MODULE.

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS-BIO DESIGN-1

1. Explain brain as Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The brain can be considered as a complex computational network like CPU in a
computer. The brain receives and processes input from various sources like sensory
organs and other parts of the body. It is then using this information to generate outputs
such as thoughts, movements and behaviors. The similarity between CPU and Brain is
that The CPU operate through networks of interconnected components where in the
data is transferred between memory and input and output devices.
In case of brain the networks are formed by the connections between neurons. Which
can form complex circuits and pathways that enable the brain to perform a wide range
of functions from sensing the environment to generating complex thoughts and
emotions.
Like a CPU the brain is capable of processing vast amount of information, using
distributed processing to perform complex tasks quickly and efficiently
2.Describe the Architecture of Brain
The Architecture of brain is divided in to the following components.
Cerebrum: The Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into two
hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. It is responsible for complex brain
functions such as Consciousness, Perception, thinking and memory.
Cerebellum: It is located underneath of cerebrum and is responsible for coordinating
movement and balance.
Brainstem: It is located at the base of the brain and connects the brain to the spinal
cord. It is responsible for regulating many basic bodily functions such breathing,
heartrate and blood pressure.
Limbic system: It is a network structure located in the center of the brain. It is
involved in regulating emotions, motivations and memory.
Basal ganglia: These are the group of structures located deep within the brain. They
involve in coordinating movement and muscle control.
3.Describe how electrical activity of brain can be studied by using
electroencephalogram (EEG).
It is a non-invasive medical test that measures the electrical activity of brain
using electrodes placed on the scalp.
 The brain produces electrical activity as a result of the communication between
neurons. EEG measures this activity and converts them in to a visual representation of
the brain’s activity over time.
During EEG the patient sits or lies down with electrodes attached to the Scalp using
conductive paste. The electrodes detect the electrical activity of the brain and transmit
it to a computer for analysis. The resulting EEG pattern is a series of waves that
corresponds to different states of brain activity, like wakefulness, sleep, and seizer
activity. Different EEG wave patterns corresponds to different states of brain.
EEG Can also be used to identify abnormalities in brain.
EEG is a safe and non-invasive procedure that does not involve any radiation or
discomfort for the patient
4.What is Robotic Arm. Describe the design of Robotic Arm.
Robotic Arm is a type of mechanical arm that is designed to replicate the movement
and functionality of a human arm.
The design of robotic includes the following components,
Base: The base of the robotic arm provides a stable platform for the arm to move
from. The base be fixed or mounted on a mobile plat form.
Joints: Robotic arms have several joints that allow them to move in a similar way
to a human arm. This joint may be operated by motors, pneumatics and hydraulics.
End effector: The end effector is a device attached to the end of the robotic arm
End effector consists of grippers, sensors and other specialized tools.
Control System: The control system consists of software and hardware that allows
the robotic arm to be programmed and controlled.
5. What is Parkinson disease. Mention the types of Parkinson disease and write
their symptoms.
It is a gradual disorder of the nervous system and affects movement. It is
caused by the deterioration of dopamine producing neurons in the brain. Dopamine is
a neurotransmitter that is involved in the control of movement.
Parkinson is of two types
1. Motor Symptoms of Parkinson disease include.
2. Non- Motor Symptoms of Parkinson disease include.

Symptoms of Motor Parkinson Disease:

Tremors: Shaking or trembling movements, typically in hands, arms legs or jaw.

Rigidity: Stiffness in muscles, making it difficult to move.

Bradykinesia: Slowness of movement, making it difficult to perform simple tasks.

Postural Instability: Difficulty in maintaining balance and coordination leading to fall.

Symptoms of Non –Motor symptoms of Parkinson:

Sleep disorders: Can cause problems with sleep, including insomnia, restless
leg syndrome and sleep apnea.

Depression and anxiety: Due to Parkinson’s disease people experience depression,

anxiety and other mood disorders.

Cognitive changes: Parkinson disease affects the cognitive functions such as memory,
attention etc….

6.Mention the Engineering solutions for Parkinson disease.

1.Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): I t is a surgical procedure that involves implanting

electrodes in the brain to regulate abnormal brain activity. The electrodes are

connected to a device the device sends electrical impulses to the brain to reduce

tremors and other Parkinson symptoms.

2. Wearable Technology: Wearable devices such as smart watches, and fitness

trackers can be used to monitor Parkinson problems. These devices can provide

real time feedback to patients allowing more personalized treatment.

3. Assistive devices: There are variety of assistive devices that can help to

perform daily activities very easily. Example-Grip enhancing tools for writing,

Button hooks for dressing, Specialized utensils for eating.

4. Voice and Speech Therapy: Speech therapy can help to improve communication

skills and enhance voice projection.

5. Mobility aids: To maintain independence and risk of falls mobility aids such as

canes, Walkers and wheelchairs can be used.

