AP Physics 2

Unit 2: Electrostatics

Section 2.1 – Electric Charge………………………………………………………….………..24

Section 2.2 – Electric Force………………………………………………………….…………29

Section 2.3 – Electric Fields…………………………………………………………….…...….33

Section 2.4 – Electric Potential……….…………………………………………………..….…37

Section 2.5 – Capacitors……………………..…………………………….……………...…….47

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Electrostatics
2.1 Electric Charge
Focus Question: What causes an object to have a net electric charge?

Bohr Model of the Atom

-The nucleus of an atom contains protons (+) charge and neutrons (no charge).
The charge of the nucleus is only based on the number of protons.

-The mass of a proton is ~2000 x the mass of an electron, so almost all the
matter in an atom is in the nucleus.

-Electrons exist outside the nucleus and “orbit” the nucleus. Electrons have very
little mass, but equal and opposite charge to a proton.

 Electric Charge is a property of matter. Charge can be positive or negative. Negative charge is a
property of electrons. Positive charge is a property of protons.
 Charge is conserved. Charge can be transferred between objects, but cannot be created or destroyed.
 Quantity of Charge:
 Charge is measured in Coulombs (C)
 The elementary charge is e = 𝟏. 𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 C. This is the magnitude of the charge held by an
electron (-) or proton (+).
 Charge is normally given in 𝝁𝑪 as a C is very large compared to the elementary charge.
 Charge is quantized. Something that is quantized can only be an integral multiple of some number. For a
charged objected, the total charge is:
Total negative charge = -(number of extra electrons x fundamental charge)
𝑄 = −𝑛𝑒
Total positive charge = +(number of missing electrons x fundamental charge)
𝑄 = +𝑛𝑒

*Charge is only due to flow of electrons since electrons can leave an atom since they do not interact with the
strong nuclear force. A negative charge is due to extra electrons. A positive charge is due to an electron deficit.

24
  Charge is able to flow when electrons move, which readily occurs in a conductor.
o Conductor – Materials with free electrons that can move easily. As a result, charge is easily
transferred due to the flow of electrons.
-Objects with high conductivity has low resistivity.
-Charge gathers on the surface of a conductor.
-Most metals are good conductors
o Insulator - Material in which electrons are tightly bound to nucleus and thus charge is not
transferred.
- Glass, rubber, and plastic are examples of insulators

Example A: Two separated, identical conducting spheres are charged with charges of 4.0 µC and −12 µC,
respectively. The spheres are allowed to touch. Describe the resulting movement of electrons.

The total charge is (4.0 µC+(−12 µC))= -8 µC. The spheres split the charge, so they will each have a charge of
- 4 µC. This occurs by electrons flowing from the – 12 µC sphere to the 4 µC sphere.

Polarization - A conductor will fully polarize when brought near an object with a net charge. The charges in
the neutral conducting separate due to the electrostatic force. The positively charged rod shown below attracts
electrons in the neutral sphere, leaving the left side negative and the right side positive.

25
An insulator can have charge polarization due to individuals atoms being oriented one way. An insulator can be
attracted to a charge object due to this polarization.

Describe charging by conductor and induction

The electroscope – Electroscopes are used to detect charge. An

electroscope consists of two “leaves” made of foil. The leaves are
connected through a conducting rod to a metal conducting knob
on top of the electroscope. The leaves are inside a jar.

When the electroscope is charged, the leaves repel each other and
diverge. When the charge has more magnitude, the leaves divege
more and more.

Charging by Conduction

 Both insulators and conductors can be charged by direct

contact in a process known as conduction.
 When a charged rod touches an uncharged electroscope: charge from the rod is transferred to
electroscope.
A negatively charged rod will transfer electrons to the electroscope. A positively charged rod will
cause electrons form the electroscope to transfer to the rod.

*when the rod is remvoed, the electroscope retains a charge that is the same sign as the rod.
26
Charging by Induction

 In induction, conductors are charged without coming into direct contact with another charged object. To
charge an electroscope by induction:

a) Bring a charged object close to the knob of the electroscope, but do not touch it.

*When a conductor is close to a charged object, free electrons on the conductor will be attracted to the
charged object.
b) Ground the electroscope by touching it.
*In electricity, “ground” means to make an electrical connection between the earth and the object being
“grounded”. When an object is grounded, free electrons between the object and earth. Because earth
is large, it can make an object charge neutral by either absorbing or supplying an essentially limitless
amount of electrons.

c) Break the connection with ground.

*with the grond connection broken, there will be no way for electrons to be transferred.

d) Remove the charged object.

*the charge on the conductor will redistribute itself evenly on the object as soon as the charged rod is
removed leaving it with a charge opposite the rod.

