WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Allen M. Lowe
[email protected]
 Objective

The ultimate goal of any water utility is to provide quality service at

minimum possible cost.

Quality of service includes delivering adequate and reliable

quantities of water at sufficient pressures, meeting drinking water
quality standards throughout the distribution system, and providing
for adequate fire protection within the service area.

Knowing how to properly use a water distribution simulation

software such as EPANET will guaranty that the design of a water
distribution system will be within standards and that pipelines,
pumps, valves and reservoirs which are the main components of a
water distribution system are designed at the minimum possible
cost.

Least cost approach results in minimum capacity for a water supply

network.

It is preferable to provide extra pipe capacity to cope with

unexpected demand growth (minimizing cost + maximizing flow
capacity).

2
 Design Criteria

Criteria Value
1. Demand Factor 0.3 – 2.0
2. Max. Allowable Head loss 10 m/km
3. Min. Allowable Head loss 0.5 m/km
4. Max. Allowable Pressure 70 m or 100 psi
5. Min. Allowable Pressure 7 m or 10 psi
6. Max. Allowable Velocity 3 m/sec
7. Min. Allowable Velocity 0.4 m/sec
8. Max. difference in ground 50 m
Elevation in a pressure zone

3
 What Can Epanet Do?

Epanet should truthfully describe the water distribution network.

Epanet can be used as a mapping software. When creating the map
of the system, whether schematic or a scaled map, the length of
pipes should be correct. The friction factor should also be within
range of pipe friction factors. The relative differences in elevation
between nodes and sources should be reflected in entering the
elevation of nodes to give accurate pressures in the nodes.

Allocation of demand should reflect true demands of service

connections.

Hydraulic simulation of network system. Compute flow and

pressures in pipes.

Analyze the effects of expansion of system due to increased

demand. What will be the pressures and flow in the system.

Compute for appropriate pipe size for system expansion.

Compute for correct pump size. What HP to buy?

Compute Reservoir size. What is the operational storage required?

Cost of expansion? Length and size of pipes.

4
 Table of Contents

DAY 1
Computer Simulation
Pressure
Basic Hydraulic Principles
* Law of Conservation of Mass
* Law of Conservation of Energy
Main Principles of Network Analysis
* Continuity
* Energy Conservation
* Bernoulli’s Principle and Equation
Head Loss Equations
* Manning’s Equation
* Darcy-Weisbach Equation
* Hazen-Williams Equation
Exercises
Population and Water Demand Projections
- Water Demand Pattern

DAY 2
What is EPANET?
Capabilities of EPANET
Software
* Project Defaults
* Workspace
* Map Options Dialog
* Times Options Dialog
Physical Components of a Water Distribution System
* Reservoir
* Tanks
* Junctions
* Pipes
* Pumps
* Valves
Network Analysis and Design Procedure
Water Distribution Network Examples
Workshop

DAY 3
Computation of Total Pipe Cost Using Excel and .inp file of Epanet
Storage Requirements
Net Present Worth Cost
Presentation and Discussion of Results

5
 Computer Simulation

A computer model refers to the algorithms and equations used to

capture the behavior of the system being modeled. e.g. EPANET,
Google Earth, Google Maps, AutoCAD

Simulation refers to the result of running a model.

EPANET models a water distribution system as a collection of

links connected to nodes. The links represent pipes, pumps, and
control valves. The nodes represent junctions, tanks, and
reservoirs.

The model assumes that water can only enter or leave from nodes
and that water cannot leak from links. Average Day Demand
(ADD) allocation is typically entered in the base demand of each
junction, which represents the ADD proportion of the service
connections near that junction.

6
In a typical water distribution system, water is normally drawn from
the network via service connections. Water is also drawn out of the
system via leaks in the pipelines. However, in modeling the water
distribution system, water is idealized to be drawn only from nodes,
the water drawn from all service connections and the leaks in the
pipes near a node area are lumped to that nearest node.

Typical Water District Demand Pattern

500
Demand Cubic Meters

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
7 Hour
When EPANET calculates the flow rates, velocity and headloss in
each link and pressures and head at each node for a steady state
pipe network system it is called a steady state analysis. This
analysis computes the pipe flow rates and the node hydraulic
grade line elevations (HGL) so that the conservation of energy and
mass are satisfied for any snapshot of the system.

An extended period analysis is used to analyze a pipe network for

an extended period of time. The total simulation time is usually
divided into several time steps. At each time step an analysis is
conducted for the pipe network based on the current network
parameters and the pipe flow rates calculated from the previous
time step. Nodes demands for each time step can be varied by
assigning a time pattern that will be multiplied to the “base
demand” of the nodes.

Typical Water District Demand Factor

2.5

1.5
Factor

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Series1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.2 2 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.4
Hour

8
Three steps should be used to produce accurate simulation
models: Calibration, Verification, Validation.

In order to accurately model a hydraulic network they have to

match what is actually happening in the network.

A base model should be created and calibrated so that it matches

the area being studied. The base model should be modeling the
existing condition of the existing water distribution system.

Calibration is the process of making adjustments to model inputs

so that the model output reproduces observed measurements to a
reasonable degree of accuracy.

The final step is to validate the model by comparing the outputs to

historical data from the study area.

Designing a system into the future forego the validation process.

9
 Pressure

Pressure is the amount of force acting per unit area.

Pressure = Force / Area

The pressure exerted by a static fluid depends only upon the

depth of the fluid, the density of the fluid, and the acceleration of
gravity.
ρ = m/V = fluid density
Pstatic fluid = ρgh where g = acceleration of gravity
h = depth of fluid

The force F is the force of gravity of the column of water, which

can be calculated as mg (where m is the mass of the water and g
is Earth's gravitational constant). The mass of the water is give by
m = V * ρ, where V is the water's volume and ρ its density. The
volume can be expressed as the area times the height of the water
column.

ρ, density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1.940 slugs/ft3

g, gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2

specific weight of water = ρg

= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) = 9810 (N/m3)= 9.81 (kN/m3)
= (1.940 slugs/ft3) (32.174 ft/s2) = 62.4 (lb/ft3)

10
Pressure = height * specific weight

The SI (metric) unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one
newton per square meter (N/m2). Non-SI (US) uses the pounds
per square inch (psi) and bars.

1 pascal = 1 N/m2 = 0.000145037738 psi

1 kilopascal (kPa) = 1,000 N/m2 = 0.145037738 psi
100 kPa = 1 bar = 14.5037738 psi ≈ 1 atm

Pressure is sometimes expressed in grams-force/cm2, or as

kg/cm2 and the like without properly identifying the force units. But
using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or
their symbols) as units of force is expressly forbidden in SI.

Because pressure is commonly measured by its ability to displace

a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures are often expressed
as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g., centimeters/meters/feet of
water, mm or inches of mercury).

Given a 10 meter column of water, what is the pressure at the

bottom?
in kg/cm2? In kN/m2? in psi? in meter? in feet?

Pressure = F / A = 0.001 kg / cm3 * 10 m * 100cm / 1 cm2 = 1 kg/

cm2

Pressure = height * specific weight = 10m * 9.81 kN/m3

= 98.1 kN/m2
Pressure = height * specific weight = 10m * 3.281 ft/m * 62.4 lb/ft3
= 2047.24 lb/ft2 / 12 in/ft / 12 in/ft = 14.213 psi

14.217 psi = 10m or 1 psi = 0.703m

= 0.703m / 0.3048 ft/m = 2.31 ft

10 psi = 7.03m = 23.07ft

11
Basic Hydraulics Principles

The Law of Conservation of Mass says that the mass of a closed

system will remain constant, regardless of the processes acting
inside the system. It simply states that matter cannot be created
nor destroyed.

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the total amount

of energy in an isolated system remains constant. It states that
energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It only changes its form.

Main Principles of Network Analysis

Continuity Equation is a mathematical statement that, in any

steady state process, the rate at which mass enters a system is
equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system

Q = 1A1V1 = 1A2V2

where:
Q = the volumetric flow rate
A = the cross sectional area of flow
V = the mean velocity
density of the fluid

12
Q2 = 10 L/s Q1 = 10 L/s
D2 = 150 mm D1 = 75 mm
A2 = πD2/4 A1 = πD2/4
= 3.1416 * (.150 *.150) / 4 = 3.1416 * (.075 *.075) / 4
= 0.017672 m2 = 0.004418 m2
Q2 = V2 * A2 Q1 = V1 * A1
V2 = Q2 / A2 V1 = Q1 / A1
= 0.010 / 0.017672 = 0.010 / 0.004418
= 0.566 m/sec = 2.264 m/sec

Q2 = Q1
D2 / D1 = 2
A2 / A1 = 4
V1 / V2 = 4

13
Main Principles of Network Analysis

Continuity: The algebraic sum of the flow rates in the pipes

meeting at a node together with any external flows is zero.

