Lecture 7

Data Collection Methods

Assit. Prof. TOL BUNKEA, (MD, MSc)

Tel: 016 690 999
Email: [email protected]
Facebook: Bunkea Tol

1
 Objectives
At the end of this session, you will understand:

1. The difference between primary and secondary data

2. The different methods of data gathering

3. The advantages and disadvantages of open-ended and closed

questions.

4. How to develop questionnaire or interview schedule

5. Data collection methods through qualitative, quantitative or

mixed approaches 2
Operational steps and research methodology
The research process
What is data collection?

The process by which the researcher

collects the information needed to
answer the research problem

5
 In collecting the data, the
researcher must decide:
Which data to collect

How to collect the data

Who will collect the data

When to collect the data

6
Different methods of data collection
• The selection of data collection
methods should be based on:
Hypothesis or research problem
Study design (Research design)
Quantitative,
Qualitative
or mixed
The information gathered about the
variables
7
 Major approaches
• Data required is already available
• Need only be extracted
Primary data primary source
Secondary data Secondary source
• Example:
Primary source: first-hand the attitudes of the
community towards
 Health services, health needs, evaluating a social
program, determining the job satisfaction of the
employees of an organization

8
 Major approaches
• Example:
 Secondary source: extracting data from a census to
obtain data:
 Age-sex structure of a population
 The use of hospital records to find out
 The morbidity and mortality patterns in a community
 The use of organisation’s records to ascertain its activities
 Article, journal, magazines, books, ….

• Primary sources Provide first-hand data

• Secondary sources Provide second-hand data
• None of data collection methods provides 100%
accurate and reliable information. 9
 Data collection method

• Involves data collection directly from

the subjects by the researcher or
Primary trained data collector.
Data • Data collected are specifically for
purpose of research e.g. Survey, Interview,
Observation etc.

• Involves of use the data that were

collected for various purposes other than
Secondary current research.
Data • Eg. Diaries, nurses notes, care plans,
abstracts, census reports neither published
or unpublished data.
10
Methods of data collection
 Methods of data collection

Primary source

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

12
 1. Observation
• Collect primary data
• It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of
watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon
as it take place.
• The most appropriate method of data collection.
• Example:
 When you want
 To learn about the interaction in a group,
 To study the dietary patterns of a population
 To ascertain the functions performed by a worker
 To study the behaviour or personality traits of an individual.

13
 Types of observation

Two types

Non-
Participant
participant
observation
observation
14
 Participant Observation
• A researcher participate in the activities of
the group being observed, in the same
manner as its members, with or without
knowing that they are being observed.
Prisoner
Tribe
Anthropological studies

15
 Non-participant Observation
• A researcher do not get involved in the activities
of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and
drawing conclusions from this.
• Example:
 To study the function carried out by nurses in a hospital.
 You could watch, follow and record the activities as they are
performed.
 After making a number of observations, you could draw
conclusions about the function nurses carry out in the
hospital. 16
 Potential problems
• Change their behaviour
Positive or Negative
Increase or Decrease
Hawthorne effect
Not represent their normal behaviour
• Observer bias
• Vary from observer to observer

17
1. Observation

18
 2. The interview
• Person-to-person interaction
• Face to face
• Between
two or
more individuals
• With a specific purpose in mind
19
 2. The interview
• Monette et al.(1986:156):
An interview involves an interviewer reading
questions to respondents and recording their
answers.

• Burns (1997:329):
An interview is a verbal interchange, often face to
face, though the telephone maybe used, an
interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or
opinions from another person.
20
 2. The interview
• This involves either structure or
unstructured verbal communication
between the researcher and subject,
during which information is obtained for
a study.

21
Types of interview

Interview at
different levels of
flexibility and
specificity
 Unstructured interviews
• Complete freedom in terms of structure, contents,
questions wording and order.
• You are free to ask whatever you want and in a
format that is relevant to the situation.
• You explain questions to your respondents.
• Useful in exploring intensively and extensively and
digging deeper into a situation, phenomenon, issue
or problem.
• They provided an in-depth information.
• Are prevalent in both quantitative and qualitative
23
 Unstructured interviews
• Most conversational
• Long sometimes (hours)
• Conducted in a usual situation
• This allows the researcher flexibility
in questioning the subject.

24
 Structured interviews
• Researcher ask a predetermined set of
questions, using the same wording and order.
• An interview schedule is a written list of
question, open-ended or closed, thoroughly
pre-tested for standardized wording, meaning
and interpretation, prepared for use by an
interviewer in a person-to-person interaction.
• Face to face, by telephone or by electronic
media.