Example B: Three metal spheres rest on insulating stands as shown in the diagram at
right. Sphere Y is smaller than Spheres X and Z, which are the same size. Spheres Y
and Z are initially neutral, and Sphere X is charged positively. Spheres Y and Z are
placed in contact near Sphere X, though Sphere X does not touch the other spheres.

a) Does sphere Y have a positive, negative, or neutral charge?

b) Does sphere Z have a positive, negative, or neutral charge?
c) Sphere X is moved away Spheres Y and Z are separated. Compare the magnitude of the charge on
Spheres Y and Z.

a) Y has a negative charge. X has a positive charge, so negative charge is

attracted towards it. Therefore, electrons will flow from Z to Y.
b) Z has a positive charge since it lost electrons to Y.
c) Equal and opposite charge.

27
Example B: A student investigates how a negatively charged ebonite rod influences an
uncharged electroscope as shown in the diagram at right.
a) Briefly describe how the ebonite rod can be given a negative charge.
b) Write a procedure of how the negatively charged ebonite rod could produce a
positive charge on the electroscope. Other materials can be used, but none can be
charged, and none can alter the charge of the ebonite rod.
c) Assume the student charges the electroscope. Describe how the negatively
charged ebonite rod could be used to test whether the electroscope is positively
charged. Also explain what the student should expect to observe and why

a) The ebonite rod can be rubbed with a fur cloth. Compared to fur, ebonite is a strong insulator, so
electrons from the fur will transfer to the ebonite, giving it excess electrons and a subsequent negative
charge.
b) Bring the ebonite rod close to, but not touching, the electroscope knob. Ground the electroscope.
Break the ground connection. Move the rod away.
c) Touch the rod to the scope. If the leaves collapse, they were positively charge. If they further diverge,
they were negatively charge.

Charging by Friction

If a conductor is rubbed against a non-conductor, the electrons in the conductor will gain energy and move
around. The electrons will move to the insulator. Since the conductor lost electrons, it is left with a positive
charge and the insulator with extra electrons gains a net negative charge.

*When rubbing a glass rod with silk, electrons are transferred from the glass rod to the silk. The glass rod loses
electrons and becomes positively charged.

*When rubbing a rubber rod with fur, the rod gains electrons and becomes negatively charge.

28
AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Electrostatics
2.2 Electric Force
Focus Question: What is Coulomb’s Law?

 Fundamental Forces of Nature:

1) Gravitational force: Gravity is a force of attraction between masses. Gravity has infinite range and is
caused by masses bending spacetime.
2) Electromagnetic force – The force given by Coulomb’s law, has infinite range and is occurs through
the movement of photons.
3) Weak nuclear force – Brings about beta decay. The weak nuclear interaction has a small range and is
caused by W and Z bosons.
4) Strong nuclear force – Hold neutrons and protons together in the atomic nucleus; has a very short
range and is caused by the exchange of gluons.

 If charge is evenly distributed on an object, it can thought of as being

concentrated at its center, much like the force of gravity. *This is case in
all of Physics 2, continuous charges are a Physics C topic
 The net charge on an object is determined by the difference between the
number of electrons and the number of protons the object contains.
 Properties of the electrostatic force:
o Electrostatic force is a vector quantity directed along a line joining
the particles.
o Opposite charges attract and like charges repel.
o It is directly proportional to the product of the charges and follows the inverse square law for
distance.

Coulomb’s Law

𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 |
𝐹=
𝑟
𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝟏
𝒌 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒌=
𝑪𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎
 𝜖 − permittivity of free space, measure of resistance to formation of electric field in a vacuum
𝜖 = 8.85𝑥10
 If more than one charge is present, the net electrostatic force on a charge is the vector sum of the forces
due to the other charges. This is known as Superposition.
29
Example A: Two protons are placed a small distance d apart in space.

a) How do the electrostatic force and gravitational force compare in magnitude?

The electrostatic static force is much, much stronger than the gravitational force.

b) How do the electrostatic force and gravitational force compare in direction?

The electrostatic force is repulsive, while the gravitational force is attractive.

*The electrostatic force can repel or attach, while gravity always attracts.

c) The two protons are allowed to move. Sketch a graph of the i) acceleration and ii) velocity of one of the
protons.
The two protons will move away from each other. There will always be a repelling force, but this will
decrease asymptotically to approach zero. As a result, the velocity will always be increasing, but at a
decreasing rate. The slope of the velocity graph will be positive, but will decrease asymptotically to
zero.

