the forces moon? Disregard air resistance.
©Photo Researchers, Inc.

that are in equilibrium. First, we know that the gravitational force of

Earth, F g, is acting downward. Because the television is in equilibrium,
Answer: The dart will travel farther
we know that another force, equal in magnitude to F g but in the opposite on the moon. Because the dart is
normal force a force that acts on a
direction, must be acting on it. This force is the force exerted on the
surface in a direction perpendicular to accelerated downward more slowly
television by the table. This force is called the normal force, F n. the surface
on the moon than on Earth, it is in
motion for a longer time on the
Differentiated Instruction Forces and the Laws of Motion 133
moon. The horizontal velocity will
English Learners When discussing concepts as a class, check be the same in each case.
ntitled-250 133
English learners might have difficulty differen- occasionally to be sure that students 5/4/2011
know2:57:41 PM
tiating between homophones. For example, which meaning of a term is used when
this page includes terms that have homo- homophones are discussed. While students Teaching Tip
phones with similar sounds but very different may eventually figure it out themselves, they For practical purposes, the gravitational
meanings. For example: may also miss valuable information in the field near the surface of Earth is
weigh and way meantime. constant. For example, a person who
night and knight weighs 180.0 lb at sea level would weigh
179.5 lb at an altitude of 9.0 km above
sea level. This difference in weight is
only 0.3%.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  133

 FIGURE 4.2 The word normal is used because the direction of the contact force is
perpendicular to the table surface and one meaning of the word normal

 Teach continued Normal Force

In this example, the
normal force, F n, is
Fn is “perpendicular.” Figure 4.2 shows the forces acting on the television.
The normal force is always perpendicular to the contact surface but is
equal and opposite not always opposite in direction to the force due to gravity. Figure 4.3
TEACH FROM VISUALS to the force due to shows a free-body diagram of a refrigerator on a loading ramp. The
gravity, F g. normal force is perpendicular to the ramp, not directly opposite the force
due to gravity. In the absence of other forces, the normal force, F n , is
FIGURE 4.2  Tell students that the
equal and opposite to the component of F g that is perpendicular to the
television is in equilibrium, so the normal Fg contact surface. The magnitude of the normal force can be calculated as
force from the table must be equal in F n = mg cos θ. The angle θ is the angle between the normal force and a
magnitude and opposite in direction vertical line and is also the angle between the contact surface and a
(a) horizontal line.
to the gravitational force exerted on
the television.
Instruct students to draw free-body
FIGURE 4.3 The Force of Friction
PHYSICS
Normal Force When an Consider
Spec.aNumber
jug of juice at PE
restC04-004-001-A
(in equilibrium) on a table, as in Figure 4.4(a).
diagrams for the television, table, and Object Is on a Ramp
PH 99
Boston
We know Graphics,
from Inc. first law that the net force acting on the jug is
Newton’s
Earth and to identify the third-law pairs. The normal force is not zero. 617.523.1333
Newton’s second law tells us that any additional unbalanced force
always opposite the force Fn
Ask  Do the forces in Figure 4.2 applied to the jug will cause the jug to accelerate and to remain in motion
due to gravity, as shown unless acted on by another force. But experience tells us that the jug will
constitute an action-reaction pair by this example of not move at all if we apply a very small horizontal force. Even when we
Fg
(Newton’s third law)? a refrigerator on apply a force large enough to move the jug, the jug will stop moving
a loading ramp. almost as soon as we remove this applied force.
Answer: No, both forces act on the
television and therefore cannot be an
Friction opposes the applied force.
action-reaction pair.
When the jug is at rest, the only forces acting on it are the force due to
gravity and the normal force exerted by the table. These forces are equal
and opposite, so the jug is in equilibrium. When you push the jug with a

Teaching Tip static friction the force that resists

small horizontal force F, as shown in Figure 4.4(b), the table exerts an equal
force in the opposite direction. As a result, the jug remains in equilibrium
Be sure students understand why the the initiation of sliding motion between and therefore also remains at rest. The resistive force that keeps the jug
two surfaces that are in contact and from moving is called the force of static friction, abbreviated as F s .
two angles labeled θ in Figure 4.3 are at rest
equal. Recognizing equal angles in
FIGURE 4.4
free-body diagrams is an important
problem-solving skill for this chapter. Overcoming the Force of Friction

F Fs F Fk

(a) Because this jug of juice is in (b) When a small force is applied, the jug (c) The jug begins to accelerate as soon
equilibrium, any unbalanced remains in equilibrium because the as the applied force exceeds the
horizontal force applied to it will static-friction force is equal but opposing static-friction force.
cause the jug to accelerate. opposite to the applied force.

Differentiated
134 Chapter 4
Instruction
Below Level Encourage students to discuss examples of
Hands-on exploration will help students to
Untitled-250 134 friction in everyday life. How is static friction 5/4/2011 2:57:42 PM

better understand the difference between involved in walking? Static friction holds your
static friction and kinetic friction. Encourage foot in place while you move your other foot.
them to explore friction by gently pushing Compare the friction of walking on an icy
objects of varying mass across their desks. surface compared with a dry one. Less static
Which objects required greater force to friction on ice means that the friction is easier
overcome static friction? Students may say to overcome, which makes you slip and fall.
larger or heavier objects. Remind them that When pushing something large, why is it easier
these objects have greater mass. to keep it moving than to start it moving?
Static friction is greater than kinetic friction.

134  Chapter 4
 As long as the jug does not move, the force of static friction is always
equal to and opposite in direction to the component of the applied force
that is parallel to the surface ( F s = -F applied ). As the applied force
increases, the force of static friction also increases; if the applied force Demonstration
decreases, the force of static friction also decreases. When the applied
force is as great as it can be without causing the jug to move, the force of
Static vs. Kinetic Friction
static friction reaches its maximum value, F s,max.
Purpose  Show that kinetic friction is
less than static friction.
Kinetic friction is less than static friction.
When the applied force on the jug exceeds F s,max, the jug begins to move Materials  rectangular block, hook,
with an acceleration to the left, as shown in Figure 4.4(c). A frictional force spring scale
is still acting on the jug as the jug moves, but that force is actually less
than F s,max. The retarding frictional force on an object in motion is called Procedure  Use the spring scale to
the force of kinetic friction (Fk). The magnitude of the net force acting on kinetic friction the force that opposes
the object is equal to the difference between the applied force and the the movement of two surfaces that are measure the force required to start the
in contact and are sliding over
force of kinetic friction (Fapplied - Fk).
each other
rectangular block moving. Then, use the
At the microscopic level, frictional forces arise from complex interactions spring scale to measure the frictional
between contacting surfaces. Most surfaces, even those that seem very
smooth to the touch, are actually quite rough at the microscopic level, as
force for constant velocity. Perform
illustrated in Figure 4.5. Notice that the surfaces are in contact at only a few several trials. Have students record all
points. When two surfaces are stationary with respect to each other, the data and find the average for each. Point
surfaces stick together somewhat at the contact points. This adhesion is
caused by electrostatic forces between molecules of the two surfaces. FIGURE 4.5
out that the normal force and the
surfaces remain the same, so the only
Tips and Tricks
Microscopic View of Surfaces
in Contact On the microscopic level, difference in the two average values is
In free-body diagrams, the force of friction is always parallel to the surface of contact.
The force of kinetic friction is always opposite the direction of motion. To determine even very smooth surfaces make contact
CO4-004-007-A
due to motion.
the direction of the force of static friction, use the principle of equilibrium. For an at only a few points.
object in equilibrium, the frictional force must point in the direction that results in a
net force of zero.

