Letter to the Students

My Dear Students,
Welcome to the 1st Semester at Zamboanga del Sur Provincial Government College. I hope that
your summer was filled with new adventures and special memories together with your loved
ones despite of the pandemic that we are experiencing today. I’ am Miss Garengen G. Saya-ang
your General Chemistry instructor and I’ am looking forward to working with you this school
year. This will be an extremely and fruitful year with much to learn.
This course packet is very relevant to you. This includes all the concepts, ideas, and activities
that will cater your needs. You can come to school for your laboratory works along with the
safety protocols but it depends to the schedule being arrange. Make sure that you can notice and
answer the learning materials being posted. Finish and pass it on time as part of your
requirement to the course also a responsibility as a student.
Let’s work hand in hand for the betterment of the future. Let’s embrace one another as we face
the adversities of the new normal. Golden rule: Be good to me and I will be good to you!! Stay
tune! Enjoy the ride!

Sincerely yours,
Garengen G. Saya-ang
Facebook: Ga Ren Gen
Contact No: 09101627698
Email address: [email protected]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1
Contents Page Number
Cover page i
Preface/Letter to the Students ii
Table of Contents iii
Course Outline iv
Week 1
Lesson 1: Chemistry and Matter 3
Introduction to Chemistry 3
Lesson 2: What is Matter? 4
States of Matter 5-8
Properties of Matter 8-11
Classification of Matter 11-18
Methods of Classifying Matter 18-20
Week 2
Lesson 3: Measurements 26
Accuracy and Precision 26-27
Metric System 27-31
Significant Digits 31
Density measurement 32-33
Week 3
Lesson 4: Atom 36
Atomic Theory 36-38
Quantum Mechanical Description of an 38-40
Atom
Main energy levels, sublevels and 40-42
orbitals
Quantum numbers 42-43
Week 4
Lesson 5: Chemical Bonding 47
Ionic bond 47-49
Covalent bond 49-50
Lewis dot symbols 50-58
Week 5
Lesson 6: Chemical Formulas 62
Naming Chemical Compounds 62-65
Writing chemical formulas 65-70
Balancing equation 70-75
Week 6
Lesson 7: Stoichiometry 79
Atomic mass 79-80
Avogadro’s number 80-81
The mole concept 82-83
Percent composition 83-84
Types of chemical reactions 84
Mass relationship in chemical reaction 85
Week 7
Lesson 8: Gases 89
Pressure of a gas 89
The gas laws 89-90
Ideal gas equation 91-92
 BASIC CONCEPTS IN ASSESSEMENT

Assessment of Learning focuses on the development and utilization of assessment tools to improve the teaching-
learning process. It emphasizes on the use of testing for measuring knowledge, comprehension and other thinking skills.
As a part of the overall evaluation process, we need specifically to find out if the learners are actually learning (changing
their behavior) as a result of the teaching. This will show us whether the teaching has been effective, which is ultimately
the most important issue. Assessment is means of finding out what learning is taking place. As well as specific knowledge
and skills, we might also like to measure other changes in behavior related tom ‘personality’, social skills, interests,
learning styles among others.

There is a lot of debate about how to assess learning and especially about how to evaluate performance. Our objectives
give us what to assess, because they are written in terms of what the learners should be able to do. Based on these
objectives, it is very useful to identify all the activities and skills which the learners will carry out, the conditions under
which they will perform these tasks and activities, the possible results which might be obtained, and then standards by
which their performance will be measured.

The assessment itself can be done in different ways:

1. Ask the learner to recall facts or principles (e.g., What is …..?).

2. Ask the learner to apply given or recalled facts or principles (e.g., How does ….. help you solve this problem?).
3. Ask the learner to select and apply facts and principles to solve a given problem (e.g., What do you know that will
help you solve this problem?).
4. Ask the learner to formulate and solve his or her own problem by selecting, generating and applying facts and
principles (e.g., What do I see as the problem here and how can I reach a satisfying solution?).
5. Ask the learner to perform tasks that shows mastery of the learning outcomes.