Example A: The two charges on conducting spheres shown are 𝑟 apart and
attracted by a force of 𝐹 . The two charges are brought into contact and allowed to
reach equilibrium. They are then moved a distance of 𝑟 apart again. Determine the
magnitude of the new force between the objects.
| || |
Using Coulomb’s Law, the original force can be expressed as: 𝐹 = =
The total charge of the two sphere is +2-4Q= -2Q. When they are brought into contact, they split this charge and
each acquire a change of -2Q/2 = -Q. This happens when electrons from the negative sphere flow to the sphere
that was initially positive.

| || | 𝑭𝟎
The new force is then 𝐹 = = , which is
𝟖

30
Example B: Two conducting spheres are arranged as shown. Sphere A, with charge 𝑄 = 70 𝜇𝐶 is fixed to an
insulating stand. Sphere B of charge 𝑄 = −80 𝜇𝐶 is suspended form an insulating string that is deflected with
𝜃 = 30°. The distance r = 0.3 m. Calculate the mass of sphere B.

There are 3 forces on sphere B, the electrostatic force of attraction towards

sphere A, gravity downwards, and tension along the rope leading away from
B. The problem can be solved by applying F=ma in both the horizontal and vertical directions (both directions
are in equilibrium.

𝐹 = 0 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹
𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = 0 = 𝑇 cos 𝜃 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑇 =
cos 𝜃
Substituting the expression for T from y into x:
𝑚𝑔
→( ) sin 𝜃 − 𝐹 = 0 → 𝑚𝑔 cot 𝜃 = 𝐹
cos 𝜃
𝐹 tan 𝜃 𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 |
→𝑚= =
𝑔 cot 𝜃 𝑔 𝑟

tan 30° (9𝑥10 )(70𝑥10 𝐶)(80𝑥10 𝐶)

→𝑚= = 𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝒈
10 (. 3 𝑚)

Example B: 3 charges are arranged as shown.

a) Calculate the net force on Q2.

b) Calculate the net force on Q1.

a) Both forces are attractive, so the there is a force due to sphere 1 up and
a force due to sphere 3 to the right. First, find the force due to each
charge, and then add the two force vectors.

𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 | 9𝑥10 (5𝑥10 𝐶)(4𝑥10 𝐶)

𝐹 = = = 18 𝑁
𝑟 (. 1 𝑚)

As a vector, 𝐹 =< 0,18 > 𝑁

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 𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 | (9𝑥10 )(4𝑥10 𝐶)(6𝑥10 𝐶)
𝐹 = = = 5.4 𝑁
𝑟 (. 2 𝑚)

As a vector, 𝐹 =< 5.4,0 > 𝑁

Since one force is horizontal and the other is vertical, the net force can be found by Pythagorean theorem:

𝐹= (5.4 𝑁) + (18 𝑁) = 18.8 𝑁

The direction of the net force is up and to the right. The angle can be found using tan

𝜃 = tan = 73° above the positive x-axis.

b) The force due to charge 2 is attractive and downwards, so it’s all in the y-direction. The
force due to F3 is repulsive. The electrostatic force acts along the line connecting the charges,
.
so the charge is up and the left with 𝜃 = tan = 27°. To find the net force due to charge
.
3, the magnitude of the force needs to be calculated using Coulomb’s law. Trigonometry will
then be used to find the x and y components of this force.

𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 | (9𝑥10 )(5𝑥10 𝐶)(4𝑥10 𝐶)

𝐹 = = = 18 𝑁
𝑟 (. 1 𝑚)

Since the force is fully vertical and down, 𝐹 =< 0, −18 > 𝑁 as a vector.

𝑘|𝑄 ||𝑄 | 9𝑥10 (5𝑥10 𝐶)(6𝑥10 𝐶)

𝐹 = = = 5.4 𝑁
𝑟
(. 1 𝑚) + (. 2 𝑚)

. .
As a vector, the force is 𝐹 =< −5.4 cos 𝜃 + 5.4 sin 𝜃 >=< −5.4 + 5.4
(. ) (. ) (. ) (. )

𝐹 =< −4.8, 2.4 > 𝑁

The total force as a vector is 𝐹 = 𝐹 + 𝐹 =< 0, −18 > +< −4.8, 2.4 >=< −4.8, −15.6 > 𝑁

The magnitude of F is 𝐹 = (−4.8 𝑁) + (−15.6 𝑁) = 16.3 𝑁

.
The angle is 𝜃 = tan = 72° below the negative x-axis.
.

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AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Electrostatics
2.3 Electric Field
Focus Question: What is a field force?

 A field force is a force that acts at a distance. Gravity, the electrostatic force, and the magnetic force are
all field forces.
 Any electric charge causes an electric field in the space around it. By convention, electric field is based
on the force a positive charge (known as a test charge) would experience would if placed in the field.
 Suppose a positive test charge is placed near a charge Q. The force it would experience is:
𝐹=
 The electric field strength it would experience is the electric force per unit charge:

𝑭
𝑬=
𝒒

𝑲𝑸
→𝐸= →𝑬=
𝑞 𝒓𝟐
*units of electric field: N/C *Electric field is a vector quantity

*A positive charge will go in the direction of the electric field. A negative charge goes against it.