∑Inlet = ∑outlet

21.428 – 0.68 – 12.301 – 8.447 = 0

12.301 – 0.43 – 14.518 + 2.647 = 0

14
 Main Principles of Network Analysis

Energy conservation: For all paths around closed loops and

between fixed grade nodes, the accumulated energy loss including
minor losses minus any energy gain or heads generated by pumps
must be zero.

The difference in energy between two points will be the same

whichever path will be taken.

-1.617 - 1.438 - 0.189 + 3.244 = 0

0.189 - 0.504 - 4.094 + 4.409 = 0

15
 Bernoulli’s Principle

This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of mechanical
energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on
that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy remain constant.

As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure exerted by that

fluid decreases. This is also the principle of conservation of
energy, the total energy in the system does not change.

Potential energy + pressure energy + kinetic energy = constant

Bernoulli’s Equation

Potential energy + pressure energy + kinetic energy = constant

where:

h = height of the particle (in meters)

P = pressure (in kg per m2)
ρ = volume weight of the fluid (kg / m3)
V = velocity of the particle (in meters/sec)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m /sec2)

16
For an ideal fluid,

In reality, friction losses occur along the trajectory.

17
Energy Grade Line(EGL) = Total Head
EGL = Pressure Head + Elevation Head + Velocity Head

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) = Total Head – Velocity Head

HGL = Pressure Head + Elevation Head

EGL & HGL slopes towards flow due to losses

10 PSI = 7 m of water

18
Changing pipe diameter and abrupt expansion

19
 Head Loss Equations

Manning’s Equation

Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Hazen-Williams Equation

Manning’s Equation

The Manning’s Equation is most frequently used in the analysis of

water flow in open channels, but can be applied to water flow in
closed conduits as well. The resistance component of this
equation includes a factor n, which is generally a function of pipe
material and condition. The Manning’s Equation is expressed as:

hf = (nVL)
(1.49Rh2/3)

where
hf = Head loss (feet)
L = Pipe length (feet)
Rh = Hydraulic Radius = Area/Wetted Perimeter (feet)
V = Velocity (ft/sec)
n = Manning’s friction coefficient

20
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation

The Darcy-Weisbach Equation is a theoretically-based equation

for use in the analysis of pressure pipe systems. It is a general
equation that applies equally well to any flow rate and any
incompressible fluid. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is expressed
as:

where:

hf = Head loss (feet)

f = Pipe friction factor
L = Pipe length (feet)
D = Pipe diameter (feet)
V = Velocity (ft/sec)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (ft/s)

21
 Hazen-Williams Equation

The Hazen–Williams equation is an empirical formula which

relates the flow of water in a pipe with the physical properties of
the pipe and the pressure drop caused by friction.

The general form of the equation relates the mean velocity of

water in a pipe with the geometric properties of the pipe and slope
of the energy line.

V = kCR0.63S0.54

where:

k is a conversion factor for the unit system

(k = 1.318 for US customary units,
k = 0.849 for SI units)
C is a roughness coefficient
R is the hydraulic radius = A/P = (πd2/4)/(πd) = πd/4
S is the slope of the energy line (head loss per length of pipe or
hf/L)

V = kCR0.63S0.54

V = kC(πd/4)0.63 * (hf/L)0.54

V = Q/A = 4Q/πD2 = kC(πD/4)0.63 * (hf/L)0.54

(hf/L)0.54 = 4Q/πD2 * 40.63/kCD0.63

(hf/L)0.54 = (4 * 40.63 / πkC) * (Q/ D2.63)

(hf/L) = (41/0.54 * 40.63/0.54 / π1/0.54k1/0.54C1/0.54) * (Q1/0.54 / D2.63/0.54)

hf = (4.727328 * L* Q1/0.54) / (C1/0.54 * D2.63/0.54)

22
 Hazen-Williams Equation

HL = 4.727328 LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704

where:

HL = Head loss (feet)

L = Pipe Length (feet)
Q = Flow (cfs)
D = Diameter (feet)
C = Roughness Coefficient (Hazen-Williams C-factor)

Hazen-Williams Equation

Convert US to SI

K(US) = 4.727328, Q:CFS to LPS, L:ft to km, D:ft to M

4.727328 * 1000 * (1 / 28.3168466)(1/0.54)/(1/0.3048)2.63/0.54

K(SI) = 0.029689678

HL = 0.0297LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704
where:

HL = Head loss (meters)

L = Pipe Length (kilometers)
Q = Flow (Liters/sec)
D = Pipe Diameter (meters)
C = Roughness Coefficient (Hazen-Williams C-factor)

23
Hazen-Williams Equation

HL = 4.727 LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704

where:

HL = Head loss (feet)

L = Pipe Length (feet)
Q = Flow (cfs)
D = Diameter (feet)
C = Roughness Coefficient (Hazen-Williams C-factor)

HL = 0.0297LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704
where:

HL = Head loss (meters)

L = Pipe Length (kilometers)
Q = Flow (Liters/sec)
D = Pipe Diameter (meters)
C = Roughness Coefficient (Hazen-Williams C-factor)

Q = ((HL* C1.852D4.8704 )
(0.0297 L))1/1.852

where:
HL = Head loss (meters)
L = Pipe Length (kilometers)
Q = Flow (Liters/sec)
D = Pipe Diameter (meters)
C = Roughness Coefficient (Hazen-Williams C-factor)

24
25
26
Equivalent coefficients for Hazen-Williams, Darcy-Weisbach and
Chezy Manning to have a headloss of 10 m/km.

Head
Diam Friction Velocity Loss
(mm) HWC D-W Factor C-M L/S m/s m/km
38 110 0.43 0.04365 0.01089 0.469 0.41 10.0
50 110 0.49 0.04064 0.01100 0.965 0.49 10.0
75 110 0.572 0.03657 0.01116 2.804 0.63 10.0
100 120 0.323 0.02852 0.01034 6.519 0.83 10.0
150 130 0.168 0.02187 0.00969 20.513 1.16 10.0
200 130 0.1735 0.02029 0.00979 43.713 1.39 10.0
250 130 0.1756 0.01915 0.00987 78.608 1.60 10.0
300 130 0.1758 0.01826 0.00993 126.97 1.80 10.0
350 130 0.175 0.01754 0.00999 190.44 1.98 10.0
400 130 0.1736 0.01643 0.01004 368.79 2.32 10.0
450 130 0.1718 0.01599 0.01008 486.54 2.48 10.0
500 130 0.1698 0.01345 0.01012 673.22 2.83 10.0
550 140 0.0675 0.01315 0.00943 846.32 2.99 10.0
600 140 0.066 0.01297 0.00946 994.5 3.00 10.0
650 140 0.067 0.01281 0.00952 1153.4 3.00 9.1
700 140 0.0685 0.01267 0.00958 1324 3.00 8.4

27
 Hazen-Williams C-Factor

 Higher C-factors for smoother pipes

 Lower C-factors for rougher pipes
 For the same pipe material, the C-factor increases as the
diameter increases
 The C-factor decreases as the age of the pipe increases. It’s
better to design the system with reduced C-factor to
compensate for the ageing of the pipes in the design period.

28
Given:

A 1 kilometer pipeline with a diameter of 100 mm has an initial

pressure of 20 m. What is the pressure at the end of the pipeline if
the flow is equal to 3 L/s assuming a flat terrain and a Hazen
Williams Coefficient (C) of 120.

The headloss in the pipeline is

HL = 0.0297LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704

HL = 0.0297 * 1 * (3)1.852
1201.852(0.100)4.8704

HL = 2.38 m

P = 20 – 2.38 = 17.62 m

29
Given:

A 10 meter service connection with a diameter of 1/2 inch has an

initial pressure of 10 m. What is the pressure at the end of the
faucet if the flow coming from faucet is equal to 0.33 L/s (20
liters/min) assuming a flat terrain and a Hazen Williams Coefficient
(C) of 120. C = 100? D = 3/4"?

The headloss in the pipeline is

HL = 0.0297LQ1.852
C1.852D4.8704

HL = 0.0297 * 0.01 * (0.33)1.852

1201.852(0.0125)4.8704

HL = ? m
P = 10 – ? = ? m

30
As you double the C-value, the head loss is reduced by 3.6 times.

As Q doubles Velocity doubles

31
As you double the pipe diameter, the carrying capacity increases
by 6.2 times, whereas the area only increases by 4 times.