Once again, we need to stress the importance of participation and this is especially important in assessment and
evaluation. Learners should be actively involved in both the development of learning objectives and as much as possible
ion their own assessment. In many education systems assessment is used as a tool for ‘sorting’ students for selection
purposes. Assessment where students are compared with each other is known as “norm-referencing”. It is much better if
learners are aware of what they need to learn and what they have learned, so they can set their own targets and monitor
their own progress. Of course, teachers and trainers should advise the learners and guide them in order to help them
learn; this is the key role of the teacher. Assessment of learners to a particular target or level performance is called
“criterion-referencing”.

DIFFERENT TERMINOLOGIES: ASSESSMENT, TESTING, MEASUREMENT AND

EVALUATION
1. Assessment refers to
the different components and activities of different schools. An assessment can be used to student learning and
in comparing student learning with the learning goals of an academic program. Assessment Is defined as an act
or process of collecting and interpreting information about student learning. Another source expands this
statement by adding that it is a systematic process of gathering, interpreting and using this information about
student learning. It is a very powerful tool for educational improvement. It emphasizes on individual student or
groups of individuals and on academic program of a certain educational institution. There are different purposes
of assessment such as: to provide feedback to students and to serve as a diagnostic tool for instruction. For this
purpose assessment usually answers the questions, “Was the instruction effective?” and “Did the students
achieve the intended learning outcomes?”
Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually paper and pencil procedure designed to assess the
quality, ability, skill or knowledge of the students by giving a set of question in uniform manner. A test is one of
the many types of assessment procedure used to gather information about the performance of students. Hence,
testing is one of the different methods used to measure the level of performance or achievement of learners.
Testing also refers to the administration, scoring and interpretation of the procedures designed to get information
 about the extent of the performance of the students. Oral questionings, observations, projects, performances and
portfolios are the other assessment processes.
2. Measurement is a process of quantifying or assigning number to the individual’s intelligence, personality, attitudes
and values and achievement of the students. In other words, expresses the assessment data in terms of
numerical values and answer the question, “how much?”
3. Evaluation refers to the process of judging the quality of what is good and what is desirable. It is the comparison
of data to a set of standard or learning criteria for the purpose of judging the worth or quality. Teachers will
evaluate how well or to what extent then students attained the instructional outcomes.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

Classroom assessment procedures can be classified according to the nature of assessment, format of assessment, use in
the classroom instruction and methods of interpreting the result.

Nature of Assessment

1. Maximum Performance
It is used to determine what individuals can do when performing at their best. Example of instruments using
maximum performance as aptitude tests and achievement tests.
2. Typical Performance
It is used to determine what individuals will do under natural conditions. Examples of instruments using typical
performance are attitude, interest and personality inventories, observational techniques and peer appraisal.

Format of Assessment

1. Fixed-choice Test
An assessment used to measure knowledge and skills effectively and efficiently. Standard multiple-choice test is
an example of instrument used in fixed-choice test.
2. Complex-performance Assessment
An assessment procedure used to measure the performance of the learner in contexts and on problems valued in
their own right. Examples of instruments used in complex-performance assessments are hands-on laboratory
experiment, projects, essays, oral presentation.

Role of Assessment in Classroom Instruction

“Teaching and Learning are reciprocal processes that depend on and effect one another (Swearingen 2002 & Kellough,
1999).” The assessment component of the instructional processes deals with the learning progress of the students and
the teacher’s effectiveness in imparting knowledge to the students.

Assessment enhances learning in the instructional processes if the result provides feedbacks to both students and
teachers. The information obtained from the assessment is used to evaluate the teaching methodologies and strategies of
the teacher. It is also used to make teaching decisions. The result of assessment is used to diagnose the learning
problems of the students.

