Lecture 11.

Theme. Syntax. Phraseological units. The problem of its classification.

1. Definition and general characteristics of the word-group.

2. Classification of word-groups.
3. Subordinate word-groups.
4. The noun-phrase (NP).
5. Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts.
6. Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.
7. The verb-phrase.
8. Classification of verb-phrases.
9. Predicative word-groups.

1. Definition and general characteristics of the word-group.

There are a lot of definitions concerning the word-group. The most adequate one seems to be the following:
the word-group is a combination of at least two notional words which do not constitute the sentence but are
syntactically connected. According to some other scholars (the majority of Western scholars and professors B.
Ilyish and V. Burlakova – in Russia), a combination of a notional word with a function word ( on the table) may
be treated as a word-group as well. The problem is disputable as the role of function words is to show some
abstract relations and they are devoid of nominative power. On the other hand, such combinations are
syntactically bound and they should belong somewhere.
General characteristics of the word-group are:
1) As a naming unit it differs from a compound word because the number of constituents in a word-group
corresponds to the number of different denotates: a black bird – чёрная птица (2), a blackbird – дрозд (1); a
loud speaker (2), a loudspeaker (1).
2) Each component of the word-group can undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of
the whole unit: to see a house - to see houses.
3) A word-group is a dependent syntactic unit; it is not a communicative unit and has no intonation of its
own.

2.Classification of word-groups.
Word-groups can be classified on the basis of several principles:
a) According to the type of syntagmatic relations: coordinate (you and me), subordinate (to see a house,
a nice dress), predicative (him coming, for him to come),
b) According to the structure: simple (all elements are obligatory), expanded (to read and translate the
text – expanded elements are equal in rank), extended (a word takes a dependent element and this dependent
element becomes the head for another word: a beautiful flower – a very beautiful flower).

3. Subordinate word-groups.
Subordinate word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the constituents. This
presupposes the existence of a governing element which is called the head and the dependent element which is
called the adjunct (in noun-phrases) or the complement (in verb-phrases).
According to the nature of their heads, subordinate word-groups fall into noun-phrases (NP) – a cup of tea,
verb-phrases (VP) – to run fast, to see a house, adjective phrases (AP) – good for you, adverbial phrases
(DP) – so quickly, pronoun phrases (IP) – something strange, nothing to do.
The formation of the subordinate word-group depends on the valency of its constituents. Valency is a
potential ability of words to combine. Actual realization of valency in speech is called combinability.

4. The noun-phrase (NP).

Noun word-groups are widely spread in English. This may be explained by a potential ability of the noun to
go into combinations with practically all parts of speech. The NP consists of a noun-head and an adjunct or
adjuncts with relations of modification between them. Three types of modification are distinguished here:
a) Premodification that comprises all the units placed before the head: two smart hard-working students.
Adjuncts used in pre-head position are called pre-posed adjuncts.
 b) Postmodification that comprises all the units placed after the head: students from Boston. Adjuncts
used in post-head position are called post-posed adjuncts.
c) Mixed modification that comprises all the units in both pre-head and post-head position: two smart
hard-working students from Boston.

5. Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts.

In noun-phrases with pre-posed modifiers we generally find adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles,
gerunds, nouns, nouns in the genitive case. According to their position all pre-posed adjuncts may be divided
into pre-adjectivals and adjectivals. The position of adjectivals is usually right before the noun-head. Pre-
adjectivals occupy the position before adjectivals. They fall into two groups:
a) limiters (to this group belong mostly particles): just, only, even, etc.
b) determiners (articles, possessive pronouns, quantifiers – the first, the last).
Premodification of nouns by nouns (N+N) is one of the most striking features about the grammatical
organization of English. It is one of devices to make our speech both laconic and expressive at the same time.
Noun-adjunct groups result from different kinds of transformational shifts. NPs with pre-posed adjuncts can
signal a striking variety of meanings:
world peace – peace all over the world
silver box – a box made of silver
table lamp – lamp for tables
table legs – the legs of the table
river sand – sand from the river
school child – a child who goes to school
The grammatical relations observed in NPs with pre-posed adjuncts may convey the following meanings:
1. subject-predicate relations: weather change;
2. object relations: health service, women hater;
3. adverbial relations:
a) of time: morning star,
b) place: world peace, country house,
c) comparison: button eyes,
d) purpose: tooth brush.
It is important to remember that the noun-adjunct is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head.
Of special interest is a kind of ‘grammatical idiom’ where the modifier is reinterpreted into the head: a devil
of a man, an angel of a girl.

6.Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.

NPs with post-posed may be classified according to the way of connection into prepositionless and
prepositional. The basic prepositionless NPs with post-posed adjuncts are: Nadj. – tea strong, NVen – the
shape unknown, NVing – the girl smiling, NVinf – a book to read, NNum – room ten.
The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N1 prep. N2. The most common preposition here is ‘of’ – a cup of
tea, a man of courage. It may have quite different meanings: qualitative - a woman of sense, predicative – the
pleasure of the company, objective – the reading of the newspaper, partitive – the roof of the house.

7.The verb-phrase.
The VP is a definite kind of the subordinate phrase with the verb as the head. The verb is considered to be
the semantic and structural centre not only of the VP but of the whole sentence as the verb plays an important
role in making up primary predication that serves the basis for the sentence. VPs are more complex than NPs as
there are a lot of ways in which verbs may be combined in actual usage. Valent properties of different verbs and
their semantics make it possible to divide all the verbs into several groups depending on the nature of their
complements.

8.Classification of verb-phrases.
VPs can be classified according to the nature of their complements – verb complements may be nominal (to
see a house) and adverbial (to behave well). Consequently, we distinguish nominal, adverbial and mixed
complementation.
 Nominal complementation takes place when one or more nominal complements (nouns or pronouns) are
obligatory for the realization of potential valency of the verb: to give smth. to smb., to phone smb., to hear smth.
(smb.), etc.
Adverbial complementation occurs when the verb takes one or more adverbial elements obligatory for the
realization of its potential valency: He behaved well, I live …in Kyiv (here).
Mixed complementation – both nominal and adverbial elements are obligatory: He put his hat on the table
(nominal-adverbial).
According to the structure VPs may be basic or simple (to take a book) – all elements are obligatory;
expanded (to read and translate the text, to read books and newspapers) and extended (to read an English
book).

9.Predicative word-groups.
Predicative word combinations are distinguished on the basis of secondary predication. Like sentences,
predicative word-groups are binary in their structure but actually differ essentially in their organization. The
sentence is an independent communicative unit based on primary predication while the predicative word-group
is a dependent syntactic unit that makes up a part of the sentence. The predicative word-group consists of a
nominal element (noun, pronoun) and a non-finite form of the verb: N + Vnon-fin. There are Gerundial,
Infinitive and Participial word-groups (complexes) in the English language: his reading, for me to know, the
boy running, etc.)

List of books:

1. B. Ylyish “The Structure of Modern English Language”, 1991.

2. B.I. Khaimovich, B.L. Rogovskaya “A Course in English Grammar”, M. 1997.
3. F.M.Berezin “Lecture on Linguistics”, M. 1999.
4. Л.С. Бархударов, Д.А. Штеллинг “Грамматика английского языка”, М. 2003.
5. Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik “A Communicative Grammar of English”, M. 1983
6. E.M.Gordon, I.P.Krylova “A Grammar of Present-Day English”, M., 1986.
7. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik “A University Grammar of English
Language”, M., 1982.

Questions:
1. The characteristics of word-group.
2. Noun-phrases.
3. Word-groups in the sentence.
4. The problem of verb-phrase classification.