32
 Pipe Diameters (PVC)
for 10 m/km Headloss

Diameter (mm) HWC Flow (L/s)

50 110 0.97
75 110 2.80
100 120 6.52
150 130 20.50
200 130 43.69
250 130 78.57
300 130 126.90
350 130 190.34
400 130 270.42
450 140 396.96
500 140 523.70

33
 Pipe Diameters (PVC)
for 5 m/km Headloss

Diameter (mm) HWC Flow (L/s)

50 110 0.66
75 110 1.91
100 120 4.44
150 130 14.00
200 130 29.85
250 130 53.71
300 130 86.80
350 130 130.24
400 130 185.09
450 140 271.79
500 140 358.66

34
Branch
Network

35
36
37
38
Exercises

39
40
41
42
43
44
 Population and Water Demand Projections

Population projection is the analysis of recorded pattern of

population growth to be able to determine future population trends.

Population projection serves as the basis for determining the water

demand in a service area. A service area is composed of one or
more barangays.

Starting December 29, 2013, the National Statistics Office (NSO)

and the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB), the
Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics (BLES), and the
Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS) were consolidated to form
the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) – RA 10625, Philippine
Statistical Act of 2013, the government body authorized to prepare
and undertake all censuses of population, agriculture, industry,
and commerce.

http://psa.gov.ph
http://122.54.214.222 – Household/Population from 1990 to 2015.

45
46
47
48
Annual Growth Rate (r) = (Pn/Pa)1/n – 1

Example:
Population (2010) = 234,733
Population (2000) = 209,491
r = (234,733/209,491)1/10 – 1
r = (1.1205)0.1 – 1 = 0.011442 = 1.1442%

The PSA also issues projected growth rates for the different
municipalities and cities.

Using the projected growth rates, the population for each year can
be obtained using the formula:

Pn = Pa (1 + r)n

where:

Pn = population after n years

Pa = population in base year
r = growth rate
n = number of years

49
Average Day Demand – The total annual quantity of water
production divided by 365. Residential + Gov’t + Commercial
(Industrial) Demands + Unaccounted for Water.
Peaking Factor = 1.0

Maximum Day Demand - represents the maximum volume of

water used during a 24 hour period within a given year. This is the
minimum required source capacity to satisfy the water demand.

Population Ratio
< 30,000 1.3:1
30,000-200,000 1.25:1
over 200,000 1.2:1

Peak Hour Demand is the term used to identify maximum volume

of water used over a one-hour period during a given
year/month/day. Peaking Factor = 2.0 to 3

Source capacity should be between max-day demand and peak-

hour demand. If source capacity can meet peak-hour demand then
the reservoir size for operational use can be minimized.

Peaking factors - multipliers of average day demand to express

maximum day and peak hour demands.

50
Water District data on production and consumption
http://www.lwua.gov.ph
http://122.54.214.222

Per capita demand – needed water by an individual per day.

Varies from location to location depending on economic prosperity
of the community, extent of commercialization/ industrialization,
seasonal climate, water rate and the availability of water.
Averages from 70 to 200 liters per capita per day or or 11 to 31
cubic meters per connection.

Commercial Water Demand – varies from 12 to 185 cubic meters

per month

Unaccounted-for-Water - is the difference between the produced

water and the total billed water. These are water losses from
leakages, pilferage, faulty water meters, unbilled water such as fire
hydrants. If all pipelines are new, ranges from 10 to 15 percent.
However, if the system is old, can be as high as 60%.

51
 Typical Water District Demand Pattern
Demand Pattern

500
Demand Cubic Meters

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour

Typical Water District Demand Factor

2.5
2
Factor

1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Series1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.2 2 1.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.4
Hour

Subdivision Demand Factor

3
2.5
2
Factor

1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Series1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.2 2.5 1.5 1.2 1 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.4
Hour

52
53
 Hydraulic Modeling Software

WaterCAD/WaterGEMS by Bentley
InfoWater by ESRI
HydrauliCAD
Hydronet
H2OMap Water
KYPipe
WATSYS
Epanet

54
 Modeling of Water
Distribution Systems
Using EPANET

55
 What is EPANET

• EPANET is software developed by the United States

Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Water
Supply and Water Resources Division that models
water distribution piping systems.

• EPANET is public domain software that may be freely

copied and distributed. It is a Windows program.

• EPANET performs extended period simulation of the

water movement and quality behavior within
pressurized pipe networks.

• EPANET models a water distribution system as a

collection of links connected to nodes. The links
represent pipes, pumps, and control valves. The
nodes represent junctions, tanks, and reservoirs.

• EPANET can be downloaded from

http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/dw/epanet.html

• Opening Help(.hlp) Files for Windows Vista, Windows

7 and Windows 8

56
 Capabilities of EPANET

 Simulate systems of any size

 Compute friction head loss using the Hazen-Williams, the
Darcy Weisbach, or the Chezy-Manning formula
 Include minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc.
 Model constant or variable speed pumps
 Compute pumping energy and cost
 Model various types of valves, including shutoff, check,
pressure regulating, and flow control
 Account for any shape storage tanks (i.e., surface area can
vary with height)
 Consider multiple demand categories at nodes, each with its
own pattern of time variation
 Model pressure-dependent flow issuing from sprinkler heads
 Base system operation on simple tank level, timer controls or
complex rule-based controls

57
EPANET’s Workspace

58
 Project Preferences

The General page of the Program Preferences dialog box allows

you to modify the following program preferences:

Bold Fonts
Uses bold fonts in all newly created windows.

Blinking Map Hiliter

Makes the selected node, link, or label on the map blink on and
off.

Flyover Map Labeling

Displays the ID label and the current parameter value a hint-style
box whenever the mouse is placed over a node or link on the
network map.

59
Confirm Deletions
Displays a confirmation dialog box before deleting any object.

Automatic Backup File

Saves a backup copy of a newly opened project to disk named
with a .bak extension.

Temporary Directory
Name of the directory (folder) where EPANET writes its temporary
files.

Note: The temporary directory must be a file directory (folder)

where the user has write privileges and must have sufficient space
to store files which can easily grow to several tens of megabytes
for larger networks and simulation runs. The original default is
%USERPROFILE%\Local Settings\Temp or whatever the TEMP
environment variable is set to.

The Formats page of the Program Preferences dialog box controls

how many decimal places are displayed when results for
computed quantities are reported.

Use the dropdown list boxes to select a specific Node or Link

parameter.

Use the spin edit boxes to select the number of decimal places to
use when displaying computed results for the parameter.

60
 Project Defaults

The ID Labels page of the Project Defaults dialog form is used to

determine how EPANET will assign default ID labels to network
components when they are first created.

For each type of object enter a label prefix (leave blank if an

object's default ID will simply be a number).

Enter an increment to be used when adding a numerical suffix to

the default label.

As an example, if J were used as a prefix for Junctions along with

an increment of 5, then as junctions are created they receive
default labels of J5, J10, J15 and so on.

I do not recommend using prefixes for Junctions and Pipes to

make the system less cluttered.

After an object has been created its ID label can always be

changed by using the Property Editor.

61
The Properties page of the Project Defaults dialog form sets
default property values for newly created nodes and links. These
properties include:

 Elevation for nodes

 Diameter for tanks
 Maximum water level for tanks
 Length for pipes
 Auto-Length (automatic calculation of length) for pipes
 Diameter for pipes
 Roughness for pipes

When the Auto-Length property is turned on, pipe lengths will

automatically be computed as pipes are added or repositioned on
the network map. A node or link created with these default
properties can always be modified later on using the Property
Editor.

The Hydraulics page of the Project Defaults dialog contains the

same set of hydraulic options as the project's Hydraulic Options
accessed from the Browser. They are repeated on the Project
Defaults dialog so that they can be saved for use with future
projects as well as with the current one.

Hydraulics Options determine how the hydraulic behavior of the

pipe network should be analyzed. They include:

Flow Units
Units in which nodal demands and link flow rates are expressed.
Choosing liters or cubic meters causes all other units to be SI
metric, otherwise US customary units apply. Use caution when
changing flow units as it might affect all other data supplied to the
project.

Headloss Formula
Formula used to compute headloss as a function of flow rate in a
pipe. Choices are:

62
 Hazen-Williams
 Darcy-Weisbach
 Chezy-Manning

Because each formula measures pipe roughness differently,

switching formulas might require that all pipe roughness
coefficients be updated.

Specific Gravity
Ratio of the density of the fluid being modeled to that of water at 4
deg. C (unitless).

Relative Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity of the fluid being modeled relative to the
viscosity of water at 20 deg. C (1.0 centistokes or 0.94 sq ft/day).

Maximum Trials
Maximum number of trials used to solve the nonlinear equations
that govern network hydraulics at a given point in time. Suggested
value is 200.

Accuracy
Convergence criterion used to signal that a solution has been
found to the nonlinear equations that govern network hydraulics.
Trials end when the sum of all flow changes divided by the sum of
all link flows is less than this number.
Suggested value is 0.001.

If Unbalanced
Action to take if a hydraulic solution is not found within the
maximum number of trials. Choices are STOP to stop the
simulation at this point or CONTINUE to use another 10 trials, with
no link status changes allowed, in an attempt to achieve
convergence.