When planning assessment, it should start when the teacher plans his instruction. That is, when writing learning
outcomes up to the time when the teacher assesses the extent of achieving the learning outcomes. Teachers made
decisions from the beginning of instruction up to an end of instruction. There are four roles of assessment used in
instructional process. The first is placement assessment, a type of assessment given beginning of instruction. The second
and third type of assessment are formative and diagnostic assessment given during instruction and the last is the
summative assessment given at the end of instruction.

1. Beginning of the Instruction

Placement Assessment according to Gronlund, Linn and Miller (2009) is concerned with the entry performance
and typically focuses on the questions: Does the learner possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the
planned instruction? To what extent has the learner already developed the understanding and skills that are the
goals of planned objectives? To what extent do the student’s interest, work habits and personality indicate that
 one mode of instruction might be better than another? The purpose of placement assessment is to determine the
prerequisite skills, degree mastery of the course objectives and the best mode of learning.
2. During Instruction
During the instructional process the main concern of a classroom teacher is to monitor the learning progress of
the students. Teacher should assess whether students achieved the intended learning outcomes set for a
particular lesson. If the students achieve the planned learning outcomes, the teacher should provide a feedback
to reinforce learning. Based on recent researches, it shows that provided feedback to students is the most
significant strategy to move students forward in learning. Garnison and Ehringhaus (2007), stressed in their paper
“Formative and Summative Assessment in the Classroom,” that feedback provides students with an
understanding of what they are doing well, links to classroom learning and gives specific input on how to reach
the next step in learning progression. If it is not achieved, the teacher will give a group or individual remediation.
During this process we shall consider formative assessment and diagnostic assessment.
Formative Assessment is a type of assessment used to monitor the learning progress of the students during
instruction. The purposes of formative assessment are the following: to provide immediate feedback to both
student and teacher regarding the success and failures of learning; to identify the learning errors that are in need
of correction; to provide teachers with information on how to modify instruction; and also to improve learning
and instruction.
Diagnostic Assessment is a type of assessment given at the beginning of instruction or during instruction. It
aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the students regarding the topics to be discussed. The purposes
of diagnostic assessment are to determine the level of competence of the students; to identify the students who
already have knowledge about the lesson; to determine the causes of learning problems that cannot be revealed
by formative assessment; and to formulate a plan for remedial action.
3. End of Instruction
Summative Assessment is type of assessment usually given at the end of a course or unit. The purposes of
summative assessment are to determine the extent to which the instructional objectives have been met; to certify
student mastery of the intended learning outcomes as well as use it for assigning grades; to provide information
for judging appropriateness of the instructional objectives; and to determine the effectiveness of instruction.

Methods of Interpreting the Results

1. Norm-referenced Interpretation
It is used to describe student performance according to relative position in some known group. In this method of
interpretation is assumed that the level of performance of students will not vary much from one class to another
class. Example: ranks 5th in a classroom group of 40
2. Criterion-referenced Interpretation
It is used to describe student performance according to a specified domain of clearly defined learning tasks. This
method of interpretation is used when the teacher wants to determine how well the students have learned
specific knowledge or skills in a certain course or subject matter. Example: divide three-digit whole numbers
correctly and accurately; multiply binomial terms correctly.

There are ways of describing classroom tests and other assessment procedures. This table is a summary of the different
types of assessment procedures that was adapted and modified from Gronlund, Linn and Miller(2009).

Classification Type of Assessment Function of Assessment Examples of Instruments

Maximum Performance It is used to determine Aptitude tests, achievement
what individuals can do tests
when performing at their
Nature of assessment best.
Typical Performance It is used to determine Attitude, interest and
what individuals will do personality inventories;
under natural conditions. observational techniques;
peer appraisal