The force of friction is proportional to the normal force.

Demonstration
It is easier to push a chair across the floor at a constant speed than to
push a heavy desk across the floor at the same speed. Experimental Friction of Different Surfaces
observations show that the magnitude of the force of friction is approxi- Purpose  Show students that the force
mately proportional to the magnitude of the normal force that a surface
of friction depends on the surface.
exerts on an object. Because the desk is heavier than the chair, the desk
also experiences a greater normal force and therefore greater friction. Materials  large cube with different
materials (such as glass, carpeting, and
Friction can be calculated approximately. sandpaper) covering each of four sides,
Keep in mind that the force of friction is really a macroscopic effect with two sides left uncovered; hook;
caused by a complex combination of forces at a microscopic level.
spring scale
However, we can approximately calculate the force of friction with certain
assumptions. The relationship between normal force and the force of Procedure  Attach the hook to one of
friction is one factor that affects friction. For instance, it is easier to slide a
the two uncovered sides of the block.
light textbook across a desk than it is to slide a heavier textbook. The
relationship between the normal force and the force of friction provides a Pull the block across the table with the
good approximation for the friction between dry, flat surfaces that are at spring scale. Repeat the demonstration
rest or sliding past one another. with a new surface of the cube exposed
to the table. Repeat the demonstration
Forces and the Laws of Motion 135 for the two remaining covered sides.
Have students summarize the results
and reach a conclusion concerning the
ntitled-250 135 5/4/2011 2:57:43 PM nature of the surfaces in contact and
the frictional force.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  135

 The force of friction also depends on the composition and qualities of
the surfaces in contact. For example, it is easier to push a desk across a

 Teach continued tile floor than across a floor covered with carpet. Although the normal
force on the desk is the same in both cases, the force of friction between
the desk and the carpet is higher than the force of friction between the
desk and the tile. The quantity that expresses the dependence of frictional
coefficient of friction the ratio of the forces on the particular surfaces in contact is called the coefficient of
Demonstration magnitude of the force of friction
between two objects in contact to the
friction. The coefficient of friction between a waxed snowboard and the

magnitude of the normal force with

snow will affect the acceleration of the snowboarder shown in Figure 4.6.
which the objects press against The coefficient of friction is represented by the symbol μ, the lowercase
Friction and Surface Area each other Greek letter mu.
Purpose  Show the relation between
surface area and frictional forces. FIGURE 4.6 The coefficient of friction is a ratio of forces.
Materials  rectangular block, hook, Minimizing Friction The coefficient of friction is defined as the ratio of the force of friction to
the normal force between two surfaces. The coefficient of kinetic friction is
spring scale Snowboarders wax their boards to
minimize the coefficient of friction the ratio of the force of kinetic friction to the normal force.
Procedure  Attach the hook to the between the boards and the snow.
Fk
block. Pull the block across the table μk = _
Fn
with the spring scale. Have students The coefficient of static friction is the ratio of the maximum value of the
note the force required to pull the block force of static friction to the normal force.
at a constant velocity. Repeat the
Fs,max
demonstration for another surface area μs = _
Fn
in contact with the table and have If the value of μ and the normal force on the object are known, then
students note the force. Ask students to the magnitude of the force of friction can be calculated directly.
summarize the results and to reach a F f = μFn
conclusion concerning the areas in
Figure 4.7 shows some experimental values of μs and μk for different
contact and frictional forces. materials. Because kinetic friction is less than or equal to the maximum
static friction, the coefficient of kinetic friction is always less than or equal
to the coefficient of static friction.
TEACH FROM VISUALS
FIGURE 4.7
FIGURE 4.6  Remind students that
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION (APPROXIMATE VALUES)
frictional force depends on the coeffi-
cient of friction and the normal force. μs μk μs μk

Ask  What changes in environment steel on steel 0.74 0.57 waxed wood on wet snow 0.14 0.1
might cause a change in the frictional
aluminum on steel 0.61 0.47 waxed wood on dry snow – 0.04
force experienced by the snowboarder
on the way down the hill? rubber on dry concrete 1.0 0.8 metal on metal (lubricated) 0.15 0.06

©Mark Gallup/Pictor/Image State

Answer: Answers will vary but could rubber on wet concrete – 0.5 ice on ice 0.1 0.03
include the following: surface conditions wood on wood 0.4 0.2 Teflon on Teflon 0.04 0.04
(such as wet or dry snow, ice, and dirt),
glass on glass 0.9 0.4 synovial joints in humans 0.01 0.003
whether the snowboarder is moving or
not moving, and the angle of the hill.
Problem
136
Solving
Chapter 4

Reality Check surfaces compared with rougher surfaces, and

Encourage students to rely on their common
Untitled-250 136 they should apply this real-life experience to 5/4/2011 2:57:43 PM

sense and experience with real objects when the mathematical model represented by the
checking answers. For example, if they are equation. If they are calculating the coefficient
asked to calculate and compare the coeffi- of kinetic friction and the coefficient of static
cient of static friction of the same object on a friction for an object being dragged across a
rough surface and a smooth surface, and their paved surface, they should expect the
answer gives a greater value for the smooth coefficient of kinetic friction to be the lesser
surface, then they should recognize that there value, because they have experienced that it
is an error in the calculation. They know from takes less force to keep an object moving than
experience that friction is less on smoother to start it moving.