25
 Structured interviews
• Always operates within format written
instrument referred as interview
schedule.
• Researcher designed the questions to be
asked prior to interview including the
order of the questions.
• The questions are asked orally in either
face to face or telephone format.
26
 Structured interviews
• Interview schedule is a research
tool/instrument for collecting data,
whereas interviewing is a method of
data collection.
• Advantages:
It provides uniform information
Assures the comparability data
Requires fewer interviewing skills than does
unstructured interviewing.
27
 Qualitative research

Data collection methods in

qualitative research

Unstructure Secondary
Observations
d interviews sources

28
Data collection methods in Qualitative Research

Observations

Data
Action
Research
collection Unstructured
tools Interviews

Focus groups
29
Qualitative research

30
31
 Advantages of the interview
• More appropriate for complex situation
• Useful for collecting in-depth information:
By probing
• Information can be supplemented.
• Questions can be explained.
• Has a wider application
Can be used with almost population: children, the
handicapped, illiterate or very old.

32
 Disadvantages of the interview
• Time-consuming and expensive.

• The quality of data depends on

the quality of the interaction.
the interviewer.
• The quality of data may vary when multiple
interviewers are used.
• Possible researcher bias

33
 3. The questionnaire
• Written list of question,
• The answers to which are recorded
by respondents.
• The respondents:
read the questions,
interpret what is expected
write down the answers.
34
 3. The questionnaire
• The only difference between an
interview schedule and a
questionnaire:
The interviewer who ask the questions (and
if necessary explain them) and records the
respondent’s replies on an interview
schedule,
The replies are recorded by the
respondents themselves in questionnaire.
35
Ways of administering
The mailed questionnaire

Collective administration

Online questionnaire
Administration in a public
place
36
 Ways of administering
• Depends on:
the ease in assessing your respondent
population
and your impressions about how they
would prefer to participate in your study.
• The layout should be easy to read and
pleasant to the eyes,
• and the sequence should be easy to follow.
• Interactive style (respondent should feel someone
is talking to them).
37
 Ways of administering
• The mailed questionnaire:
Mail
Available address
Low response rate
• Collective administration:
Student in a classroom, people attending a
function, participants in a programme or
people assembled in one place.

38
 Ways of administering

• Online questionnaire:
Website
Mobile phone
• Administration in a public place:
Shopping center, health center,
hospital, school or pub.

39
 Advantages of a questionnaire
• Less expensive:
As you do not interview respondents
Save time and human and financial resources.

• Anonymity:
No face-to-face interaction between
respondents and interviewer
Sensitive questions it helps to increase the
likelihood of obtaining accurate information.
40
 Disadvantages of a questionnaire
• Limited application:
 Limited to study population that can read and write.
 Population is very young, very old or handicapped.
• Low response rate:
 People fail to return
 Not everyone will return
 Sample size will in effect be reduced.
• Self-selection bias:
 Not representative.
• Lack of opportunity to clarify issues:
 Respondent do not understand some questions.
 Affect the quality of the information provided.
41
 Types of question

Types of
question

Open-ended Closed
question question
42
 Types of question
• Open-ended question:
Possible response categories are not
provided.
The respondent writes down the answers in
his/her own words
But the case of interview schedule the
investigators records the answers either
verbatim or in a summary.

43
 Types of question
• Closed question:
Possible answers are set out in the
questionnaire or schedule
The respondent or investigator tick the
categories that best describes the
respondent’s answer.
 Usually to provide ‘other/please explain’ to
accommodate any response not listed.

44
 Specific Types of Closed-ended Question

• Dichotomous questions
This requires the respondent to make a
choice between two responses such as
yes/no,
male/female, or
married/unmarried
Example: have you been smoked?
Yes No

45
 Specific Types of Closed-ended Question

• Multiple questions
This offers more than one choice.
Example: How favorable is it to you to
become pregnant at this time?
o Very favorable
o Favorable
o Not sure
o Unfavorable
o Very unfavorable

46
 Specific Types of Closed-ended Question

• Cafeteria questions
A special type of multiple-choice questions.
The respondents are asked to select a response
according to their own point of view.
Example: People have different views on “family
planning”, which of the following best represent your
view?
1. Family planning is necessary to quality life
2. Family planning is immoral and should be totally banned.
3. Family planning has undesirable side effects that suggest need for caution.
4. Family planning has beneficial effects that merit its practice.
5. Family planning is moral and should be practical

47
 Specific Types of Closed-ended Question
• Rank-order questions
 The respondents are asked to choose a response from the
“most” to the “least”.
 Example: Why must family planning be practiced? Rank your
answers from the 1-most reasonable to 5-least reasonable?
™ Limits maternal disabilities
™ Gives parents more time to meet family needs
™ Helps maintain financial viability of the family
™ Affords more working hours for couples.
™ Ensures family capability to educate all the children in
the future

48
 Specific Types of Closed-ended Question
• Rating questions
The respondents are asked to judge something along
an ordered dimension.
This is typically bipolar in nature, with the end points
specifying the opposite extremes of a continuum.
Example: On the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 means
strongly disagree, the COVID-19 vaccination provides
you the necessary services. Scale:
___ 5. Strongly agree
___ 4. Agree
___ 3. Uncertain
___ 2. Disagree
___ 1. Strongly disagree
49
Closed
question

50
51
52
53
54
 Checklist
• These are items that comprise
Several questions on a topic
and
 Require the same response
format.