Default Pattern

63
ID label of a time pattern to be applied to demands at those
junctions where no time pattern is specified. If no such time
pattern exists then demands will not vary at these locations.

Demand Multiplier
Multiplier applied to all baseline demands to make total system
consumption vary up or down by a fixed amount. E.g., 2.0 doubles
all demands, 0.5 halves them, and 1.0 leaves them as is.

Emitter Exponent
Power to which pressure is raised when computing the flow
through an emitter device. The textbook value for nozzles and
sprinklers is 0.5. This may not apply to pipe leakage.

Status Report
Amount of status information to report after a simulation is made.
Choices are

 NONE (no status report)

 YES (normal status reporting - lists all changes in link status
throughout the simulation)
 FULL (full reporting - normal reporting plus the
convergence error from each trial of the hydraulic
analysis made in each time period)

Full status reporting is only useful for debugging purposes.

64
65
 Menu Bar

The Menu Bar located across the top of the EPANET workspace
contains a collection of menus used to control the program. These
include:

 File Menu
 Edit Menu
 View Menu
 Project Menu
 Report Menu
 Window Menu
 Help Menu

File Menu

The File Menu contains commands for opening and saving data
files and for printing:

Command Description
New Creates a new EPANET project
Open Opens an existing project
Save Saves the current project
Save As Saves the current project under a different
name
Import Imports network data or map from a file
Export Exports network data or map to a file
Page Setup Sets page margins, headers, and footers for
printing
Print Preview Previews a printout of the current view
Print Prints the current view
Preferences Sets program preferences
Exit Exits EPANET

Edit Menu

66
The Edit Menu contains commands for editing and copying.

Command Description
Copy To Copies the currently active view (map, report,
graph or table) to the clipboard or to file
Select Object Allows selection of an object on the map
Select Vertex Allows selection of link vertices on the map
Select Region Allows selection of an outlined region on the
map
Select All Makes the outlined region the entire viewable
map area
Group Edit Edits a property for the group of objects that
fall within the outlined region of the map

View Menu

The View Menu controls how the network map is viewed.

Command Description
Dimensions Dimensions the map
Backdrop Allows a backdrop map to be viewed
Pan Pans across the map
Zoom In Zooms in on the map
Zoom Out Zooms out on the map
Full Extent Redraws the map at full extent
Find Locates a specific item on the map
Query Searches for items on the map that meet
specific criteria
Overview Map Toggles the Overview Map on/off
Legends Controls the display of map legends
Toolbars Toggles the toolbars on/off
Options Sets map appearance options

Project Menu

The Project menu includes commands related to the current

project being analyzed.

67
Command Description
Summary Provides a summary description of the
project's characteristics
Defaults Edits a project's default properties
Calibration Data Registers files containing calibration data with
the project
Analysis Options Edits analysis options
Run Analysis Runs a simulation

Report Menu

The Report menu has commands used to report analysis results in

different formats.

Command Description
Status Reports changes in the status of links over
time
Energy Reports the energy consumed by each pump
Calibration Reports differences between simulated and
measured values
Reaction Reports average reaction rates throughout the
network
Full Creates a full report of computed results for all nodes and links
in all time periods which is saved to a plain
text file
Graph Creates time series, profile, frequency, and
contour plots of selected parameters
Table Creates a tabular display of selected node
and link quantities
Options Controls the display style of a report, graph, or
table

Window Menu

The Window Menu contains the following commands:

68
Command Description
Arrange Rearranges all child windows to fit within the
main window
Close All Closes all open windows (except the Map and
Browser)
Window List Lists all open windows; selected window
currently has focus

Help Menu

The Help Menu contains commands for getting help in using

EPANET:

Command Description
Help Topics Displays the Help system's Help Topics dialog
box
Units Lists the units of measurement for all
EPANET parameters
Tutorial Presents a short tutorial introducing the user
to EPANET
About Lists information about the version of
EPANET being used

Context-sensitive Help is also available by pressing the F1 key.

69
Physical Components in a Water Distribution System

70
Reservoirs

Reservoirs are nodes that represent an infinite external source or

sink of water to the network. They are used to model such things
as lakes, rivers, groundwater aquifers, and tie-ins to other
systems. Reservoirs can also serve as water quality source points.

The primary input properties for a reservoir are its hydraulic head
(equal to the water surface elevation if the reservoir is not under
pressure) and its initial quality for water quality analysis.

Because a reservoir is a boundary point to a network, its head and

water quality cannot be affected by what happens within the
network. Therefore it has no computed output properties. However
its head can be made to vary with time by assigning a time pattern
to it.

71
Tanks

Tanks are nodes with storage capacity, where the volume of

stored water can vary with time during a simulation. The primary
input properties for tanks are:

• bottom elevation (where water level is zero)

• diameter (or shape if non-cylindrical )
• initial, minimum and maximum water levels
• initial water quality.

The principal outputs computed over time are:

• hydraulic head (water surface elevation)

• water quality.

Tanks are required to operate within their minimum and maximum

levels. EPANET stops outflow if a tank is at its minimum level and
stops inflow if it is at its maximum level. Tanks can also serve as
water quality source points.

72
 Maximum

Initial
Diameter
Minimum

Elevation

73
 Junctions

Junctions are points in the network where links join together and
where water enters or leaves the network. The basic input data
required for junctions are:

• elevation above some reference (usually mean sea level)

• water demand (+ = rate of withdrawal from the network (water
leaves the network, - = source (well), water enters the
network)
• initial water quality.

The output results computed for junctions at all time periods of a

simulation are:

• hydraulic head (internal energy per unit weight of fluid)

• pressure
• water quality.

Junctions can also:

• have their demand vary with time

• have multiple categories of demands assigned to them
• have negative demands indicating that water is entering the
network
• be water quality sources where constituents enter the network
• contain emitters which make the outflow rate depend on the
pressure.

74
Pipes

Pipes are links that convey water from one point in the network to
another. EPANET assumes that all pipes are full at all times. Flow
direction is from the end at higher hydraulic head (internal energy
per weight of water) to that at lower head. The principal hydraulic
input parameters for pipes are:

• start and end nodes

• diameter
• length
• roughness coefficient (for determining headloss)
• status (open, closed, or contains a check valve).

The status parameter allows pipes to implicitly contain shutoff

(gate) valves and check (non-return) valves (which allow flow in
only one direction).

The water quality inputs for pipes consist of:

• bulk reaction coefficient and wall reaction coefficient.

Computed outputs for pipes include:

• flow rate – negative for reverse flow

• velocity
• unit headloss
• Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
• average reaction rate (over the pipe length) /average water
quality (over the pipe length).

75
Pumps

Pumps are links that impart energy to a fluid thereby raising its
hydraulic head. The principal input parameters for a pump are its
start and end nodes and its pump curve (the combination of heads
and flows that the pump can produce). In lieu of a pump curve, the
pump could be represented as a constant energy device, one that
supplies a constant amount of energy (horsepower if US or
kilowatts if SI) to the fluid for all combinations of flow and head.

76
Pump Curve

A Pump Curve represents the relationship between the head and

flow rate that a pump can deliver at its nominal speed setting.

Head is the head gain imparted to the water by the pump and is
plotted on the vertical (Y) axis of the curve in feet (meters). Flow
rate is plotted on the horizontal (X) axis.

A valid pump curve must have decreasing head with increasing

flow.

EPANET will use a different shape of pump curve depending on

the number of points supplied:

Single-Point Curve

Three-Point Curve

Multi-Point Curve

77
Single-Point Pump Curve

A single-point pump curve is defined by a single head-flow

combination that represents a pump's desired operating point.
EPANET fills in the rest of the curve by assuming:
a shutoff head at zero flow equal to 133% of the design head a
maximum flow at zero head equal to twice the design flow.

78
Three-Point Pump Curve

A three-point pump curve is defined by three operating points

 Low Flow (flow and head at low or zero flow condition)

 Design Flow (flow and head at desired operating point)
 Maximum Flow (flow and head at maximum flow).

EPANET tries to fit a continuous function through the three points

to define the entire pump curve.

79
Multi-Point Pump Curve

A multi-point pump curve is defined by providing either a pair of

head-flow points or four or more such points. EPANET creates a
complete curve by connecting the points with straight line
segments.

80
Water Horsepower (WHP) = Q * TDH / 3960

where:

Q = Flow (gpm)
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (feet)

Water Horsepower (WHP) = Q * TDH / 76.15

where:

Q = Flow (Liters/sec)
TDH = Total Dynamic Head (meters)

TDH = Static Suction Lift + friction loss in Suction Lift + pressure

(m) + v2/2g

TDH = Static Suction Lift + friction loss in Suction Lift +

pressure(psi) * 0.7 + 2

kW = 0.746 * HP

Brake Horsepower (BHP) = WHP / Efficiency

Pump Efficiency == 60 - 85%

BHP = sqrt(Phase) * Power Factor * Voltage * I / 746

Power Factor = 0.85

Power Factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do work
and the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit.