136  Chapter 4
 PREMIUM CONTENT

Coefficients of Friction Interactive Demo

Classroom Practice
HMDScience.com

Sample Problem D A 24 kg crate initially at rest on a

horizontal floor requires a 75 N horizontal force to set it in Coefficients of Friction
motion. Find the coefficient of static friction between the crate A refrigerator is placed on a ramp. The
and the floor.
refrigerator begins to slide when the
ramp is raised to an angle of 34°. What is
ANALYZE Given: Fs,max = Fapplied = 75 N
the coefficient of static friction?
m = 24 kg Answer: 0.67
Unknown: μs = ?
PROBLEM guide D
SOLVE Use the equation for the coefficient of Use this guide to assign problems.
static friction. SE = Student Edition Textbook
Fs,max Fs,max
μs = _ = _ mg PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
Tips and Tricks Fn
Because the crate is on PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
a horizontal surface, the 75 N
magnitude of the normal μs = __ Solving for:
force (Fn) equals the 24 kg × 9.81m/s2
crate’s weight (mg). µ SE Sample, 1–2; Ch. Rvw.
μs = 0.32 35, 36*, 37*, 49
PW 4–7, 10*
PB 8–10
Ff SE 3
1. Once the crate in Sample Problem D is in motion, a horizontal force of 53 N keeps PW Sample, 1–3, 7, 10*
the crate moving with a constant velocity. Find μk, the coefficient of kinetic
friction, between the crate and the floor. PB 5–7
2. A 25 kg chair initially at rest on a horizontal floor requires a 165 N horizontal force
Fn , m PW 8–9
to set it in motion. Once the chair is in motion, a 127 N horizontal force keeps it PB Sample, 1–4
moving at a constant velocity.
*Challenging Problem
a. Find the coefficient of static friction between the chair and the floor.
b. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction between the chair and the floor.

3. A museum curator moves artifacts into place on various different display surfaces.
Use the values in Figure 4.7 to find Fs,max and Fk for the following situations:
Answers
a. moving a 145 kg aluminum sculpture across a horizontal steel platform Practice D
b. pulling a 15 kg steel sword across a horizontal steel shield 1. 0.23
c. pushing a 250 kg wood bed on a horizontal wood floor 2. a. 0.67
d. sliding a 0.55 kg glass amulet on a horizontal glass display case
b. 0.52
3. a. 8.7 × 102 N, 6.7 × 102 N
b. 1.1 × 102 N, 84 N
Forces and the Laws of Motion 137
c. 1 × 103 N, 5 × 102 N
d. 5 N, 2 N

Untitled-250 137 5/4/2011 2:57:44 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  137

 PREMIUM CONTENT

Overcoming Friction Interactive Demo

HMDScience.com

 Teach continued Sample Problem E A student attaches a rope to a 20.0 kg box

of books. He pulls with a force of 90.0 N at an angle of 30.0° with
the horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the box
Classroom Practice and the sidewalk is 0.500. Find the acceleration of the box.

Overcoming Friction ANALYZE Given: m = 20.0 kg μk = 0.500

Two students are sliding a 225-kg sofa at F applied = 90.0 N at θ = 30.0°
constant speed across a wood floor. Unknown: a=?
One student pulls with a force of 225 N Diagram:
at an angle of 13° above the horizontal. Fn

The other student pushes with a force Fk

Fapplied

of 250 N at an angle of 23° below the

horizontal. What is the coefficient of
Fg
kinetic friction between the sofa and
the floor?
Answer: 0.22 PLAN Choose a convenient coordinate system, and find the x and y
components of all forces.
How could the students make moving The diagram at left shows the most convenient coordinate
Fn system, because the only force to resolve into components
the sofa easier?
Fapplied is F applied.
Fk
Answer: They could change the angles, 30°
Fapplied,y = (90.0 N)(sin 30.0°) = 45.0 N (upward)
put the sofa on rollers, or wax the floors.
Fapplied,x = (90.0 N)(cos 30.0°) = 77.9 N (to the right)
Fg
Choose an equation or situation:
A. Find the normal force, Fn, by applying the condition of
equilibrium in the vertical direction: ΣFy = 0.
B. Calculate the force of kinetic friction on the box:
Fk = μkFn.
C. Apply Newton’s second law along the horizontal
direction to find the acceleration of the box:
ΣFx = max.

SOLVE Substitute the values into the equations and solve:

A. To apply the condition of equilibrium in the vertical
direction, you need to account for all of the forces in the
y direction: Fg , Fn , and Fapplied,y. You know Fapplied,y and
can use the box’s mass to find Fg.

©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

Fapplied,y = 45.0 N

Fg = (20.0 kg)(9.81 m/s2) = 196 N

Continued
Problem
138
Solving
Chapter 4

Alternative Approaches (Fapplied)2 = (Fapplied, x)2 + (Fapplied, y)2 = (77.9)2 + (45)2

When evaluating the measures of Fapplied, x and
Untitled-250 138 Fapplied = 90 N 5/4/2011 2:57:46 PM

Fapplied, y, remind students that they may use the

Pythagorean theorem. This is the equation
that compares the three sides of a right
triangle. The theorem can be written as:
a2 + b2 = c2
When solving for Fapplied, x and Fapplied, y, use the
equation as so:

138  Chapter 4
 Overcoming Friction (continued)

PROBLEM guide E
Next, apply the equilibrium condition, ΣFy = 0, and solve for Fn.
Use this guide to assign problems.
Tips and Tricks ΣFy = Fn + Fapplied,y - Fg = 0
Remember to pay attention to the direction SE = Student Edition Textbook
of forces. Here, Fg is subtracted from Fn and Fn + 45.0 N - 196 N = 0
Fapplied,y because Fg is directed downward. PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
Fn = -45.0 N + 196 N = 151 N PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
B. Use the normal force to find the force of kinetic friction. Solving for:
Fk = μk Fn = (0.500)(151 N) = 75.5 N Ff  , a SE Sample, 1–3; Ch. Rvw.
38*, 39*, 47a–b*, 48c
C. Use Newton’s second law to determine the horizontal
acceleration. PW 5–7
ΣFx = Fapplied, x - Fk = max PB 4–7
Tips and Tricks
Fk is directed toward the left, opposite Fapplied, x - Fk 77.9 N - 75.5 N
Fn , m SE Ch. Rvw. 21, 29, 41, 50,
the direction of Fapplied,x. As a result,
ax = __ = __ = _ 2.4 N 52*
when you find the sum of the forces in m 20.0 kg 20.0 kg
the x direction, you need to subtract 2.4 kg• m/s2 PW Sample, 1–3
Fk from Fapplied, x. = __
20.0 kg PB 8–10
µ SE 3, 4; Ch. Rvw. 36–37,
a = 0.12 m/s2 to the right
48b*
PW 4
PB Sample, 1–3
CHECK The normal force is not equal in magnitude to the weight because the y
YOUR component of the student’s pull on the rope helps support the box. *Challenging Problem
WORK