7. Describe the Architecture of heart.

The heart is muscular organ located in the chest cavity, slightly to the left of the
steruum (breastbone). It is roughly to the size of the fist and is divided into four
chambers. The right and left Atria and right and left ventricles.
The atria are the upper chambers of the heart and are responsible for receiving
blood from the body and lungs.

The ventricles are the lower chambers of the heart and are responsible for pumping
blood out of the heart and in to the body and lungs.

The heart is surrounded by a sac called the pericardium, which helps to protect and
cushion the heart.

Heart is divided in to two halves. The right half of the heart is responsible for
pumping deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs, where it is oxygenated.
The left half of the heart is responsible for pumping oxygen rich blood from lungs to
the rest of the body.

The coronary arteries supply oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle allowing it to
function properly.

The heart pumping action is regulated by a specialized electrical system made up of

several different components like sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node and Purkinje
fibers.

8.Explain in brief about ECG monitoring to heart related issues.

ECG is a non invasive procedure to monitor the electrical activity of heart. This
procedure involves placing electrodes on the skin to detect the electrical signals
generated by heart. ECG monitoring can be used to detect the varieties of heart
related issues as mentioned here under.

Arrhythmias: These are abnormal rhythms that can be either too fast(tachycardia) or
too slow (bradycardia).ECG monitoring can help to detect these arrhythmias and
determine their underlying cause.

Heart attacks: A heart attack occurs when blood flow to the heart is blocked, damage
to the heart muscle. ECG monitoring can help to diagnose a heart attack and to
determine the extent of damage.

Congenital heart defects: These are the heart abnormalities present in birth. Its
severity can be find by ECG.

Heart failures: This is a condition in which heart is unable to pump enough blood for
body’s need. By ECG monitoring it can be diagnosed.

Drug side effects: Some medication can affect the electrical activity of heart. ECG
monitoring can help to detect these drugs induced changes and to determine
whether medication needs to be adjusted.

9. What is stent in brief explain the design of stent.

 Stent is a small mesh-like tube that is placed in blocked arteries to help keep them
open.

Following are the key points in designing stent.

1, Material: Based on biocompatibility, durability and ability to deliver drugs. Stents

are made of metals, Polymers and bioabsorbable materials.

2.Structure: Stents can be designed with different structural features as Open-cell

or closed-cell or shape variations to enhance their performance.

3. Coating: Stents can be coated with drugs to promote healing.

4.Delivery System: Stents are typically delivered to the site of the blockage. Via

Catheter-based system.

5.Compatibility with Imaging: Stents should be compatible with different

imaging techniques such as X-ray, Ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging,

to enable accurate monitoring of their placement and performance.

6.Customization: Customization can improve the effectiveness and safety of stent

placement. But it can also increase the cost of procedure.

10.What is pacemaker in brief discuss its design.

Pacemaker is a medical device that generates electrical impulses to regulate heartbeat.

The following are the key components in the design of stent

It is a main component of pacemaker. Pulse Generator contains a battery,

microprocessor and other circuits. The pulse generator produces electrical

1.Pulse Generator: impulses and sent to the heart through leads.

2.Leads: Leads are typically inserted through a vein near the collarbone and threaded in
to heart. Leads carry electrical impulses from generator to the heart.

3. Sensors: Sensors in pacemaker detects the heart’s natural electrical activity and adjust

the pacing accordingly.

Example: If the heart beats faster during exercise, the pace maker will increase the

pacing rate.

4.Programming: The Programming in the pace maker includes setting the pacing rate,

adjusting the sensitivity of the sensors and other Parameters.

5.MRI Compatibility: Newer pacemaker designs include features that allow for safe use

during magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)scans.

 MODULE-03
1. Explain Lungs as purification system.

Lungs are the organs play an important role in respiratory system. Which involves the
intake of Oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from the body. They filter out
particulate matter and contaminants from the air we breath.

The lungs contain small air sacs called Alveoli, which are surrounded by tiny blood
vessels called capillaries. When we inhale air enters the lungs and oxygen passes
through the alveoli in to the capillaries, from where it is carried throughout the body.

At the same time carbon dioxide from the body is exchanged into the alveoli and exhaled
out of the body.

The respiratory track also contains tiny hairs called cilia. Which helps to trap foreign
particles and prevent them entering the lungs.

2. Explain gas exchange mechanism in lungs.

Lungs play an important role for the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the
blood stream by a process called diffusion. The gas exchange mechanism involves the
following steps.

(a) Inhalation: When we inhale, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract,
causing the volume of the chest cavity to increase and creating a negative pressure
gradient, this causes air to flow into the lungs, and in to the alveoli.

(b) Oxygen diffusion: The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries, the capillaries
transport blood from heart to lungs. Oxygen from the air circulates across the
membrane of alveoli and in to the capillaries where it binds to hemoglobin in red
blood cell.

(c) Carbon dioxide diffusion: Carbon dioxide from the bloodstream circulates across
membrane of the capillaries and in to the alveoli

(d) Exhalation: Once the blood has been oxygenated and carbon dioxide has been
removed, it flows back to the heart to be pumped to the rest of the body. When we
exhale the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax causing the chest cavity to
decrease and creating a positive pressure gradient. These forces air out of the lungs
and back in to the atmosphere.