Efficiency = WHP / BHP

kW = 0.746 * BHP

81
Pumps (cont’d)

The principal output parameters are flow and head gain. Flow
through a pump is unidirectional and EPANET will not allow a
pump to operate outside the range of its pump curve. If system
conditions require more head than the pump can produce,
EPANET shuts the pump off. If more than the maximum flow is
required, EPANET extrapolates the pump curve to the required
flow, even if this produces a negative head. In both cases a
warning message will be issued.

As with pipes, pumps can be turned on and off at preset times or

when certain conditions exist in the network. A pump’s operation
can also be described by assigning it a time pattern of relative
speed settings. EPANET can also compute the energy
consumption and cost of a pump. Each pump can be assigned an
efficiency curve and schedule of energy prices. If these are not
supplied then a set of global energy options will be used.

82
Valves are links that limit the pressure or flow at a specific point in
the network.

Their principal input parameters include:

 start and end nodes

 diameter
 setting
 status.

The computed outputs for a valve are flow rate and headloss.

The different types of valves included in EPANET are:

 Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV)

 Pressure Sustaining Valve (PSV)
 Pressure Breaker Valve (PBV)
 Flow Control Valve (FCV)
 Throttle Control Valve (TCV)
 General Purpose Valve (GPV).

Pressure Reducing Valve - PRVs limit the pressure at a point in

the pipe network. Three different states a PRV can be in:

• partially opened (i.e., active) to achieve its pressure setting on

its downstream side when the upstream pressure is above the
setting
• fully open if the upstream pressure is below the setting
• closed if the pressure on the downstream side exceeds that on
the upstream side (i.e., reverse flow is not allowed).

Pressure Sustaining Valve - PSVs maintain a set pressure at a

specific point in the pipe network. Three different states a PSV can
be in:

83
• partially opened (i.e., active) to maintain its pressure setting on
its upstream side when the downstream pressure is below this
value
• fully open if the downstream pressure is above the setting
• closed if the pressure on the downstream side exceeds that on
the upstream side (i.e., reverse flow is not allowed).

Pressure Breaker Valve - PBVs force a specified pressure loss to

occur across the valve. Flow through the valve can be in either
direction. PBV's are not true physical devices but can be used to
model situations where a particular pressure drop is known to
exist.

Flow Control Valve - FCVs limit the flow to a specified amount.

The program produces a warning message if this flow cannot be
maintained without having to add additional head at the valve (i.e.,
the flow cannot be maintained even with the valve fully open).

84
Throttle Control Valve - TCVs simulate a partially closed valve by
adjusting the minor head loss coefficient of the valve. A
relationship between the degree to which a valve is closed and
the resulting head loss coefficient is usually available from the
valve manufacturer.

General Purpose Valve - GPVs are used to represent a link

where the user supplies a special flow - head loss relationship
instead of following one of the standard hydraulic formulas. They
can be used to model turbines, well draw-down or reduced-flow
backflow prevention valves.

85
 Using Google Earth Pro as Backdrop Images in Epanet

• Install Google Earth Pro

• Open Google Earth Pro – to activate Pro version
User name = your email address
License Key = GEPFREE
• Go to Tools/Options menu
• Click decimal degrees in Show Lat/Long in 3-D view Tab
• Click Do not Automatically tilt while zooming in
Navigation
• In the sidebar, right click on the My Places and add a
new folder named = your service area
• Click on the folder to set as default folder
• In the sidebar, uncheck Terrain, Roads, etc.
• Go to your service area location
• Determine the service area (SA) extent
• Move to the first quadrant of the SA
• We will place a maximum of 4 placemarks to delineate the SA
and combine the screen shots to make a bigger image
• Add the 1st placemark
• Name it as sam01 for sample SA
• Change icon type to diamond icon
• Click View Tab
• Copy Latitude and Longitude values on the top portion
using Control-C and Control-V to copy and paste
to the Latitude and Longitude values in the bottom
section
to center the view in the screen
• Change range to 2000 to represent 2000 meters altitude
eye level
• Heading = 0, Tilt = 0

86
• Click the restore down button on the right hand corner window.
Close the sidebar and toolbar.
Try to save the image by clicking File/Save/Save Image.
Uncheck all options in Map Options.
Change resolution to the maximum resolution, 4800x4800,
by dragging the right side of the window to the left or right
until the resolution is 4800x4800. Do not save yet.
• Position the placemark to the left of the screen, just barely
touching the left side of the window by dragging the window
to the left. The icon should now be in the middle half and
left of the window.

87
• Add the second placemark
• Name it as sam02 for sample SA
• Drag the placemark window to the left so that the
new icon is shown
• Click on the new icon and drag to the right side of the
window just barely touching the side
• Right click the first icon and click properties.
Copy the latitude value by selecting the latitude value
and pressing Control-C. Close the window.
• Right click the second placemark and click properties.
Replace latitude values in the top and in the view
section
by pasting the copied latitude using control-V
• Change range to 2000 to represent 2000 meters altitude
eye level
• Heading = 0, Tilt = 0

• We will now add the third placemark

• Click on the first placemark
• Drag the window so that the 1st placemark is barely
touching the top of the window

88
• Add the third placemark
• Name it as sam03 for sample SA
• Drag the placemark window to the left so that the
new icon is shown
• Click on the new icon and drag to the bottom side of the
window just above the barely touching digital mark
• Right click the first icon and click properties.
Copy the longitude value by selecting the longitude
value
and pressing Control-C. Close the window.
• Right click the third placemark and click properties.
Replace longitude values in the top and in the view
section
by pasting the copied latitude using control-V
• Change range to 2000 to represent 2000 meters altitude
eye level
• Heading = 0, Tilt = 0

• Add the fourth placemark

• Name it as sam04 for sample SA
• Drag the placemark window to the left so that the
new icon is shown
• Click on the new icon and drag to the left side of the
window just above the barely touching left window
• Right click the third icon and click properties.
Copy the latitude value by selecting the longitude value
and pressing Control-C. Close the window.
• Right click the third placemark and click properties.
Replace latitude values in the top and in the view
section
by pasting the copied latitude using control-V
• Copy the longitude value from the third placemark and
copy to the fourth longitude value.

89
• You may also want to save your placemarks so it can be
transported to another computer.
• Right click on the folder that you created and click
Save Place As. Enter your filename.

90
• Before saving, uncheck the placemark in the sidebar,
so that the icon is not copied in the image.
Save your images by clicking save image.
Input the filename = placemark name.
If the image is not showing any progress of clearing up or
moving to the other section, close Google Earth Pro and
start again by finding your placemark by double clicking it.
Resave again.

91
 How to Use FSViewer to Stitch Together Saved Images

• Install FSViewer if not yet installed – FsViewerSetup.exe

• Run FSViewer
• Click Settings/Settings/Associations to associate FSViewer
to Jpeg and other graphic files
• Go to the folder where images from Google Earth was saved
• Load and save all Google Earth images as bmp format.
• Load first bmp image
• Position your cursor to the left most corner of the screen to
show menu
• Click Canvas Size – Control –K and change width to 10000
and height to 10000 for a new canvas size.
• Click on the top-left corner where current image will be placed
• Click Draw Board – D to modify the image
• Click Fit Button – lowest button on the left corner to Fit image
• Click Watermark Image to add a new image to the first image
• Select the filename of the 2nd image to add
• A cross cursor will appear. Click on the image where 2nd
image is supposed to be inserted
• Click Actual Image (1:1)
• Adjust scroll bar to see actual match point
• Adjust Opacity level to half to see the match point better
• Adjust position of the 2nd image to best fit.
Use cursor to fine tune the alignment
• Adjust Opacity to 100%
• Click Ok to exit draw board and merge image.
You cannot merge the images all at the same time.
• Save the image to a temporary file
• Repeat above procedure to add 3rd and 4th image

92
 How to get a properly scaled background map image in
EPANET

Note: The background map must be to scale. One can use

Google Earth to save an image of the service area or an AutoCAD
drawing file printed as JPEG file.

1. Using some method, save the background map image as a

*.bmp, *.wmf, or *.emf file. Use FSViewer to save as bmp file.
This is a free software.

2. Open a new project in EPANET. Set the Auto-Length option to

On (Project menu – Defaults… -- Properties Tab, or you can
right-click in the lower left corner).

93
3. Add the background map image you just saved to the project
(View menu – Backdrop – Load…).

4. Place 2 junctions at some convenient distance apart. Then,

connect the nodes with a pipe, and check the pipe’s length. In
this example the length is 8934.15 m.