Example A: Tiny droplets of oil acquire a small negative charge while falling. An electric field of magnitude
5800 N/C points straight down. One particular droplet of mass is observed to remain suspended against gravity.
If the mass of the droplet 3x10-15 kg, find the number of excess electrons in the droplet.

The sum of the forces in the vertical direction needs to be zero for the droplet to be
suspended. The force on the droplet is up since negative charges experience a force
opposite the electric field.
𝑚𝑔
𝐹 = 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝐸𝑞 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0 → 𝑞 =
𝐸
(3𝑥10 𝑘𝑔)(10 )
→𝑞= = 5.17𝑥10 𝐶
5800 𝑁/𝐶
This charge is due to excess electrons. The number of electrons can be found by dividing
the charge by the charge of one electron:

5.17𝑥10
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = = 32 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
1.6𝑥19

33
Example B: Find the electric field at P.

Like force, electric field is a vector

quantity. The net field is found by
founding the vector sum of the field to A
and the field due to B. Both fields are
away from the charge. The field due to A
is straight up away from A and is only a positive y-component. The
field due to B is along the straight line connecting B to P (along the
hypotenuse of 3-4-5 triangle so the trig isn’t bad). The x and y
components of this field needs to be found and added to A’s field.

Magnitude of the field due to A: 𝐹 = = ( )

= 600 𝑁/𝐶

As a vector, this field is 𝐸 =< 0,600 > 𝑁/𝐶

Magnitude of the field due to A: 𝐹 = = = 234 𝑁/𝐶

√

The field is negative in x and positive in y: As a vector, this field is 𝐸 =< −234 cos 𝜃 + 234 sin 𝜃 >

40 30
→=< −234 + 234 >=< −187,140 > 𝑁/𝐶
50 50

The vector sum is < 0,600 > +> +< −187,140 > =< −187,740 >

The total magnitude of the electric field is found with Pythagorean Theorem:

𝐸= (−187) + (740) = 763 𝑁/𝐶

The direction is tan = tan = 76° above the negative x-axis.

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines area vector field drawn to indicate the direction a positive test charge would experience if
placed near the charge.

-Field lines go towards negative charges and away from positive charges.
34
 -A positive charge released from rest will travel in the direction of the field lines.
-A negative charge released from rest will travel opposite the direction of the field lines.
-Stronger fields have more field lines.

Example C: Draw field lines for the charge arrangements below:

a) b)

a) b)

Example D: 2 charges and point P form the sides of an equilateral triangle

of side s as shown.
a) Find the magnitude and direction of the Electric Field at point P.
b) A small particle with a charge of –q is placed P. Determine the force on
the particle.

The electric field due to the positive left charge points away from point P.
The electric field acts along a line connected the point and the charge. Since
the charge is around an equilateral triangle, the angle with the electric field
vector makes with the horizontal is 60°.

The electric field due to the negative acts towards the negative charge. Since both
charges are the same magnitude and the same distance from point P, they both have
a magnitude of: 𝐸 = . Since this charge also makes an angle of 60° with the
𝒔𝟐
horizontal, the two charges have equal x and y component magnitudes.

Since the charges point in different directions vertically, the y-components cancel by
symmetry.

The x-components are both equal and add together, so the total electric field can be found by multiplying this
electric field by two.

|𝐸| = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠60° = to the right.

35
Electric Field in Conductors

 In a conductor with a net charge, the charges all repel each other.
 Properties of electric field in a conductor:
o All the charge will gather on the surface of the conductor.

o The electric field everywhere inside the conductor will be zero.

o The electric field just outside the conductor is perpendicular to the conductor’s surface.

Example E: Draw field lines for the irregular conductor shown.

On an irregular shaped conductor, more charge gathers on the sharp turns. On a conductor, the field lines are
perpendicular to the surface.

Example F: A point of -Q is placed at the center of a hollow conducting spherical

shell. The spherical has a total charge of +4Q.
a) Determine the charge on the inner and outer surfaces of the conducting
sphere.
b) Draw electric fields for this scenario.

a) The charge on the inner surface of the conductor is +Q as it’s attracted to

the -Q charge. The excess charge will gather on the outer surface, which is
+3Q in this case.
b) Any conductor with two surfaces with a charge nearby will follow this behavior due to the
electrostatic force.
The electric field due to hollow sphere is zero inside the hollow sphere, so the electric field inside is
only due to the -Q point charge. Outside the hollow sphere, there is field away since the total charge is
positive.

36
AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Electrostatics
2.4 Electric Potential
Focus Question: What does electric potential measure?