Answers
1. A student pulls on a rope attached to a box of books and moves the box down the
hall. The student pulls with a force of 185 N at an angle of 25.0° above the
Practice E
horizontal. The box has a mass of 35.0 kg, and μk between the box and the floor is 1. 2.7 m/s2 in the positive x direction
0.27. Find the acceleration of the box.
2. 0.77 m/s2 up the ramp
2. The student in item 1 moves the box up a ramp inclined at 12° with the horizontal.
If the box starts from rest at the bottom of the ramp and is pulled at an angle of 3. a. 0.061
25.0° with respect to the incline and with the same 185 N force, what is the b. 3.61 m/s2 down the ramp (Note
acceleration up the ramp? Assume that μk = 0.27.
that m cancels in the solution,
3. A 75 kg box slides down a 25.0° ramp with an acceleration of 3.60 m/s2.
and a is the same in both cases;
a. Find μk between the box and the ramp.
b. What acceleration would a 175 kg box have on this ramp?
the slight difference is due to
4. A box of books weighing 325 N moves at a constant velocity across the floor when
rounding.)
the box is pushed with a force of 425 N exerted downward at an angle of 35.2° 4. 0.609
below the horizontal. Find μk between the box and the floor.

Forces and the Laws of Motion 139

Untitled-250 139 5/4/2011 2:57:51 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  139

 Air resistance is a form of friction.
Another type of friction, the retarding force produced by air resistance, is
 Teach continued important in the analysis of motion. Whenever an object moves through a
fluid medium, such as air or water, the fluid provides a resistance to the
object’s motion.
Why It Matters For example, the force of air resistance, FR, on a moving car acts in
the direction opposite the direction of the car’s motion. At low speeds,
Driving and Friction the magnitude of FR is roughly proportional to the car’s speed. At higher
The coefficient of friction between the speeds, FR is roughly proportional to the square of the car’s speed.
ground and the tires of a car is less when When the magnitude of FR equals the magnitude of the force moving the
car forward, the net force is zero and the car moves at a constant speed.
rain or snow is on the ground. Snow and
A similar situation occurs when an object falls through air. As a
rain tires are excellent examples of ways free-falling body accelerates, its velocity increases. As the velocity
that tires are adapted to regain some of increases, the resistance of the air to the object’s motion also constantly
the necessary frictional forces. increases. When the upward force of air resistance balances the
downward gravitational force, the net force on the object is zero and the
Point out to students that the object continues to move downward with a constant maximum speed,
friction between a tire and pavement is called the terminal speed.
more complex than the simple sliding
friction between dry surfaces, which
they have been studying. The force of
friction on a car tire is not necessarily
simply proportional to the normal force. Driving and Friction
The fact that there is not a simple

A
proportion between the frictional and ccelerating a car seems simple to the driver. It is
normal forces is due in part to the fact just a matter of pressing on a pedal or turning a
wheel. But what are the forces involved?
that the tires are rolling, so they peel
A car moves because as its wheels turn, they push
vertically away from the surface rather
back against the road. It is actually the reaction force of
than continuously slide across it. Also, the road pushing on the car that causes the car to
when the road is covered with water or accelerate. Without the friction between the tires and
snow, other factors such as viscosity the road, the wheels would not be able to exert this force occurs, there is very little friction between the tires and
and the car would not experience a reaction force. the water, and the car becomes difficult to control.
come into play. Thus, acceleration requires this friction. Water and snow To prevent hydroplaning, rain tires, such as the ones
provide less friction and therefore reduce the amount of shown above, keep water from accumulating between
control the driver has over the direction and speed of the tire and the road. Deep channels down the center of
the car. the tire provide a place for the water to accumulate, and
curved grooves in the tread channel the water outward.
As a car moves slowly over an area of water on the
road, the water is squeezed out from under the tires. Because snow moves even less easily than water,

©The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company

If the car moves too quickly, there is not enough time for snow tires have several deep grooves in their tread,
the weight of the car to squeeze the water out from enabling the tire to cut through the snow and make
under the tires. The water trapped between the tires and contact with the pavement. These deep grooves push
the road will lift the tires and car off the road, a against the snow and, like the paddle blades of a
phenomenon called hydroplaning. When this situation riverboat, use the snow’s inertia to provide resistance.

Differentiated
140 Chapter 4
Instruction
Pre-AP find out what factor affects Earth’s velocity
Objects moving in outer space do not
Untitled-250 140 in its orbit. 5/4/2011 2:57:53 PM

experience air resistance. Thus, Earth continu- Earth moves slightly faster in its orbit when
ally orbits the sun without slowing down. it is closer to the sun in January than when it is
(Earth’s speed is actually decreasing because of farthest from the sun in July. This difference is
frequent collisions with small masses such as a corollary to Kepler’s second law of planetary
meteoroids, but this effect is minor.) Earth’s motion, the equal-area law, which describes
velocity does, however, change slightly as it the movement of planets in elliptical orbits.
orbits the sun. Have students do research to

140  Chapter 4
 There are four fundamental forces.
At the microscopic level, friction results from interactions between the
protons and electrons in atoms and molecules. Magnetic force also
results from atomic phenomena. These forces are classified as
Assess and Reteach 
electromagnetic forces. The electromagnetic force is one of four
fundamental forces in nature. The other three fundamental forces are Assess  Use the Formative Assessment
gravitational force, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear on this page to evaluate student
force. All four fundamental forces are field forces.
mastery of the section.
The strong and weak nuclear forces have very small ranges, so their
effects are not directly observable. The electromagnetic and gravitational Reteach  For students who need
forces act over long ranges. Thus, any force you can observe at the additional instruction, download the
macroscopic level is either due to gravitational or electromagnetic forces.
Section Study Guide.
The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all four fundamental
forces. Gravity is the weakest. Although the force due to gravity holds the Response to Intervention  To reassess
planets, stars, and galaxies together, its effect on subatomic particles is students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
negligible. This explains why electric and magnetic effects can easily available to print or to take directly
overcome gravity. For example, a bar magnet has the ability to lift another
magnet off a desk. online at HMDScience.com.

SECTION 4 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas
1. Draw a free-body diagram for each of the following objects:
a. a projectile accelerating downward in the presence of air resistance
b. a crate being pushed across a flat surface at a constant speed
2. A bag of sugar has a mass of 2.26 kg.
a. What is its weight in newtons on the moon, where the acceleration due
to gravity is one-sixth that on Earth?
b. What is its weight on Jupiter, where the acceleration due to gravity is
2.64 times that on Earth?
3. A 2.0 kg block on an incline at a 60.0° angle is held in equilibrium by a
horizontal force.
a. Determine the magnitude of this horizontal force. (Disregard friction.)
b. Determine the magnitude of the normal force on the block.
4. A 55 kg ice skater is at rest on a flat skating rink. A 198 N horizontal force
is needed to set the skater in motion. However, after the skater is in mo-
tion, a horizontal force of 175 N keeps the skater moving at a constant
velocity. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction between the
skates and the ice.