5. Using Google Earth’s Tools/ruler function measure the two

points where we placed the two nodes and get the length. In
this case 717.43 meters.

94
6. If the pipe length as determined by EPANET’s Auto-Length
function does not match the length according to the map scale
do the following steps.

7. Determine the re-scaling factor which is equal to the true length

divided by the measured length. For example, if the Google
earth measured distance is 717.43 meters and the subsequent
pipe’s length in EPANET was 8934.15, the map needs to be
re-scaled by 717.43 m / 8934.15 m = 0.0803.

95
8. To re-scale the map, go to View – Dimensions… The default x
and y coordinates for the lower left corner should be (0, 0) and
for the upper right corner should be (10000, 10000). Multiply
both coordinates of the upper right corner by your re-scaling
factor. In the example from above, the new coordinates would
be (803.02, 803.02). Do not use Auto-Size, otherwise the
background will move its position and the scaling will also be
modified.

9. Try another pipe along the map scale and verify that Auto-
Length determines the correct length.

10. Delete all temporary nodes.

10. Save the file with the correct name of your project to reflect
the corrected scaled backdrop.

96
 Network Analysis and Design Procedure Using EPANET

 Set up the Project Defaults. Set ID prefixes, which are used

to determine how EPANET will assign default ID labels to
network components when they are first created, ie, Well- for
reservoirs, Tank- for tanks, PS- for pumps, PC- for pump
curves and VA- for valves. Set Flow Units to LPS and
Headloss Formula to H-W. Set default value of Auto Length
to On, pipe diameter to 100 and pipe roughness to 120.

 Set up total duration to 24 hours or greater in Options/Times

Options.

 Load the patterns PHIL.pat or Subd.pat, WELL.pat, FIRE.pat.

Do not forget to rename the pattern ID to PHIL, WELL and
FIRE. Set the default pattern to PHIL in Options/Hydraulics.

 Prepare the system backdrop via Google Earth saved image.

Convert to bmp using FSViewer. Load backdrop in
View/Backdrop/Load and scale it as described from above.

 Add the nodes first, starting with tanks, then wells (as
reservoirs), then junctions.

 Tanks are nodes with storage capacity. Inputs are bottom

elevation (taken from Google Earth), tank diameter, initial,
minimum and maximum water levels. Initial level is the water
level in the tank at Clock Start Time in Options/Times
Options.

 Wells may be set up in two ways. For a new well with an

unknown pump, a well can be represented by a junction
with a negative demand equal to the pumping rate. A time
pattern can also be assigned if the pumping rate varies over

97
 time otherwise use the WELL pattern which is a basically a
multiplier of 1.

 For an existing well with a pump, the well is best

represented by a reservoir connected by a pump to a
dummy node representing the top of the pump then
connected by a pipe connected to the top of the well which
represents the riser pipe. Head pattern can also be inputted if
water level is also varying.

 In the Description of the well (reservoir or junction), put the

ground elevation of the well and the pumping water level, ie.,
Elev=77.23, PWL=15.00. In the total head, compute the
elevation of the pumping water level by subtracting the PWL
from ground elevation, ie., 62.23.

 Junctions are points in the network where links join together

and water enters or leaves the network. Basic input data
included for the junctions are:

 Service Connection is the number of service

connections connecting to that node. This can be
estimated by counting the houses that fall into the area
bounded from all the midpoints between the junction
and all connecting nodes.
 Elevation above some reference, which can be taken
from Google Earth or Google Maps.
 Base Demand, if positive is the withdrawal rate
representing the Average Day Demand (ADD)
contribution for all the service connections connected
near that junction. This can be computed by ratio and
proportion by dividing the no. of service connections for
that node over the total number of service connections
in the network and multiplying by persons per
connection, per capita demand and the percentage of
unaccounted for water. This can be computed later
when all the junctions have all been inputted with the no.

98
 of service connections by clicking Projects/Compute
Demands and changing the parameters. Base Demand,
if negative is the average production rate of a source.
 Demand Pattern can be left blank if the default pattern is
set to PHIL.pat or SUBD.pat. The base demand are
multiplied by the pattern's collection of multipliers to
allow it to vary over time.

 Pipes convey water from one point in the network to another.

This is done by connecting two nodes together. It is assumed
that all pipes are full at all times and that there are no leaks in
the pipes. The input parameters for pipes are:

 Pipe IDs should differentiate between existing pipes,

new pipes and pallallel pipes. Say pipe 1-200 is old
pipes, 201-400 is new pipes, 401 to 600 is parallel pipes
and 601 to 800 is replacement pipes.
 Length in meters. If Auto-length is on, this will be
automatically computed whenever the connecting nodes
are moved or their coordinates changed otherwise the
default length is used.
 Scale Factor = true Length / computed length. A scale
factor of 1 means true to scale while less than 1 means
actual length is less than what is computed.
 Internal Diameter in millimeters
 Roughness is the H-W Coefficient of the pipe. This
should be edited corresponding to the diameter of the
pipe. For new pipes, use the following C-values:

 50 mm to 75 mm (PVC)– 110
 100 mm (steel) – 110
 100 mm (pvc) – 120
 150 mm and larger (steel) – 120
 150 mm and larger (pvc) – 130

For old pipes, the C-values can be calculated by

doing field measurements of pipe flow and computing

99
 for headlosses and C-values. In case of unavailable
data, subtract 10-20 from C-values of new pipes.

 Pumps are devices that impart energy to a fluid thereby

raising its hydraulic head. Flow through a pump is
unidirectional, from start node to end node. The input
parameters for pumps are: :

 Pump curve which is the combination of heads and

flows that the pump can produce. The easiest curve is
the single point curve which is defined by a single head-
flow combination that represents a pump’s desired
operating point. For existing pumps, the H-Q curve
should be established by doing a pump test, for different
flow rates what is the corresponding TDH.

TDH = PWL + Friction Loss + Pressure(psi) * 0.7031).

WHP = Q * TDH / 76.15
BHP = sqrt(Phase) * Power Factor * Voltage * I / 746
PF=0.85
Efficiency = WHP / BHP

 Instead of a pump curve, a constant HP pump can also

represent the pump. This means that the pump operates
at a constant HP for all combinations of flow and head.
A pump curve takes precedence over a constant power
pump.
 A variable frequency drive (VFD) pump can also be
modeled by changing inputting a speed of 1 and
inputting the speed pattern corresponding to the relative
speed for each time period.
 If the efficiency of the pump is not equal to the global
pump efficiency as stated in Options/Energy Options,
efficiency curve should also be inputted.

 Valves are used to control the pressure or flow at a specific

point in the network. You should only put vital valves in the

100
 system and not merely to show where your valves are
located. Say a PRV in a mountainous area to reduce
pressure in the system.

• Valves and pumps do not have lengths so you should make

them as small as possible in the map so they minimize error
in the lengths of pipes.

Design Criteria

Criteria Value
1. Demand Factor 0.3 – 2.5
2. Max. Allowable Head loss 10 m/km
3. Min. Allowable Head loss 0.5 m/km
4. Max. Allowable Pressure 70 m
5. Min. Allowable Pressure 7m
6. Max. Allowable Velocity 3 m/sec
7. Min. Allowable Velocity 0.4 m/sec
8. Max. difference in ground 50 m
Elevation in a pressure zone

Perform hydraulic analyses of the distribution network using

EPANET. Enter Statistics = Maximum to get the maximum values
in the results when running the analysis and return Statistics to
None when done optimizing to get the true values in the hydraulic
results. The analysis should include the following operational
considerations:

 peak-hour demand - peak factor = 2.0

 maximum-day demand plus fire-fighting flow (11 lps – two
hydrants) in the most critical areas - peak factor = 1.3
 minimum nightly demand plus full source capacity (storage
reservoir filling phase) - peak factor = 0.3

101
 Run the model by pressing the run button. If the run is
successful a faucet icon will appear at the bottom of the screen
and if there are any errors a warning message will show with the
corresponding error. If you edit the properties of the network after
a successful run has been made the faucet icon changes to a
broken faucet indicating that the current computed results no
longer apply to the modified network.

Using the design criteria, check that all parameters are met,
especially pressure and unit headlosses. Change all the diameters
and HWCs of pipes (except existing pipes) which do not meet the
maximum allowable unit headloss and maximum velocity in the
pipes. Put bigger diameter if it exceeds maximum unit headloss or
maximum velocity and put smaller diameter if unit headlosses or
velocities are too small. Use the flow diameter, which is the
required diameter to deliver the flow which will give a headloss
equal to the set maximum headloss, to guide you in changing the
diameter. This is repeated until all parameters meet the design
criteria.

Negative pressures is a result of too much head losses in the

pipes or there is no available head in the tanks or pumps.