 Potential is related to potential energy. Potential energy is the potential to do work and is due to an
object’s position. In mechanics, an object has high potential when it’s higher up in a gravitational field.
In electric physics, a positive test has higher potential when it is near other positive charges. In general,
an object has higher potential when it is at a location where forces would cause it to move away.

 Relationship between work and potential energy:

𝑾 = −∆𝑼 → ∆𝑼 = −𝑭𝒓
*The signs are opposite since doing work to bring an object to its position gives it potential energy in
the opposite direction of the force.

Electric Potential Energy

 Electric potential energy between two likes charges:
𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑈=
𝑟
The potential energy is positive since a positive test charge has
potential to do work in a direction away from the positive charge.

 Electric potential energy between two opposing charges:

𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑈=−
𝑟
The potential energy is negative since a positive test charge near a
negative charge is electrostatically “stuck” to the negative charge, so it
would take work to separate it.

 General Formula for Electrical Potential Energy:

𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑈 = 𝐹𝑟 = (𝑟)
𝑟
𝑘𝑄𝑞
→𝑈=
𝑟

37
Example A: An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field. What happens to the electric potential
energy of the system?

The electric potential energy will decrease since the electron gains speed. The electron converts electric
potential energy of the field into kinetic energy for it to move.
The electron will move opposite the field.

Electric Potential
 Electric potential is defined as the electrical potential energy per unit charge:

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉 =

∆𝑈 = 𝑈 − 𝑈 = 𝑞(𝑉 − 𝑉 )

*units of Electric Potential: – J/C, Volts (V)

 Potential difference between two points:

Potential difference between A and B: ∆𝑉 = 𝑉 − 𝑉 =

The potential is in the opposite direction of the work done to give the charge that potential. It takes work
towards plate A to moves a positive charge towards plate A, giving it potential away from plate A. This
is analogous to an object gaining gravitational potential downward when you pick it up.
*Potential difference is scalar quantity, but can be positive or negative.

 Work done by a field on a charge: 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞

*the work energy theorem can be used to find the speed of a charge when a potential difference is
applied: 𝑊 = ∆𝑉𝑞 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣

 Relationship between electric potential and electric field:

𝑊 = 𝑞𝑣 = 𝐹𝑑
𝑞𝑉 = 𝐸𝑞𝑑
→ 𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅

38
Example B: A charge particle of mass .006 kg and a charge of 1 mC is stationary between two plates that are
20 cm apart. What is the potential difference of the plates?
Since the charge floats, the force of gravity equals the electric force. The bottom
plate has to be positive and the top plate negative since the charge has an upward
force on it and is positive.

𝐹 = 𝐹 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 → 𝐸𝑞 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑉 𝑚𝑔𝑑
→ 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑉 =
𝑑 𝑞
(. 006 𝑘𝑔) 10 (.20 𝑚)
→𝑉= = 12 𝑉
(1𝑥10 𝐶)
The answer to this question does not depend on the distance to the plate. The electric field due to a plate does
not depend on the distance to the plate.

Example C: A positive plate is 5.0 m from a negative plate. A proton has an initial
velocity of 1.0𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠 and travels from the positive plate. It hits the negative plate
traveling at 4.0𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠.
a) Calculate the potential difference between the plates.
b) Calculate the magnitude of the electric field.
*the mass of a proton is 1.67x10-27 kg and a charge of 1.6x10-19 C
a) Applying the work-energy theorem:
𝑊 = ∆𝑉𝑞 → ∆𝐾
∆
→ ∆𝑉 = =
. .
→ ∆𝑉 = = 78000 𝑉
.
b) 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 → 𝐸 = = = 16000 𝑁/𝐶
.

Electric Potential of a Point Charge

 The potential due a single charge is the equal to the amount of work required to bring a small test charge
from infinity (very far away) to a distance R from the charge:

𝑉= = =

39
Example D: Find the amount of work required to bring a +10 𝜇𝐶 charge infinity to

a) Point A b) Point B

For both cases, the work is 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑞. The potential at A and B is the sum
of the potentials due to charge 1 and 2. Since potential is a scalar, only the
sum of the potential needs to be taken. Both potentials will simply be
scalar numbers, so there is no need to break anything up into components.

a) The potential at A = potential due to Q1 and Q2.

𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉

𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄 9𝑥10 (50𝑥10 𝐶) 9𝑥10 (−80𝑥10 𝐶)

→ + = + = 25601 𝑉
𝑟 𝑟 5𝑚 (5 𝑚) + (10 𝑚)

𝑊 = 𝑉 𝑞 = (25601 𝑉)(10𝑥10 𝐶) = .26 𝐽

b)
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉

𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄 9𝑥10 (50𝑥10 𝐶) 9𝑥10 (−80𝑥10 𝐶)

→ + = + = −24149 𝑉
𝑟 𝑟 (5 𝑚) + (10 𝑚) (5 𝑚) + (10 𝑚)

𝑊 = 𝑉 𝑞 = (−24149 𝑉)(10𝑥10 𝐶) = −.24 𝐽

Example E: 3 identical charges of charge 𝑄 = 10 𝜇𝐶 and mass of 2 𝑘𝑔 are

arranged along a line as shown with d = 0.05 m. The two left charges are
held in place and the right charge is released from rest. Calculate its
maximum speed.