Critical Thinking
5. The force of air resistance acting on a certain falling object is roughly pro-
portional to the square of the object’s velocity and is directed upward. If the
object falls fast enough, will the force of air resistance eventually exceed the
weight of the object and cause the object to move upward? Explain.

Answers to Section Assessment Forces and the Laws of Motion 141

1. a. An arrow labeled Fg should point down, 2. a. 3.70 N

Untitled-250 141 and an arrow labeled Fair should point b. 58.5 N 5/4/2011 2:57:53 PM

opposite the direction of motion. The 3. a. 34 N

arrow Fg should be longer than the
b. 39 N
arrow Fair.
4. 0.37, 0.32
b. Fg points down, Fn points up, Fapplied is
5. no; Once at equilibrium, the velocity will
horizontal, and Ffriction points in the
not increase, so the force of air resistance
opposite direction. The two vertical
will not increase.
arrows are equal in length, as are the
two horizontal arrows.

Forces and the Laws of Motion  141

C h a p t e r s u m m a ry
CHAPTER 4 Summary
Teaching Tip
Ask students to prepare a concept map SECTION 1 Changes in Motion KEY TERM

for the chapter. The concept map • Force is a vector quantity that causes acceleration (when unbalanced). force
should include most of the vocabulary • Force can act either through the physical contact of two objects (contact
force) or at a distance (field force).
terms, along with other integral terms • A free-body diagram shows only the forces that act on one object. These
or concepts. forces are the only ones that affect the motion of that object.

SECTION 2 Newton’s First Law KEY TERMS

• The tendency of an object not to accelerate is called inertia. Mass is the inertia
physical quantity used to measure inertia. net force
• The net force acting on an object is the vector sum of all external forces equilibrium
acting on the object. An object is in a state of equilibrium when the net
force acting on the object is zero.

SECTION 3 Newton’s Second and Third Laws

• The net force acting on an object is equal to the product of the object’s
mass and the object’s acceleration.
• When two bodies exert force on each other, the forces are equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction. These forces are called an action-reaction pair.
Forces always exist in such pairs.

SECTION 4 Everyday Forces KEY TERMS

• The weight of an object is the magnitude of the gravitational force on the weight
object and is equal to the object’s mass times the acceleration due to gravity. normal force
• A normal force is a force that acts on an object in a direction perpendicular static friction
to the surface of contact.
kinetic friction
• Friction is a resistive force that acts in a direction opposite to the direction coefficient of
of the relative motion of two contacting surfaces. The force of friction friction
between two surfaces is proportional to the normal force.

VARIABLE SYMBOLS

Quantities Units Conversions

F (vector) force N newtons = kg•m/s2 Problem Solving

See Appendix D: Equations for a summary
F (scalar) force N newtons = kg•m/s2 of the equations introduced in this chapter. If
you need more problem-solving practice,
μ coefficient of friction (no units) see Appendix I: Additional Problems.

142 Chapter 4

Untitled-245 142 5/4/2011 2:53:16 PM

142  Chapter 4
 C HAPTER RE V I E W
CHAPTER 4 Review
Answers
Forces and Newton’s First Law 9. Draw a free-body diagram representing each of the
following objects: 1. yes; The object could move at
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS a. a ball falling in the presence of air resistance a constant velocity.
b. a helicopter lifting off a landing pad
1. Is it possible for an object to be in motion if no net c. an athlete running along a horizontal track 2. no, just that the net force equals
force is acting on it? Explain. zero
For problems 10–12, see Sample Problem B.
2. If an object is at rest, can we conclude that no 3. no; It has a net force downward
external forces are acting on it? 10. Four forces act on a hot-air balloon, shown from the
side in the figure below. Find the magnitude and (gravitational force).
3. An object thrown into the air stops at the highest direction of the resultant force on the balloon. 4. mass
point in its path. Is it in equilibrium at this point?
Explain. 5. The ball moves toward the back of
4. What physical quantity is a measure of the amount 5120 N
the truck because inertia keeps it in
of inertia an object has? place relative to the ground.
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS 1520 N 950 N
6. a. the inertia of the crate
5. A beach ball is left in the bed of a pickup truck.
b. It could continue forward by
Describe what happens to the ball when the truck inertia and hit the cab.
accelerates forward. 4050 N 7. Fg (8.9 N) and Fapplied (2.1 N) point
6. A large crate is placed on the bed of a truck but is downward, and Fn (11.0 N) points
not tied down. upward.
a. As the truck accelerates forward, the crate slides
across the bed until it hits the tailgate. Explain 8. Fapplied (185 N) points forward,
11. Two lifeguards pull on ropes attached to a raft. If they
what causes this.
pull in the same direction, the raft experiences a PHYSICS
net Fg (155 N) points downward, and
b. If the driver slammed on the brakes, what could
force of 334 N to the right. If they pull in oppositeSpec. Number PH 99 PE F (155 N) points upward. The diagram
C04-CHR-001-A
happen to the crate? n
directions, the raft experiences a net force of 106 Boston
N Graphics, Inc.
to the left.
617.523.1333 may also include Ffriction backward.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS a. Draw a free-body diagram representing the raft for 9. a. Fg points down, and FR points up.
For problems 7–9, see Sample Problem A. each situation.
b. Find the force exerted by each lifeguard on the raft b. Frotors points up, and Fg points
7. Earth exerts a downward gravitational force of 8.9 N for each situation. (Disregard any other forces down.
on a cake that is resting on a plate. The plate exerts a acting on the raft.)
force of 11.0 N upward on the cake, and a knife exerts
c. Fg points down, Ftrack points in
a downward force of 2.1 N on the cake. Draw a 12. A dog pulls on a pillow with a force of 5 N at an angle of the direction of motion, and Fn
37° above the horizontal. Find the x and y components
free-body diagram of the cake.
of this force.
points up.
8. A chair is pushed forward with a force of 185 N. 10. 1210 N at 62° above the 1520 N force
The gravitational force of Earth on the chair is 155 N
downward, and the floor exerts a force of 155 N
11. a. F1 (220 N) and F2 (114 N) both point
upward on the chair. Draw a free-body diagram right; F1 (220 N) points left, and
showing the forces acting on the chair. F2 (114 N) points right.
b. first situation: 220 N to the right,
114 N to the right; second situa-
tion: 220 N to the left, 114 N to
the right
12. 4 N; 3 N
Chapter Review 143