Form of Assessment Fixed-choice test An assessment used to Standard multiple choice

measure knowledge and test.
skills effectively and
efficiently.
 Complex-performance An assessment procedure Hands-on laboratory
assessment used to measure the experiment, projects,
performance of the learner essays, oral presentation
in contexts and on
problems valued in their
own right.
Placement An assessment procedure Readiness tests, aptitude
used to determine the tests, pretests on course
learner’s prerequisite skills, objectives, self-report
degree of mastery of the inventories observational
course goals and or best techniques
modes of learning.
Formative An assessment procedure Teacher-made tests,
used to determine the custom-made tests from
learner’s learning progress, textbook publishers,
Use in the classroom provides feedback to observational techniques
instruction reinforce learning, and
correct errors.
Diagnostic An assessment procedure Published diagnostic tests,
used to determine the teacher-made diagnostic
causes of learner’s tests, observational
persistent learning techniques
difficulties such as
intellectual, physical,
emotional and
environmental difficulties.
Summative An assessment procedure Teacher-made survey test,
used to determine the end- performance rating scales
of-end course achievement product scales
for assigning grades or
certifying mastery of
objectives.
Criterion-referenced It is used to describe Teacher-made tests,
student performance custom made tests from
according to a specified textbook publishers,
domain of clearly defined observational techniques
learning tasks. Example.
Methods of Interpreting Multiplies three-digit to
results whole numbers correctly
and accurately.
Norm-referenced It is used to describe Standardized aptitude and
student’s performance achievement tests, teacher-
according to relative made survey tests, interest
position in some known inventories, adjustment
group. Example: ranks 5th in inventories
a classroom group of 40.

OTHER TYPES OF TEST

Other types of descriptive terms used to describe tests in contrasting types such as the non-standardized versus
standardized tests; objective versus subjective tests; supply versus fixed-response tests; individual versus group tests;
mastery versus survey tests; speed versus power tests.

Non-standardized Test versus Standardized test

1. Non-standardized test in a type of test developed by the classroom teachers.

2. Standardized test is a type of test developed by test specialists. It is administered, scored and interpreted using a
certain standard condition.
Objective versus Subjective Test

1. Objective test is a type of test in which two or more evaluators give an examinee the same score.
2. Subjective test is a type of test in which the scores are influenced by the judgment of the evaluators, meaning
there is no one correct answer.

Supply versus fixed-response tests

1. Supply test is a type of test that requires the examinees to supply an answer, such as an essay test item or
completion or short answer test item.
2. Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires the examinees to select an answer from a given option such as
multiple-choice test, matching type of test or true or false test.

Individual versus group tests

1. Individual test is a type pf test administered to student on a one-on-one basis using oral questioning.
2. Group test is a type of test administered to a group of individual or group of students.

Mastery Test versus Supply Test

1. Mastery test is a type of achievement test that measures the degree of mastery of a limited set of learning
outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the result.
2. Survey test is a type of test that measures student’s general achievement over a broad range of learning
outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the result.

Speed Test versus Power test

1. Speed test is designed to measure number of items an individual can complete over a certain period of time.
2. Power test is designed to measure the level of performance rather than speed of response. It contains test items
that are arranged according to increasing degree of difficulty.

MODES OF ASSESSMENT

There are different types or modes of assessment used by a classroom teacher to assess the learning progress of the
students. These are traditional assessment, alternative assessment, performance based assessment and portfolio-based
assessment.

Traditional Assessment

It is a type of assessment in which the students choose their answer from a given list of choices. Examples of this type of
assessment are multiple-choice test, standard true/false test, matching type test, and fill-in-the-blank test. In traditional
assessment, students are expected to recognize that there is only one correct or best answer from the question asked.

Alternative Assessment

An assessment in which students create an original response to answer a certain question. Students respond to a
question using their own ideas, in their own words. Examples of alternative assessment are short answer questions,
essays, oral presentations, exhibitions, demonstrations, performance assessment and portfolios. Other activities included
in this type are teacher observation and student self- assessment.

Complements of Alternative Assessment

a. Assessment is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate student’s ability to accomplish communication goals.
b. The teacher and students focus on communication, not on right and wrong answers.
c. Students help the teacher to set the criteria for successful completion of communication tasks.
d. Students have opportunities to assess themselves and their peers.