First, calculate the potential at the point of the right most charge. The potential at the very right is the sum of the
potential of the left two charges:

𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄 9𝑥10 (10𝑥10 𝐶) 9𝑥10 (10𝑥10 𝐶)

𝑉→ + = + = 2700000 𝑉
𝑑 2𝑑 0.05 𝑚 0.1 𝑚
Apply the work energy theorem for the work done on the rightmost charge. The charge starts at rest so its initial
kinetic energy is zero:

1 1 2𝑉𝑄
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄 = ∆𝐾 → 𝑉𝑄 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣 → 𝑣 =
2 2 𝑚

2(2700000 𝑉)(10𝑥10 𝐶)
𝑣 = = 5.2 𝑚/𝑠
2 𝑘𝑔

40
Example F: Two solid conducting spheres are connected by a wire with a switch that is originally open. One
sphere has a radius 𝑟, and other has a radius of 3𝑟, as shown. The smaller sphere is given an initial charge of
+𝑄 and the larger sphere is initially uncharged. The switch is closed and charge is allowed to flow between the
spheres. Determine an expression for the magnitude of the charge transferred to the larger sphere.

Charge will flow between conductors as long as there is a potential difference, so charge will flow from the
charged sphere to the initially uncharged sphere until both spheres have equal electric potentials ( ).
The charge that flows will be denoted as q, so when equilibrium is reached:
𝑘(𝑄 − 𝑞) 𝑘𝑞
=
𝑟 3𝑟
Solving for q:
𝑘(𝑄 − 𝑞) 𝑘𝑞 𝑞
= →𝑄−𝑞=
𝑟 3𝑟 3
𝟑
𝒒= 𝑸
𝟒
Equipotential Lines
 Equipotential lines – Lines that indicate equal potential (every point on a given equipotential line has the
same electric potential as every other point on the line.

*No work is required to move from point to point along an equipotential line.
*Equipotential lines are drawn perpendicular to the electric field at any point.

Example G: Draw field lines and equipotential lines for two negative charges.

41
Example H: The diagram shown represents equipotential lines.
a) Draw the direction of the electric field at each point.
b) Calculate the work required to move a +10 𝜇𝐶 from to A to B.
c) Calculate the work required to move a +10 𝜇𝐶 from to A to E.
d) Calculate the work required to move a −10 𝜇𝐶 from to A to E.

a) The electric potential lines point towards lower potential and are
perpendicular to the equipotential lines:

b) A and B are on the same equipotential line, so no work is required. It does not take any work to move a
charge to a place with the same potential.
c) 𝑊 = ∆𝑉𝑞 = (10𝑥10 𝐶)(15 𝑉) = 1.5𝑥10 𝐽.
W = +1.5𝑥10 𝐽.
The work is positive since a force is required to move the object to a higher potential since the force is applied
in the direction of motion, the work is positive.
d) 𝑊 = ∆𝑉𝑞 = (10𝑥10 𝐶)(15 𝑉) = 1.5𝑥10 𝐽.
W = -1.5𝑥10 𝐽.
The work is negative since a negative charge would move from A to E naturally. To move it there with a force
would require a force against the direction of motion, making the work negative. This is because moving the
charge there with a force prevents it from acquiring kinetic energy it would naturally gain. This process is
similar to lowering an object by a force in a gravitational field.

42
AP Physics 2 Unit 2: Electrostatics
2.5 Capacitors
Focus Question: How is electrical energy stored in a capacitor?

 Electric Field due to a charged plate

A charge plate has an electrical field coming straight out of it, perpendicular to
both surfaces (away from a positive plate, towards a negative plate. The electric
field is based on the charge density between the plates and the permittivity of
space:
𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= =
2𝜀 2𝐴𝜀
Q – charge on either plate
A – surface area of plate
𝜎= = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
*The electric field does not depend on the distance to the plate, assuming the to plate is large compared
to the distance to the plate.