Untitled-245 143 5/4/2011 2:53:17 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  143

C HAPTER RE V I E W CHAPTER REVIEW

13. because Earth has a very large mass Newton’s Second and 22. Two forces are applied to a car in an effort to accelerate
it, as shown below.
14. An object with greater mass requires Third Laws a. What is the resultant of these two forces?
b. If the car has a mass of 3200 kg, what acceleration
a larger force for a given acceleration. REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS does it have? (Disregard friction.)
15. One-sixth of the force needed to lift 13. The force that attracts Earth to an object is equal to
an object on Earth is needed on the and opposite the force that Earth exerts on the object.
450 N
Explain why Earth’s acceleration is not equal to and
moon. opposite the object’s acceleration.
30.0°
10.0° 380 N
16. on the horse: the force of the cart, Fg 14. State Newton’s second law in your own words.
down, Fn up, a reaction force of the
15. An astronaut on the moon has a 110 kg crate and a
ground on the hooves; on the cart: 230 kg crate. How do the forces required to lift the
the force of the horse, Fg down, Fn crates straight up on the moon compare with the
forces required to lift them on Earth? (Assume
up, kinetic friction that the astronaut lifts with constant velocity in
17. push it gently; With a smaller force, both cases.)
the astronaut will experience a 16. Draw a force diagram to identify all the action-reaction
smaller reaction force. pairs that exist for a horse pulling a cart. Weight, Friction, and PHYSICS

18. As the climber exerts a force CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

Normal Force Spec. Number
Boston Graphic
617.523.1333
downward, the rope supplies a REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS
17. A space explorer is moving through space far from
reaction force that is directed any planet or star and notices a large rock, taken as a 23. Explain the relationship between mass and weight.
upward. When this reaction force is specimen from an alien planet, floating around the
24. A 0.150 kg baseball is thrown upward with an initial
cabin of the ship. Should the explorer push it gently
greater than the climber’s weight, the speed of 20.0 m/s.
or kick it toward the storage compartment? Why?
climber accelerates upward. a. What is the force on the ball when it reaches half of
18. Explain why a rope climber must pull downward on its maximum height? (Disregard air resistance.)
19. a. zero the rope in order to move upward. Discuss the force b. What is the force on the ball when it reaches
exerted by the climber’s arms in relation to the weight its peak?
b. zero
of the climber during the various stages of each “step”
20. 3.52 m/s2 up the rope.
25. Draw free-body diagrams showing the weight and
normal forces on a laundry basket in each of the
21. 55 N to the right 19. An 1850 kg car is moving to the right at a constant following situations:
a. at rest on a horizontal surface
22. a. 770 N at 8.1° to the right of speed of 1.44 m/s.
a. What is the net force on the car? b. at rest on a ramp inclined 12° above the horizontal
forward b. What would be the net force on the car if it were c. at rest on a ramp inclined 25° above the horizontal
b. 0.24 m/s2 at 8.1° to the right of moving to the left? d. at rest on a ramp inclined 45° above the horizontal

forward 26. If the basket in item 25 has a mass of 5.5 kg, find the
PRACTICE PROBLEMS magnitude of the normal force for the situations
23. Mass is the inertial property of
For problems 20–22, see Sample Problem C. described in (a) through (d).
matter. Weight is the gravitational
force acting on an object. Weight is 20. What acceleration will you give to a 24.3 kg box if you
push it horizontally with a net force of 85.5 N?
equal to mass times the free-fall
acceleration. 21. What net force is required to give a 25 kg suitcase an
acceleration of 2.2 m/s2 to the right?
24. a. –1.47 N
b. –1.47 N
25. a. Fg points down, and Fn points up.
b. Fg points down, and Fn points up 144 Chapter 4
perpendicular to the surface of
the ramp.
c. same as (b) Untitled-245 144 5/4/2011 2:53:18 PM

d. same as (b)
26. a. 54 N
b. 53 N

144  Chapter 4
 CHAPTER REVIEW C HAPTER RE V I E W
27. A teapot is initially at rest on a horizontal tabletop, 36. A box slides down a 30.0° ramp with an acceleration
then one end of the table is lifted slightly. Does the of 1.20 m/s2. Determine the coefficient of kinetic c. 49 N
normal force increase or decrease? Does the force friction between the box and the ramp. d. 38 N
of static friction increase or decrease?
37. A 4.00 kg block is pushed along 85 N 27. The normal force decreases. The
28. Which is usually greater, the maximum force of static the ceiling with a constant
55° force of static friction increases to
friction or the force of kinetic friction? applied force of 85.0 N that acts
at an angle of 55.0° with the counteract the component of the
29. A 5.4 kg bag of groceries is in equilibrium on an
incline of angle θ = 15°. Find the magnitude of
horizontal, as in the figure. The block accelerates to weight along the figure.
the right at 6.00 m/s2. Determine the coefficient of
the normal force on the bag.
kinetic friction between the block and the ceiling. 28. Fs,max
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS For problems 38–39, see Sample Problem E. 29. 51 N
38. A clerk moves a box of cans down an aisle by pulling 30. 0 N; The forces exerted by each star
30. Imagine an astronaut in space at the midpoint
between two stars of equal mass. If all other objects on a strap attached to the box. The clerk pulls with a cancel.
are infinitely far away, what is the weight of the force of 185.0 N at an angle of 25.0° with the horizon-
tal. The box has a mass of 35.0 kg, and the coefficient 31. a. the weight of the ball and an
astronaut? Explain your answer.
of kinetic friction between box and floor is 0.450. Find equal reaction force of the ball on
31. A ball is held in a person’s hand. the acceleration of the box.
a. Identify all the external forces acting on the ball
Earth; the force of the person’s
and the reaction force to each. 39. A 925 N crate is being pulled across a level floor by a hand on the ball and an equal
b. If the ball is dropped, what force is exerted on it force F of 325 N at an angle of 25° above the horizon-
tal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
reaction force of the ball on the
while it is falling? Identify the reaction force in
this case. (Disregard air resistance.) crate and floor is 0.25. Find the magnitude of the hand
acceleration of the crate.
32. Explain why pushing downward on a book as you
b. Fg; the force of the ball on Earth
push it across a table increases the force of friction 32. Pushing down on the book increases
between the table and the book. Mixed Review the normal force and therefore also
33. Analyze the motion of a rock dropped in water in REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS increases the friction.
terms of its speed and acceleration. Assume that a
resistive force acting on the rock increases as the 40. A block with a mass of 6.0 kg is 33. The rock will accelerate until the
F
speed increases. held in equilibrium on an incline magnitude of the resistive force
of angle θ = 30.0° by a horizontal
34. A sky diver falls through the air. As the speed of the force, F, as shown in the figure. equals the net downward force on
sky diver increases, what happens to the sky diver’s Find the magnitudes of the normal the rock. (This downward force is the
acceleration? What is the acceleration when the force on the block and of F. (Ignore friction.)
sky diver reaches terminal speed?
rock’s weight minus the buoyant
41. A 2.0 kg mass starts from rest and slides down an force of the water.) Then the speed
inclined plane 8.0 × 10-1 m long in 0.50 s. What net
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
force is acting on the mass along the incline?
of the rock will be constant.
For problems 35–37, see Sample Problem D. 34. As the sky diver’s speed increases,
42. A 2.26 kg book is dropped from a height of 1.5 m.
35. A 95 kg clock initially at rest on a horizontal floor a. What is its acceleration? the acceleration decreases because
requires a 650 N horizontal force to set it in motion. b. What is its weight in newtons? the resistive force increases with
After the clock is in motion, a horizontal force of
560 N keeps it moving with a constant velocity.
increasing speed; zero
Find µs and µk between the clock and the floor. 35. 0.70, 0.60
36. 0.436
37. 0.816
38. 1.4 m/s2 down the aisle
39. 1.0 m/s2
Chapter Review 145 40. 68 N; 34 N
41. 13 N down the incline
42. a. 9.81 m/s2 downward
Untitled-245 145 5/4/2011 2:53:18 PM
b. 22.2 N