3.With a neat diagram explain Heart-lungs machine.

It is a medical device that temporarily takes over the functions of the heart and
lungs during open heart surgery. This machine typically includes several components,
such as a pump, an Oxygenerator, a heat exchanger, a variety of sensors and
monitors.
 Blood Circulation: This machine circulates the patient’s blood through a series of
tubing and oxygenator which serves as a temporary replacement for the lungs. The
oxygenator removes carbon dioxide from the blood and adds oxygen. Which is
pumped back in to the patient’s body through tubing and cannulas.

Temperature control: The heat exchanger controls the temperature of the patient’s
blood as it circulates through the machine. This helps to maintain the patient’s body
temperature and prevent hypothermia.

Blood Pressure control: The heart lung machine can be programmed to control the
flow rate and pressure of the blood. Which can be adjusted to meet the needs of the
patient during the surgery.

Gas exchange: The oxygenator in heart-lung machine serves as a temporary

replacement for the patient’s lungs.

Monitoring: The heart-lung machine includes a variety of sensors and monitors to

measures the patients’ vital signs such as blood pressure, Oxygen levels, and heart
rate.

4.Describe kidney as filtration system.

The kidneys are the important part of the body’s filtration system. They play a crucial
role in removing waste products, excess fluids, and other harmful substances from
the body. The overview of the kidney filtration system mentioned herewith.

Nephrons: The functional units of the kidney are called Nephrons. Each kidney
contains millions of nephrons which are responsible for filtering the blood.

Glomorulus: it is a tiny blood vessel cluster that acts as a filter. As blood flows
through the glomerulus waste products, excess fluids and other harmful substances
are filtered out of the body.

Tubules: The filtered blood from glomerulus flows into a series of tubules, where
additional filtering and reabsorption occurs. Nutrients and other essential substances
are reabsorbed back into the blood stream, while waste products and excess fluids
are excreted as urine.

Hormones: The kidney also produce hormones that help to regulate blood pressure
control the production of blood cells and maintain a proper balance of fluids and
electrolytes in the body.

5. Explain abnormal Lung physiology-COPD.

Abnormal lung physiology occurs due to variety of factors like disease, injury and

environmental factors. Following are some of the examples.

 Asthma: It is a chronic respiratory disease characterized by inflammation and
narrowing of the airways. Which can make it difficult to breathe. Asthma causes
shortness of breath, tightness of chest and coughing. Asthma is often occur due to
environmental factors , such as allergen ,pollutants….

COPD -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: COPD is a group of lung diseases like 1.
Emphysema and 2. Chronic bronchitis. This is caused by smoking and exposed to other
irritants. Emphysema is a condition in which the air sacs in the lungs are damaged and
lose their elasticity. This makes it difficult for the lungs to fully expand and contract.
Where as Chronic bronchitis is a condition in which the bronchial tubes become infected
and produce excess mucus.it make difficult to breath and cause coughing, wheezing and
discomfort.

Lung Cancer: It is a type of Cancer which occurs in the lungs, and cause tumours that
interfere with breathing. Lung cancer is caused by smoking and exposed to Carcinogens.

Treatment options are medications, Oxygen therapy, and surgical interventions.

6. Write a note on Bio-Engineering solutions for muscular dystrophy and Osteoporosis.

Bioengineering offers potential solutions for the treatment of muscular dystrophy. Some
examples are

1.Gene therapy: in this procedure a healthy mutated gene is introduced in to the

affected cells. This could potentially cure muscular dystrophy at genetic level.

2.Stem cell therapy: Researchers are investigating the use of stem cells to regenerate
muscle tissue in patients with muscular dystrophy.

3. Exoskeletons and assistive devices: These are wearable devices that can assist in
walking and other movements. They can help patients with muscular dystrophy to
maintain mobility and independence. Similarly robotic arms and exosuits are some latest
devices to perform daily activities.

4.Tissue Engineering : Researchers are exploring the use of tissue engineering to create
new muscle tissues for patients with muscular dystrophy.

5. Wheelchairs and mobility scooters: These devices are commonly used by individuals
with muscular dystrophy to help with mobility.

6. Communication devices: The individuals with muscular dystrophy finds difficulty in

speaking and communicating. Communicating devices such as speech generating devices
and eye tracking technology can help these individuals.

Bioengineering solutions for Osteoporosis: It is a bone disease characterized by low bone

mass and deterioration of bone tissue. Examples.

 1. Tissue Engineering: Tissue engineering involves growing, replacement tissues in
laboratory and then implanting them in to the patient’s body.

Drug delivery System: Researchers are developing new drug delivery system that can target
the bone tissue directly.

Mechanical Stimulation : Researchers are exploring the use of mechanical stimulation

techniques such as vibration and electrical stimulation as a potential treatment for
osteoporosis.