Biochemistry Lecture 1

By: Ausama A. Safar 1

INTRODUCTION
Life has proven to be far more complex than the human imagination could have
conceived. The structure of an individual cell is a case in point. Cells are not the bags of

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protoplasm that scientists envisioned over a century ago; rather, they are structurally
complex and dynamic. The scientists who work to understand the physical reality of the

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natural world are often amazed at how sophisticated even the simplest organisms are.

Biochemists have investigated living organisms with a unique experimental approach

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based on the concepts of biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics, as well as

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increasingly more sophisticated technologies. Their work has revealed that despite the rich
diversity of living organisms, from the blue whale to the smallest of microorganisms, all
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obey the same chemical and physical laws that rule the universe. All are composed of the
same types of molecules and their methods for sustaining biological processes are similar.
Among the most important insights gained from the work of biochemists are the following:
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1. Life is complex and dynamic.
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All organisms are primarily composed of organic (carbon-based) molecules that have
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intricate, three-dimensional shapes. Living processes, such as growth and development,

involve thousands of chemical reactions in which vast quantities and varieties of vibrating
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and rotating molecules interact, collide, and rearrange into new molecules.

2. Life is organized and self-sustaining.

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Living organisms are complicated and hierarchically organized systems; that is, each
level is based on the one below (Figure 1). The molecules that make up living organisms,
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referred to as biomolecules, are composed of atoms, which in turn are formed from
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subatomic particles. Certain biomolecules become linked to form polymers called

macromolecules. Examples include nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides, which
are formed from nucleotides, amino acids, and sugars, respectively. Various combinations
 Biochemistry Lecture 1
By: Ausama A. Safar 2

of biomolecules and macromolecules form a myriad of larger and more complex

supramolecular structures that together make up cells. In multicellular organisms other
levels of organization include tissues, organs, and organ systems. At each level of

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organization, the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. In other words, new properties
emerge at each level that cannot be predicted from the analysis of component parts. For
example, hemoglobin, the protein that transports molecular oxygen in vertebrate blood, is

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composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and iron. The heme component of
hemoglobin that is responsible for oxygen transport is not oxidized by the oxygen as it

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would be in the absence of the protein component. The properties of the heme ring system

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and its protection from oxidation by the protein that surrounds it are examples of emergent
properties. The organization and ordered functioning of living organisms requires the
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continuous acquisition of both energy and matter, and the removal of waste molecules.
These tasks are accomplished by hundreds of biochemical reactions that are catalyzed by
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enzymes. The sum total of all of the reactions in a living organism is referred to as
metabolism. The capacity of living organisms to regulate metabolic processes despite
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variability in their internal and external environments is called homeostasis.

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The compound that forms the non-protein part of the hemoglobin molecule is known
as heme.
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3. Life is cellular.

Cells differ widely in structure and function, but each is surrounded by a membrane
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that controls the transport of some chemical substances into and out of the cell. The
membrane also mediates the response of the cell to components of the extracellular
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environment. If a cell is divided into its component parts, it will cease to function in a life-
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sustaining way. Cells arise only from the division of existing cells.
 Biochemistry Lecture 1
By: Ausama A. Safar 3

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Figure 1; Hierarchical Organization of a Multicellular Organism: The Human Being

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4. Life is information-based.
Organization requires information. Living organisms can be considered to be
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information-processing systems because maintenance of their structural integrity and

metabolic processes requires the timely management of a vast array of interacting
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molecules within cells and between cells and generations of future cells. Biological
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information is in the form of coded messages that are inherent in the unique three-
dimensional structure of biomolecules. Genetic information, which is stored in the linear
sequences of nucleotides in the nucleic acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), called genes,
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By: Ausama A. Safar 4

in turn specifies the linear sequence of amino acids in proteins, and how and when those
proteins are synthesized. Proteins perform their function by interacting with other
molecules. The unique three-dimensional structure of each type of protein allows it to bind

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to and interact with a specific type of molecule with a precise complementary shape.

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Information is transferred during the binding process. For example, the binding of insulin,
a protein released by the pancreas of vertebrates, to insulin receptor molecules on the

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surface of certain cells is a signal that initiates the uptake of the nutrient molecule glucose.
The transport of amino acids is insulin sensitive as well.

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5. Life adapts and evolves.

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All life on earth has a common origin, with new forms arising from other forms.
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When an individual organism in a population reproduces itself, stress-induced DNA
modifications and errors that occur when DNA molecules are copied can result in
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mutations or sequence changes. Most mutations are silent; that is, they are either repaired
by the cell or have no effect on the functioning of the organism. Some, however, are
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deleterious, serving to limit the reproductive success of the offspring. On rare occasions
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mutations may contribute to an increased ability of the organism to survive, to adapt to

new circumstances, and to reproduce. The principal driving force in this process is the
capacity to exploit energy sources. Individuals that possess traits that allow them to better
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exploit a specific energy source within their habitat may have a competitive advantage
when resources are limited. Over many generations the interplay of environmental change
and genetic variation can lead to the accumulation of favorable traits, and eventually to
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increasingly different forms of life.

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