Forces and the Laws of Motion  145

C HAPTER RE V I E W CHAPTER REVIEW

43. A 5.0 kg bucket of water is raised from a well by a 49. A hockey puck is hit on a frozen lake and starts moving
3. 64 N upward
4 rope. If the upward acceleration of the bucket is with a speed of 12.0 m/s. Exactly 5.0 s later, its speed is
3.0 m/s2, find the force exerted by the rope on the 6.0 m/s. What is the puck’s average acceleration? What
44. a. zero bucket of water. is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the puck
b. 33.9 N 44. A 3.46 kg briefcase is sitting at rest on a level floor.
and the ice?
45. a. 0.25 m/s2 forward a. What is the briefcases’s acceleration? 50. The parachute on a racecar that weighs 8820 N opens
b. What is its weight in newtons? at the end of a quarter-mile run when the car is
b. 18 m
traveling 35 m/s. What net retarding force must be
c. 3.0 m/s 45. A boat moves through the water with two forces
supplied by the parachute to stop the car in a distance
acting on it. One is a 2.10 × 103 N forward push by
46. 5.0 × 101 m the motor, and the other is a 1.80 × 103 N resistive
of 1100 m?

47. a. 2 s force due to the water. 51. A 1250 kg car is pulling a 325 kg trailer. Together, the
a. What is the acceleration of the 1200 kg boat? car and trailer have an acceleration of 2.15 m/s2
b. The box will never move. The b. If it starts from rest, how far will it move in 12 s? directly forward.
force exerted is not enough to c. What will its speed be at the end of this time a. Determine the net force on the car.
interval? b. Determine the net force on the trailer.
overcome friction.
48. a. 1.78 m/s2 46. A girl on a sled coasts down a hill. Her speed is 52. The coefficient of static friction F
7.0 m/s when she reaches level ground at the bottom. between the 3.00 kg crate and the
b. 0.37 The coefficient of kinetic friction between the sled’s 35.0° incline shown here is 0.300.
c. 9.4 N runners and the hard, icy snow is 0.050, and the girl What is the magnitude of the
and sled together weigh 645 N. How far does the sled minimum force, F, that must be
d. 2.67 m/s travel on the level ground before coming to rest? applied to the crate perpendicu-
35.0°

49. –1.2 m/s2; 0.12 larly to the incline to prevent the

47. A box of books weighing 319 N is shoved across the
crate from sliding down the incline?
50. –5.0 × 102 N floor by a force of 485 N exerted downward at an
angle of 35° below the horizontal. 53. The graph below shows a plot of the speed of a
51. a. 2690 N forward
a. If µk between the box and the floor is 0.57, how person’s body during a chin-up. All motion is vertical
b. 699 N forward long does it take to move the box 4.00 m, starting and the mass of the person (excluding the arms) is
from rest? 64.0 kg. Find the magnitude of the net force exerted
52. 32.2 N
b. If µk between the box and the floor is 0.75, how on the body at 0.50 s intervals.
53. 13 N, 13 N, 0 N, –26 N long does it take to move the box 4.00 m, starting
Speed of a Body
from rest? 30.0
54. 1.41°
48. A 3.00 kg block starts from rest at the top of a 30.0°

Speed (cm/s)
20.0
incline and accelerates uniformly down the incline,
moving 2.00 m in 1.50 s.
10.0
a. Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the
block.
b. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
block and the incline. Time (s)
c. Find the magnitude of the frictional force acting on
the block. 54. A machine in an ice factory is capable of exerting
d. Find the speed of the block after it has slid a 3.00 × 102 N of force to pull a large block of ice up a
HRW • Holt Physics
distance of 2.00 m. slope. The block weighs 1.22 × 104 N. Assuming there
PH99PE-C04-CHS-007-A
is no friction, what is the maximum angle that the
slope can make with the horizontal if the machine is
to be able to complete the task?