Parallel Plates
 Parallel Plates of the same charge

Both plates are conductors, so charge gathers on the surface, in this case the charge
𝝈
gathers on the outside surface as they repel. Both plates have fields of .
𝟐𝜺𝟎

Outside the plates, in either regions, the fields point in the same direction:
𝝈 𝝈 𝝈
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸 = + =
𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎

In the region inside the plates, E1 and E2 are in opposite directions:

𝝈 𝝈
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸 = − =𝟎
𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝟐𝜺𝟎

 Parallel Plates of opposite charge

In the region between the plates, both fields point from the positive plate to
the negative plates, so the contributions from each plate adds:

𝝈 𝝈 𝝈 𝑸
𝐸 =𝐸 +𝐸 = + = =
𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝟎 𝑨𝜺𝟎

43
Capacitor – Formed by two conductors seperated by an insulator. When a
capacitor is connected to power, it the two plates become opposite
charged. An electric field is stored between the plates.

Capacitance
 Capacitance is the measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge when a potential difference is applied
to its plates:

𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =

𝑸
→𝑪=
𝑽

 The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is based on its structure:

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜺𝟎
𝑑
A − area of each plate d – distance between the plates
Electric Field between Capacitor Plates: 𝐸 =
o A capacitor with more surface area on its plates: Has more capacitance since more charge can fit
on the plate.
o A capacitor with greater plate separation: Has less capacitance.

Example A: A capacitor consists of two parallel circular plates of radius .05 m that are seperated by a distance
of 0.5 cm. How much charge does each plate when the capacitor is connected to a 12 V battery?

𝑄
𝐶= → 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑉
𝐴 (8.85𝑥10 )(𝜋)(. 05 𝑚)
𝑄 = 𝜺𝟎 𝑉= (12 𝑉) = 1.7𝑥10 𝐶
𝑑 (. 005 𝑚)

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

 Capacitors store electric energy in the field between the plates. The energy stored in a capacitor is equal
done to the work to charge it up:
A capacitor is charged by moving charge to a plate, which requires work. As a plate is charge to
potential difference of V, the charge on the plate goes from 0 to some charge Q.
1𝑄
𝑈=
2 𝐶
𝟏
Using Q=CV, the above equation can also be used to derive the more common form: 𝑼 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐
𝟐

44
Example B: A parallel-plate capacitor has plate area of A and distance between the plates of D. It is connected
to a battery of voltage V.
a) Determine an expression for the charge, electric field, and energy stored in the capacitor.
b) With the battery still connected, the plate separation is doubled. Determine the new charge, electric
field, and energy stored in the capacitor.
c) The capacitor is fully charged, and disconnected from the battery. The plate separation is again
doubled. Determine the new charge, electric field, and energy stored in the capacitor.

a) Charge: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜀 𝑉=
Electric Field: 𝐸 = 𝑉/𝐷
Energy Stored: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜀 𝑉 =
b) When the plate seperation is doubled, the capacitance will halve. With the battery still connected, the
voltage will remain the same since it will maintain the battery voltage.
Charge: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜀 𝑉=
The charge stored halves since the plates are further apart.
Electric Field: 𝐸 = 𝑉/2𝐷
The electric field halves. Since the charge on the plate decreases, the electric field decreases.
Energy: 𝜀 𝑉 =
The energy halves. Though the voltage stays the same, capacitance decreases. Less charge stored leads
to less stored energy.

c) With the battery no longer connected, the charge on the plates will remain constant. The voltage will
no longer remain constant as there is no more battery.
Charge: 𝑄 =
The charge on the plate will stay the same as there is no where for the charge on the plates to go.
Electric Field: 𝐸 = = = 𝑉/𝐷
The electric field remains the same. The electric field is only based on the charge on the plates and the
plate area.

Energy: 𝑈 = = =

The energy doubled. The charge remained the same, but the capacitance decreased. The work done to
separate the plates is transferred to the energy stored in the plates.

Dielectrics
 In a capacitor, it’s important for the space between the plates to be non-conductive. Capacitors can use
air in the gap between the plates, but air can sometimes allow the flow of electricity.
 Dielectric Breakdown – Charge jumps the gap between the plates of a capacitor.

45
  Dielectric – A dielectric is an insulator placed between the plates of a
capacitor. A dielectric is a material that has a greater permittivity than
free space and can tolerate a greater electric field without dielectric
breakdown. A dielectric increases the capacitance.

 Dielectric Constant – The dielectric constant, 𝜅, measures how much

the dielectric constant increases the permittivity of the space between the plates:
𝑪
𝜿=
𝑪𝟎
C – Capacitance with dielectric
C0 – Capacitance without dielectric
*𝜅 ≥ 1
The field decreases: 𝜅 = = =
Permittivity increases: 𝜀 = 𝜅𝜀

Example C: A parallel-plate capacitor has plate area of 𝐴 = 0.2 𝑚 and distance between the plates of . 001𝑚.
It is connected to a battery of voltage 10 V.
a) Determine the capacitance, charge, and energy stored in the capacitor.
b) With the battery still connected, a dielectric of dielectric constant of 𝜅 = 2 is inserted. Determine the
capacitance, charge, and energy stored in the capacitor.
c) The capacitor is fully charged, and disconnected from the battery. The same dielectric of 𝜅 = 2 is
then inserted. Determine the new charge, electric field, and energy stored in the capacitor.