102
Water Distribution Network Examples

103
Service Connection Sizing

A demand equal
to 20 liters per
minute cannot be
delivered by a ½”
service pipe.
There is negative
pressure at the
end of only 10m
line assuming 10
m initial pressure
at the beginning.
What is the
carrying
capacity?

104
Service Connection Sizing

A demand equal
to 20 liters per
minute can be
delivered by a
3/4” service pipe.
There is still 8.47
m pressure
assuming 10 m
initial pressure at
the beginning.

105
106
Given:

A 100 m3 – 3 m high cylindrical tank will be constructed atop a hill

at an elevation of 25 masl 50 meters away from a well which is at
an elevation of 15 masl. The well will have an estimated capacity
of 7 L/s and will have an estimated drawdown of 10 m. The
submersible pump will have a 20 m riser pipe of 75 mm. What is
the required HP rating if the pump efficiency is 75% and the
diameter of the pipeline connecting the well to the tank is 100 mm.
Assume HWC is 110.

What will be the flow in the pipe if Horsepower rating of the pump
is equal to 2 HP? What will be the flow if the pipes are reduced to
75mm?

107
Solution:

Pump water horsepower required is 2.278 hp.

Required HP rating to be bought should be BHP = whp / Efficiency
= 2.278 / 0.75= 3.04 HP
Recommended HP = 3 HP.

If BHP = 2.0, WHP = 1.5, Flow = 4.86 L/s

108
109
Page 1 1/24/2014 1:14:46 PM
**********************************************************************
* E P A N E T *
* Hydraulic and Water Quality *
* Analysis for Pipe Networks *
* Version 2.0 *
**********************************************************************

Input File: Pump Problem.net

Link - Node Table:

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Start End Length Diameter
ID Node Node m mm
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 Tank-1 50 100
2 2 1 20 100
PS-1 Res-1 2 #N/A #N/A Pump

Energy Usage:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Usage Avg. Kw-hr Avg. Peak Cost
Pump Factor Effic. /m3 Kw Kw /day
----------------------------------------------------------------------
PS-1 100.00 75.00 0.09 2.19 2.19 524.80
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Demand Charge: 0.00
Total Cost: 524.80

Node Results:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 0.00 28.67 28.67 0.00
2 0.00 28.94 28.94 0.00
Res-1 -6.99 5.00 0.00 0.00 Reservoir
Tank-1 6.99 28.00 3.00 0.00 Tank

Link Results:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 6.99 0.89 13.38 Open
2 6.99 0.89 13.38 Open
PS-1 6.99 0.00 -23.94 Open Pump

110
111
112
113
Page 1 1/5/2014 9:13:15 AM
**********************************************************************
* E P A N E T *
* Hydraulic and Water Quality *
* Analysis for Pipe Networks *
* Version 2.0 *
**********************************************************************

Input File: Subdivision 2.net

Link - Node Table:

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Start End Length Diameter
ID Node Node m mm
----------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2 1 87.61 150
3 2 5 56.84 150
4 1 3 43.46 150
5 5 3 118.89 100
6 3 4 30.93 150
7 3 11 140.71 100
8 5 19 39.76 150
9 19 4 141.20 150
10 4 10 136.19 75
11 11 10 21.23 50
12 11 12 48.42 75
13 9 12 48.35 50
14 6 9 133.91 150
15 4 6 29.78 150
16 6 7 32.86 75
17 10 9 29.07 75
18 9 8 30.43 150
19 7 8 132.05 75
21 16 20 67.31 50
22 12 13 31.76 75
23 8 22 10.47 150
24 22 16 21.92 150
25 22 13 78.02 75
26 13 14 29.90 100
27 16 17 12.09 150
28 17 14 104.48 75
29 14 15 31.20 100
30 15 21 41.18 100
31 21 18 140.31 50
32 6 23 143.69 50
33 19 24 71.15 50
34 15 25 121.79 75
35 17 26 28.48 150
36 25 27 124.11 75
37 26 28 43.74 150
38 21 47 204.92 75
39 26 29 134.06 100

114
Page 2
Link - Node Table: (continued)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Start End Length Diameter
ID Node Node m mm
----------------------------------------------------------------------
40 29 33 122.60 100
41 33 34 32.75 100
42 28 30 108.46 100
43 30 34 122.66 100
44 28 31 56.07 100
45 31 32 61.43 100
46 32 35 122.79 100
47 35 36 83.56 100
48 27 37 148.85 50
49 39 37 119.60 75
50 36 39 32.92 75
51 37 38 30.45 75
52 38 40 127.32 50
53 40 42 35.19 50
54 38 41 43.95 75
55 41 48 29.82 75
56 42 48 68.87 50
57 48 43 45.72 75
58 43 44 216.67 50
59 44 45 174.05 50
60 46 45 84.88 50
61 46 49 61.34 50
62 34 35 32.08 150
64 53 46 115.21 75
65 52 53 329.01 75
66 51 52 108.44 75
67 50 51 101.03 75
68 47 50 83.51 75
69 Tank-1 2 25.56 200
1 4 54 5.17 150
20 35 55 3.90 150
PS-1 Well-1 Tank-1 #N/A #N/A Pump

Energy Usage:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Usage Avg. Kw-hr Avg. Peak Cost
Pump Factor Effic. /m3 Kw Kw /day
----------------------------------------------------------------------
PS-1 100.00 75.00 0.10 4.02 4.02 965.64
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Demand Charge: 0.00
Total Cost: 965.64

115
Page 3
Node Results:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m
----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 0.33 69.77 21.77 0.00
2 0.30 69.95 17.95 0.00
3 0.57 69.69 30.69 0.00
4 0.65 69.65 21.65 0.00
5 0.40 69.83 16.83 0.00
6 0.55 69.55 23.55 0.00
7 0.25 69.46 25.46 0.00
8 0.33 69.20 27.20 0.00
9 0.40 69.27 25.27 0.00
10 0.38 69.34 24.34 0.00
11 0.25 69.39 25.39 0.00
12 0.20 69.10 25.10 0.00
13 0.25 68.85 26.85 0.00
14 0.28 68.73 27.73 0.00
15 0.73 68.52 29.52 0.00
16 0.15 69.14 29.14 0.00
17 0.15 69.12 30.12 0.00
18 0.20 68.35 24.35 0.00
19 0.47 69.78 17.78 0.00
20 0.15 69.12 28.12 0.00
21 0.95 68.42 28.42 0.00
22 0.45 69.18 27.18 0.00
23 0.17 69.49 19.49 0.00
24 0.12 69.77 22.77 0.00
25 0.47 68.07 32.07 0.00
26 0.17 69.09 31.09 0.00
27 0.63 67.84 39.84 0.00
28 0.30 69.07 34.07 0.00
29 0.28 68.99 29.99 0.00
30 0.55 68.97 34.97 0.00
31 0.15 69.02 39.02 0.00
32 0.35 68.97 38.97 0.00
33 0.15 68.92 28.92 0.00
34 0.30 68.91 33.91 0.00
35 0.50 68.91 38.91 0.00
36 0.17 68.71 34.71 0.00
37 0.65 67.35 42.35 0.00
38 0.25 67.12 46.12 0.00
39 0.25 68.37 39.37 0.00
40 0.35 66.79 42.79 0.00
41 0.05 66.94 45.94 0.00
42 0.30 66.79 45.79 0.00
43 0.55 66.72 57.72 0.00
44 0.65 65.62 52.62 0.00
45 0.40 65.62 49.62 0.00
46 0.33 65.77 47.77 0.00
47 0.25 67.49 26.49 0.00

116
Page 4
Node Results: (continued)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Node Demand Head Pressure Quality
ID LPS m m
----------------------------------------------------------------------
48 0.28 66.82 44.82 0.00
49 0.45 65.62 47.62 0.00
50 0.23 67.20 41.20 0.00
51 0.05 66.94 40.94 0.00
52 0.10 66.68 40.68 0.00
53 0.05 65.99 45.99 0.00
54 0.00 69.65 21.65 0.00
55 0.00 68.91 38.91 0.00
Well-1 -11.40 43.00 0.00 0.00 Reservoir
Tank-1 -6.47 70.00 17.00 0.00 Tank

Link Results:
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
----------------------------------------------------------------------
2 8.69 0.49 2.04 Open
3 8.88 0.50 2.12 Open
4 8.37 0.47 1.90 Open
5 2.06 0.26 1.18 Open
6 7.04 0.40 1.38 Open
7 2.81 0.36 2.11 Open
8 6.42 0.36 1.16 Open
9 5.82 0.33 0.97 Open
10 1.25 0.28 2.23 Open
11 0.44 0.22 2.33 Open
12 2.12 0.48 5.98 Open
13 0.55 0.28 3.50 Open
14 8.83 0.50 2.10 Open
15 10.97 0.62 3.14 Open
16 1.41 0.32 2.80 Open
17 1.31 0.30 2.45 Open
18 9.19 0.52 2.26 Open
19 1.16 0.26 1.95 Open
21 0.15 0.08 0.32 Open
22 2.47 0.56 7.92 Open
23 10.03 0.57 2.66 Open
24 7.84 0.44 1.68 Open
25 1.74 0.39 4.15 Open
26 3.96 0.50 3.98 Open
27 7.54 0.43 1.57 Open
28 1.64 0.37 3.70 Open
29 5.33 0.68 6.89 Open
30 2.98 0.38 2.35 Open
31 0.20 0.10 0.54 Open
32 0.17 0.09 0.42 Open
33 0.12 0.06 0.23 Open