Performance-based Assessment

Performance assessment (Mueller, 2010) is an assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that
demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills.
It is a direct measure of student performance because the tasks are designed to incorporate context, problems and
solution strategies that students would use in real life. It focuses on processes and rationales. There is no single correct
answer; instead students are led to craft polished, thorough and justifiable responses, performances and products. It also
involved long-range projects, exhibits and performances that are linked to the curriculum. In this kind of assessment, the
teacher is an important collaborator in creating tasks, as well as in developing guidelines for scoring and interpretation.

Portfolio Assessment

Portfolio assessment is the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work created in response to specific, known
instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to the same criteria.

Portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress and achievements in one or
more areas over a period of time. It measures the growth and development of students.

GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE STUDENT ASSESSMENT

Improvement of student learning is the main purpose of classroom assessment. This can be done if assessment is
integrated with good instruction and is guided by certain principles. Gronlund (1998) provided the general guidelines for
using student assessment effectively.

1. Effective assessment requires a clear concept of all intended learning outcomes.

2. Effective assessment requires that a variety of assessment procedures should be used.
3. Effective assessment requires that the instructional relevance of the procedure should be considered.
4. Effective assessment requires an adequate sample of student performance.
5. Effective assessment requires that the procedures must be fair to everyone.
6. Effective assessment requires specifications of criteria for judging successful performance.
7. Effective performance requires feedback to students emphasizing strengths of performance and weaknesses to
be corrected.
8. Effective assessment must be supported by comprehensive grading and reporting system.

Chapter Exercises

1. Define the terms: assessment, evaluation, measurement, test, testing, formative assessment,
placement assessment, diagnostic assessment, summative assessment, traditional assessment,
portfolio assessment and performance assessment.
2. Differentiate between assessment, testing, measurement and evaluation.
3. Discuss the different purposes of assessment.
4. What are the different roles of assessment in the instructional decisions?
5. How does diagnostic assessment differ from placement assessment?
6. Identify some characteristics that differentiate norm-referenced interpretation from criterion-referenced
interpretation.
7. Compare the different types of assessment.
8. Present and discuss the different guidelines for effective student assessment.
9. Differentiate norm-referenced interpretation from criterion-referenced interpretation.
10. What are the different issues related to the assessment of students’ learning?

CHAPTER 2
Assessing Learning Outcomes
INTRODUCTION

Instructional goals and objectives play a very important role in both instructional process assessment process. This serves
as a guide both for teaching and learning process, communicate the purpose of instruction to other stakeholders and to
provide guidelines for assessing the performance of the students. Assessing the learning outcomes of the students is one
of the very critical functions of teachers. A classroom teacher should classify the objectives of the lesson because it is
very important for the selection of the teaching method and the selection of the instructional materials. The instructional
material should be appropriate for the lesson so that the teacher can motivate the students properly. The objectives can
be classified according to the learning outcomes of the lesson will be discussed.

PURPOSES OF INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The purposes of the instructional goals and objectives.

1. It provides direction for the instructional process by clarifying the intended learning outcomes.
2. It conveys instructional intent to other stakeholders such as students, parents, school officials and the public.
3. It provides basis for assessing the performance of the students by describing the performance to be measured.

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

The terms goals and objectives are two different concepts but they are related to each other. Goals and objectives are
very important, most especially when you want to achieve something form the students in any classroom activities. Goals
can never be accomplished without objectives and you cannot get the objectives that you want without goals. This means
that goals and objectives are both tools that you need in order that you can accomplish what you want to achieve. Below
are the different descriptions between goals and objectives.