.
a) Capacitance = 𝜀 = 8.85𝑥10 = 1.8𝑥10 𝐹 = 1.8 𝑛𝐹
.

Charge: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜀 𝑉 = (1.8𝑥10 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 1.8𝑥10 𝐶

Energy Stored: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = (1.8𝑥10 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 8.9𝑥10 𝐽

b) A dielectric increases the capacitance. What happens to the rest of the circuit depends on if the
battery is still connected. With the battery still connected, the battery voltage is constant.
.
Capacitance = 𝜅𝜀 = (2) 8.85𝑥10 = 3.6𝑥10 𝐹 = 3.6 𝑛𝐹
.

Charge: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = 𝜀 𝑉 = (3.6𝑥10 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 3.6𝑥10 𝐶

Energy Stored: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = (3.6𝑥10 𝐶)(10 𝑉) = 1.8𝑥10 𝐽
The charge and energy stored both increased due to the dielectric. When a dielectric is inserted while
power is connect, charge, energy, and capacitance all increase by factor of the dielectric constant. The
electric field decreases by the same factor 𝜅 =

46
 c)
.
Capacitance = 𝜀 = (2) 8.85𝑥10 = 3.6𝑥10 𝐹 = 3.6 𝑛𝐹
.
Charge: From part a), the charge on the capacitor was 𝑄 = 1.8𝑥10 𝐶 when fully charged by the
battery. That charge will remain on the plates will the battery is disconnected. Inserting the
dielectric will not affect the charges on the plates, so the charge is still:
𝑄 = 1.8𝑥10 𝐶

The voltage will change since capacitance decreases with constant charge:
.
𝑉= = =5𝑉
.
*When the battery is not connected, the voltage decreases by a factor of the dielectric constant:
𝜅=
Energy Stored: 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = (3.6𝑥10 𝐹)(5 𝑉) = 4.4𝑥10 𝐽

The energy decreases since the charge remains constant and the potential difference decreases. Negative
work is done to increase the dielectric, decreasing the energy stored in the capacitor.

Example D: Two capacitors are connected as shown. The capacitors have

capacitances of 𝐶 = 3 𝐹 and 𝐶 = 6 𝐹 The first capacitor is fully charged by a 10
V battery and then disconnected from the battery. Afterwards, the switch shown is
closed and the first capacitor is allowed to discharge into the second capacitor. Find
the final charge on each capacitor.

Capacitor 𝐶 is first charged by the battery and acquires the total charge that will be available to share between
the capacitors once they are connected:
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (3 𝐹)(10 𝑉) = 30 𝐶
When the battery is disconnected and capacitor 1 is connected to capacitor 2, it will discharge some of this
charge to capacitor 2. Since the total charge available is 30 C, the charges on these two added together will be
30 C:

𝑄 + 𝑄 = 30

Charge will flow between the capacitors until they have equal voltage:

𝑉 =𝑉

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
→ = → =
𝐶 𝐶 3 6

6𝑄 = 3𝑄 → 𝑄 = 2𝑄

Solving the two-variable system by substitution gives: 𝑄 + 2𝑄 = 30

→ 𝑄 = 10 𝐶 and 𝑄 = 20 𝐶

Capacitor 2 has twice the capacitance, so it stores twice the charge.

47
Example E: A capacitor of plate area 𝐴 = 0.1 𝑚 and plate separation of d=.1 cm
has two dielectrics inserted, with each dielectric taking up half the gap as shown.
The dielectrics has constant of 𝜅 = 2 and 𝜅 = 4. Determine the capacitance of the
capacitor.

The electric field in a region is reduced by a factor of 1/k when a dielectric is inserted. The field when a
between capacitor plates with a dielectric is: 𝐸 = , so the fields in the regions are 𝐸 = and 𝐸 = .

The two dielectrics have different electric fields, so they will not have different potentials across them.

The potential total difference for the entire region between the plates is:

𝑄 𝑑 𝑄 𝑑 3𝑄𝑑
𝑉 =𝑉 +𝑉 = + =
4𝐴𝜀 2 2𝐴𝜀 2 8𝐴𝜀

*Q is unknown, but will cancel

The capacitance can be found using Q=CV:

𝑄 𝑄 8𝐴𝜀
𝐶= = =
𝑉 3𝑑

8(.1 𝑚 )( 8.85𝑥10
→𝐶= = 2.4𝑥10 𝐹 = 2.4 𝑛𝐹
3(.001 𝑚)

48