117
Page 5
Link Results: (continued)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Link Flow VelocityUnit Headloss Status
ID LPS m/s m/km
----------------------------------------------------------------------
34 1.62 0.37 3.64 Open
35 5.75 0.33 0.95 Open
36 1.15 0.26 1.92 Open
37 3.95 0.22 0.47 Open
38 1.83 0.41 4.54 Open
39 1.62 0.21 0.76 Open
40 1.35 0.17 0.54 Open
41 1.20 0.15 0.43 Open
42 1.82 0.23 0.94 Open
43 1.27 0.16 0.49 Open
44 1.83 0.23 0.95 Open
45 1.68 0.21 0.81 Open
46 1.33 0.17 0.52 Open
47 3.00 0.38 2.37 Open
48 0.52 0.27 3.24 Open
49 2.57 0.58 8.52 Open
50 2.82 0.64 10.12 Open
51 2.45 0.55 7.77 Open
52 0.46 0.23 2.55 Open
53 0.11 0.06 0.18 Open
54 1.73 0.39 4.11 Open
55 1.68 0.38 3.90 Open
56 -0.19 0.10 0.49 Open
57 1.22 0.28 2.15 Open
58 0.67 0.34 5.10 Open
59 0.02 0.01 0.01 Open
60 0.38 0.19 1.77 Open
61 0.45 0.23 2.43 Open
62 2.17 0.12 0.16 Open
64 1.15 0.26 1.93 Open
65 1.20 0.27 2.09 Open
66 1.30 0.30 2.42 Open
67 1.35 0.31 2.60 Open
68 1.58 0.36 3.45 Open
69 17.88 0.57 1.91 Open
1 0.00 0.00 0.00 Open
20 0.00 0.00 0.00 Open
PS-1 11.40 0.00 -27.00 Open Pump

118
Workshop

119
 Procedures in Designing a Distribution System
Using Google Earth and Epanet

1. Install Google Earth if not yet installed.

2. Start Google Earth.
3. Double click subdivisions.kml to load saved locations
4. Save Google Earth image as jpeg. An AutoCAD saved jpg
image of the area can also be used.
5. Install FSViewer if not yet installed.
6. Start FSViewer. Load Google Earth jpeg image. Save as
bmp.
7. Start Epanet. Check Defaults are OK. Flow Unit is L/s,
Headloss Formula is H-W. ID prefixes are set, Autolength is
On.
8. Load backdrop. Compute scaling factor (Google length /
Epanet length) of Dimensions, X&Y upper-right. Multiply
scaling factor * 10,000 and input in Dimensions. Recheck
scale. Erase scaling junctions. Save file. Reload File – Refer
to complete procedure on How to get a properly scaled
background map image in EPANET .
9. Start by putting sources first - tanks, reservoirs, pumps. Wells
can be represented by reservoirs and pumps if simulating
and Wells as junctions with negative demand if designing.

If a well is represented by reservoir and pump add first the

reservoir representing the well then add a node to connect
the pump from the well to the node. Add the riser pipe.
Total Head = Ground Elevation - PWL.
Pump power is in HP = Efficiency * BHP

If a well is represented by negative demand then Elevation =

Ground Elevation - PWL. Input in demand pattern = WELL
Add a junction and connect a pipe near the well to represent
the riser pipe. Adjust the length as riser length.
10. Put the junctions. This will be in the intersection of roads
preferably on the side of the street. If the pipe is too long put

120
 junctions in between the pipe to cut the pipe to smaller length
especially if there are service connections in the pipes.
11. Autolength = on. Connect with pipes.
12. Count the nearest houses within junction and input in Service
Connections of junction. This will serve as basis for allocating
the base demand later.
13. Compute Base Demand using Projects/Compute Demands.
Change persons per connection, per capita demand and
Unaccounted-for water then press OK.
14. Input elevation of junctions taken from Google Earth.
15. Add patterns by loading from saved patterns - phil.pat,
subd.pat, well.pat, fire.pat. Rename the pattern IDs as PHIL,
SUBD, WELL and FIRE
16. Check the default pattern is either phil.pat or subd.pat from
Options/Hydraulics in the browser
17. Add Fire Hydrants and put base demands as 11 L/s and input
demand pattern as Fire. Run only with a maximum of two
hydrants at a time.
18. In Options/Times enter the Total Duration of simulation in 24
hours.
19. Enter Statistics = Maximum in Options/Times to get the
maximum values in the results when Epanet is run.
20. Run Epanet. Modify values of diameters and HWC so that
unit headlosses in pipes do not exceed 10 and not below 0.5.
Use Flow Diameter to guide you in changing the diameter.
Check pressures are acceptable. If pressures are too low,
unit headlosses may be further reduced to gain pressure or
add available head in pumps and tanks.
21. Return Statistics to None when done optimizing to get the
true values in the hydraulic results.
22. Check the results at 12:00 am - depicted as the low demand
but filling hours, 6:00 am – depicted as the peak hour, 12:00
NN as Max-Day demand + Fire Flow.
23. To print the final and most critical result – usually 6:00
depicting the peak hour, change the following in
Options/Times – Total Duration = 0, Pattern Start Time = 6:00

121
 and do Report/Full and save to file the full report (.rpt). Open
the result with an editor (Notepad) and print.
24. Compute total pipeline cost using Pipe Cost.xls by first
exporting the Epanet file to inp file, opening the inp file and
selecting text starting from [PIPES] to just before [PUMPS],
copy text (Ctrl-C) and Paste (Ctrl-V) in excel file at A1. Total
pipeline cost is in K2.

122
Computation of Total Pipe Cost Using Excel and .inp file of Epanet

Use the provided pipe cost.xls to compute for the total pipe cost.

Unit Costs of Pipelines as of 2012

Diameter HWC Unit Cost

50 110 369.61
75 110 668.48
100 120 1,017.82
150 130 1,840.83
200 130 2,802.84
250 130 3,883.49
300 130 5,069.18
350 130 6,350.00
400 130 7,718.33
450 130 9,168.07
500 130 10,694.19

123
 STORAGE REQUIREMENTS

% of Max-Day 100% Volume of Volume of Storage as %

Demand Ratio Supply Storage as % of Max. Daily Demand
= Supply / Rate in of Max. Daily
Max-Day Dem Hours Demand
Ratio < 1.05 24 0.1390 0.224 - 0.0425 *
LOG(Pop/1000)
1.05 < Ratio < 22 0.1080 0.19 - 0.041 *
1.15 LOG(Pop/1000)
1.15 <= Ratio 20 0.0740 0.15 - 0.038 *
< 1.265 LOG(Pop/1000)
1.265 <= 18 0.0430 0.115 - 0.036 *
Ratio < 1.415 LOG(Pop/1000)
1.415 <= 16 0.0100 0.08 -
Ratio < 1.538 0.035*LOG(Pop/1000)

124
 STORAGE REQUIREMENTS

Three alternative schemes are evaluated, namely:

a. maximum-day supply and maximum storage;

b. intermediate supply and storage (125 per cent of max-day

supply rate); and

c. peak-hour supply and minimum storage.

ALTERNATIVE ANALYSIS

The general steps to be taken for alternative analysis are :

a. Tabulate the annual supply requirements for the three different

supply Rates

b. Determine staging of source and storage facilities for all the three
alternative schemes

c. Determine net present worth cost of construction cost + Operation

and Maintenance cost for the three alternative schemes. Choose
minimum.

125
 Net Present Worth Cost

The net present worth cost of an alternative scheme is the

difference between the total present worth of capital cost and
annual cost minus the present worth of salvage values.

For Construction Cost:

Cn = Cc - Cs
Cc = C / (1 + i) n
Cs = C * (1 – (nx – n) / SL) / (1 + i) nx

where:

Cn = net present worth comparable cost

Cc = present worth of construction cost
Cs = present worth of salvage value (design year)
C = construction cost
SL = service life
i = discount rate
nx = number of years between design year and base year
n = number of years between year of construction and base year

For Annual Cost:

Cn = Ac / (1 + i) n
where:
Cn = present worth comparable cost
Ac = annual cost
i = discount rate
n = number of years between year of annual cost and base year

126