55
56
Example:
Here are some characteristics of birth-control devices that are of varying
importance to different people.
How important are the following in choosing a birth-control method?

Very great Great Some No

Characteristic of
importance importance importance importance
birth-control device
1. Comfort
2. Cost
3. Ease of Use
4. Effectiveness
5. Noninterference
of spontaneity
6. Safety
7. Safety to partner

57
58
 Open-ended questions:
A. What is your current age? ______ years
B. How would you describe your current marital
status? ______________________________
C. What is your average annual income? $ ______
D. What, in your opinion, are the qualities of a good
administrator?
1. ____________________
2. ____________________
3. ____________________
4. ____________________
5. _____________________
59
Open-ended questions: Example

60
 How to know what type of question you
will use?

• How you plan to use the information

generated.
• The unit of measurement to classify the
response.
• Statistical procedures will be applied to
the data.
• Analysis methods and displayed of the
data
61
 Open-ended questions
A. Advantages
 Provide in-depth information
 Can provide a wealth information provided
 Respondents feel comfortable about expressing
their opinion
B. Disadvantages
 Analysis is more difficult in order to classify data
 Some respondent may not be able to express
themselves.
 Information can be lost
62
 Closed questions
A. Advantages
 Ready-made list of responses
 Help to ensure that the information needed by
the researcher is obtained
 Easier to analyse.
B. Disadvantages
 Lack depth and variety
 Investigator bias
 Condition thinking of respondents
 Not truly reflect respondents’ opinions.
63
 Research instrument/tool

Step IV
• Formulate
Step III
questions
• Take each that you
Step II question that want to ask
Step I • List all the you your
associated identified in respondents
• List all the Step II and to obtain the
questions
specific that you
list the required
objectives, information information
want to required to
research answer
questions or answer it.
through
hypothesis your study 64
A study to evaluate Questions Step IV
• Q1.1. When you
the community use the term
responsiveness in a “community
responsiveness”
health program what do you mean
Information required by it?
Step III
• Q1.2. What comes
Main and associated to your mind when
research question you use the term
Step II “community
Objectives/research responsiveness” in
• What is community • 1. Perception of
questions/hypotheses
Step I responsiveness? the delivery of
community
• What does it mean health services?
• 1. To find out the responsiveness
when people use the • Q1.3. What, in your
understanding of the
term “community opinion, are the
concept ”community
responsiveness”? characteristics of
responsiveness” among
health administrators, • What are the • 2. Occupational “community
planners, service differences in the status, i.e. health responsiveness?
providers and perception of administrator, • Q1.4. What, in your
consumers of health community
planner, service opinion, is the
services. responsiveness
provider or differences
• 2. To identify the among health
administrators, consumer between
strategies needed to “community
planners, service
foster community development” and
providers and • 3. Age, gender,
responsiveness in the “community
consumers of health
delivery of health education
services responsiveness?
services.
 Questions Step IV
A study to evaluate
the community
responsiveness in a
health program
Information required
• Q2.1. What would
Step III you categorise your
job as?
Main and associated • Health
research question • 2. Occupational
administrator/plann
Objectives/research
Step II status, i.e. health er
questions/hypotheses • What is community administrator, • Service provider
Step I responsiveness? planner, service • Health consumer
• 3. To develop a set of • What does it mean provider or
indicators to evaluate when people use the consumer
the effectiveness of term “community
strategies to foster responsiveness”?
community • What are the • Q3.1. How old are
responsiveness differences in the • 3. Age, gender, you?........
perception of education • Q3.2. Are you…
community
female…male?
responsiveness
among health • Q3.3. What is the
administrators, highest level of
planners, service educational
providers and achievement you
consumers of health have attained?
services
 1. Theory
11. Write up
findings/conclusions 2. Hypothesis

10. 3. Research design

Findings/conclusions

4. Devise
THE PROCESS OF measures of
9. Analysis data concepts
QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
5. Select research site(s)
8. Process data

7. Administer research 6. Select research

instruments/collect subjects/respondents
data

67
The main steps in qualitative research
1. General research questions

2. Selection of relevant site(s) and subjects

5b. Collection of
3. Collection of relevant data further data

4. Interpretation of data

5a. Tighter
5. Conceptual and theoretical work specification of the
research question(s)

6. Writing up findings/conclusions 68