146 Chapter 4

Untitled-245 146 5/4/2011 2:53:19 PM

146  Chapter 4
 CHAPTER REVIEW C HAPTER RE V I E W
3. Imagine an airplane with a series of special
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
instruments anchored to its walls: a pendulum, a
100 kg mass on a spring balance, and a sealed
Alternative
1. Predict what will happen in the following test of the
laws of motion. You and a partner face each other, half-full aquarium. What will happen to each
instrument when the plane takes off, makes turns,
Assessment Answers
each holding a bathroom scale. Place the scales back
to back, and slowly begin pushing on them. Record slows down, lands, and so on? If possible, test your 1. Scales will have identical readings
predictions by simulating airplane motion in
the measurements of both scales at the same time.
elevators, car rides, and other situations. Use
because of Newton’s third law.
Perform the experiment. Which of Newton’s laws
have you verified? instruments similar to those described above, and 2. Lavoisier: (a), because Lavoisier is
also observe your body sensations. Write a report
2. Research how the work of scientists Antoine
credited with establishing the fact
comparing your predictions with your experiences.
Lavoisier, Isaac Newton, and Albert Einstein related that mass is conserved in chemical
4. With a small group, determine which of the following
to the study of mass. Which of these scientists might
statements is correct. Use a diagram to explain your
reactions; Newton: (a) and (b),
have said the following?
a. The mass of a body is a measure of the quantity of answer. because Newton established a
matter in the body. a. Rockets cannot travel in space because there is definition of force by relating it to
b. The mass of a body is the body’s resistance to a nothing for the gas exiting the rocket to push
against. mass and acceleration; Einstein: (a),
change in motion.
c. The mass of a body depends on the body’s b. Rockets can travel because gas exerts an unbalanced (b), and (c), because Einstein showed
force on the rocket.
velocity. that at high speeds, Newton’s second
c. The action and reaction forces are equal and
To what extent are these statements compatible or opposite. Therefore, they balance each other, and law of motion requires an additional
contradictory? Present your findings to the class for no movement is possible. correction term that is speed
review and discussion.
dependent
3. Students may construct accelero­
meters and/or anchor helium-filled
balloons to the elevator or car floor.
­Students’ reports should compare
their predictions to their experi-
ences.
4. Statement (b) is true. The gas pushes
in all directions. Some gas pushes
forward on the rocket, and some
Static Friction exits through the back. The net force
The force of static friction depends on two factors: the coef- In this activity, you will use a graphing calculator program to
in the forward direction causes the
ficient of static friction for the two surfaces in contact, and the compare the force of static friction of wood boxes on a wood acceleration.
normal force between the two surfaces. The relationship can surface with that of steel boxes on a steel surface.
be represented on a graphing calculator by the following Go online to HMDScience.com to find this graphing
equation: calculator activity.
Y1 = SX
Given a value for the coefficient of static friction (S), the
graphing calculator can calculate and graph the force of
static friction (Y1) as a function of normal force (X).

Chapter Review 147

Untitled-245 147 5/4/2011 2:53:20 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  147

S TA N D A R D S - B A S E D
ASSESSMENT
Standards-Based Assessment
Answers
MULTIPLE CHOICE 4. A ball with a mass of m is thrown into the air, as
1. C Use the passage below to answer questions 1–2. shown in the figure below. What is the force exerted
2. G Two blocks of masses m1 and m2 are placed in contact
on Earth by the ball?

3. C with each other on a smooth, horizontal surface. Block

m1 is on the left of block m2. A constant horizontal force
4. G F to the right is applied to m1.
5. A 1. What is the acceleration of the two blocks?
F
6. G A. a = _
m1
B. a = _F
m2
C. a = _ F
m1 + m2
D. a = _ F
(m1)(m2) F. mball g, directed down
2. What is the horizontal force acting on m2? G. mball g, directed up
F . m1a H. mEarth g, directed down
G. m2a J. mEarth g, directed up
H. (m1 + m2)a 5. A freight train has a mass of 1.5 × 107 kg. If the
J . m1m2a locomotive can exert a constant pull of 7.5 × 105 N,
3. A crate is pulled to the right (positive x-axis) with how long would it take to increase the speed of the
a force of 82.0 N, to the left with a force of 115 N, train from rest to 85 km/h? (Disregard friction.)
upward with a force of 565 N, and downward with A. 4.7 × 102 s
a force of 236 N. Find the magnitude and direction B. 4.7 s
of the net force on the crate. C. 5.0 × 10-2 s
A. 3.30 N at 96˚ counterclockwise from the positive D. 5.0 × 104 s
x-axis
B. 3.30 N at 6˚ counterclockwise from the positive Use the passage below to answer questions 6–7.
x-axis
A truck driver slams on the brakes and skids to a stop
C. 3.30 × 102 N at 96˚ counterclockwise from the
through a displacement ∆x.
positive x-axis
D. 3.30 × 102 N at 6˚ counterclockwise from the 6. If the truck’s mass doubles, find the truck’s skidding
positive x-axis distance in terms of ∆x. (Hint: Increasing the mass
increases the normal force.)
F . ∆x/4
G. ∆x
H. 2∆x
J . 4∆x

148 Chapter 4

Untitled-312 148 5/6/2011 12:03:24 PM

148  Chapter 4
 TEST PREP

7. A
7. If the truck’s initial velocity were halved, what would 11. How far from the building does the ball hit 8. F
be the truck’s skidding distance? the ground?
A. ∆x/4
9. D
12. When the ball hits the ground, what is its speed?
B. ∆x 10. 6.00 s
C. 2∆x
D. 4∆x Base your answers to questions 13–15 on the information below.
11. 72.0 m
Fs, max A crate rests on the horizontal bed of a pickup truck. 12. 63.6 m/s
For each situation described below, indicate the motion 13. at rest, moves to the left, hits
Frictional force

Fk of the crate relative to the ground, the motion of the

A B crate relative to the truck, and whether the crate will hit back wall
the front wall of the truck bed, the back wall, or neither. 14. moves to the right (with velocity v),
Disregard friction.
0
at rest, neither
Static region Kinetic region 13. Starting at rest, the truck accelerates to the right.
Applied force
15. moves to the right, moves to the
14. The crate is at rest relative to the truck while the right, hits front wall
Use the graph above to answer questions 8–9. The graph shows the truck moves with a constant velocity to the right.
relationship between the applied force and the force of friction. 16. 0.71 m/s2 (Go online to see the full
15. The truck in item 14 slows down.
8. What is the relationship between the forces at solution.)
point A? EXTENDED RESPONSE 17. Student plans should be safe and
F . Fs = Fapplied
G. Fk = Fapplied 16. A student pulls a rope attached to a 10.0 kg wooden
should involve measuring forces such
H. Fs < Fapplied sled and moves the sled across dry snow. The student as weight, applied force, normal
J . Fk > Fapplied pulls with a force of 15.0 N at an angle of 45.0°. If µk force, and frictional force.
between the sled and the snow is 0.040, what is the
9. What is the relationship between the forces at
sled’s acceleration? Show your work.
point B?
A. Fs, max = Fk 17. You can keep a 3 kg book from dropping by pushing it
B. Fk > Fs, max horizontally against a wall. Draw force diagrams, and
C. Fk > Fapplied identify all the forces involved. How do they combine
D. Fk < Fapplied to result in a zero net force? Will the force you must
supply to hold the book up be different for different
SHORT RESPONSE types of walls? Design a series of experiments to test
your answer. Identify exactly which measurements
Base your answers to questions 10–12 on the information below.
will be necessary and what equipment you will need.
A 3.00 kg ball is dropped from rest from the roof of a
building 176.4 m high. While the ball is falling, a horizontal
wind exerts a constant force of 12.0 N on the ball.

10. How long does the ball take to hit the ground?

11 12 1
Test Tip
10 2
9 3 For a question involving experimental
8 4 data, determine the constants,
7 6 5
variables, and control before answering
the question.

Standards-Based Assessment 149

Untitled-312 149 5/6/2011 12:03:25 PM

Forces and the Laws of Motion  149