GOALS OBJECTIVES
Broad Narrow
General intention Precise
Intangible Tangible
Abstract (less structured) Concrete
Cannot be validated as is Can be validated
Long term aims what you want to accomplish Short term aims what you want to achieve
Hard to quantify or put in a timeline Must be given a timeline to accomplish to be more
effective

Goal, General Educational Program Objectives and Instructional Objectives

Goals. A broad statement of very general educational outcomes that do not include specific level of performance. It tend
to change infrequently and in response to the societal pressure, e.g., learn problem solving skills; develop high level
thinking skills; appreciate the beauty of an art; be creative; and be competent in the basic skills in the area of grammar.

General Educational Program and Objectives. More narrowly defined statements of educational outcomes that apply
to specific educational programs; formulated on the annual basis; developed by program coordinators, principals and
other school administration.

Instructional Objectives. Specific statement of the learners’ behavior or outcomes that are expected to be exhibited by
the student after completing a unit of instruction. Unit of instruction may mean: a two weeks lesson on polynomials; one
week lesson on “parallelism after correlatives”; one class period on “katangian ng wika.”At the end of the lesson the
students should be able to add fractions with 100% accuracy; students should be able to dissect the frog following the
correct procedures, are examples of instructional objectives.

Typical Problems Encountered When Writing Objectives

Problems Error Types Solutions

Too broad or complex The objective is too broad in scope or Simplify or break apart
 is actually more than one objective
False or missing behavior, condition The objective does not list the correct Be more specific; make sure the
or degree behavior condition, and or degree or behavior, condition, and degree are
it is missing included
False given Describes instruction, not conditions Simplify, include ONLY ABCDs
False performance No true overt, observable Describe what behavior you must
performance listed observe

To avoid different problems encountered in writing objectives, let us discuss the components of instructional objectives
and other terms related to constructing a good instructional objective.

Four Main Things That Objectives Should Specify

1. Audience
Who? Who are the specific people the objectives are aimed at?
2. Observable Behavior
What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an overt, observable behavior, even if the
actual behavior is covert or mental in nature. If you cannot see it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you cannot
be sure your audience really learned it.
3. Special Conditions
The third component of instructional objective is the special conditions under which the behavior must be
displayed by the students. How? Under what circumstances will the learning occur? What will the student be
given or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning?
4. Stating Criterion Level
The fourth component of the instructional objectives is stating the criterion level. The criterion level of acceptable
performance specifies how many of the items must the students answer correctly for the teacher tom attain
his/her objectives. How much? Must a specific set of criteria be met? Do you want total mastery (100%), do you
want them to respond correctly 90% of the time, among others? A common (and totally non-scientific) setting is
90% of the time.
Always remember that the criterion level need not be specified in percentage of the number of items correctly
answered. It can be stated as, number of items correct; number of consecutive items correct; essential features
included in the case of essay question or paper; completion within a specified time or completion with a certain
degree of accuracy.

Types of Educational Objectives

Educational objective is also known as instructional objective. There are two types of educational objectives: specific or
behavioral objectives and general or expressive objectives (Kubiszyn and Borich,2007).

1. Specific or Behavioral Objectives. Precise statement of behavior to be exhibited by the students; the criterion by
which mastery of the objectives will be judged; the statement of the conditions under which behavior must be
demonstrated.
Examples of behavioral objectives are; 1. Multiply three-digit numbers with 95% accuracy. 2. List the months of
the year in proper order from memory, with 100% accuracy. 3. Encode 30 words per minute with at most three
(3) errors using computer. These activities specify specific educational outcomes.
2. General or Expressive Objectives. Statement wherein the behaviors are not usually specified and the criterion of
the performance level is not stated. It only describes the experience or educational activity to be done. The
outcome of the activity is not expressed in specific terms but in general terms such as understand, interpret, or
analyze. Examples of expressive objectives: 1)Interpret the novel the Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe; 2)Visit
Manila Zoo and discuss what was of interest; 3) Understand the concept of normal distribution. These examples
specify only the activity or experience and broad educational outcome.
Instructional objective is clear and concise statement of skill or skills that students are expected to perform or
exhibit after discussing a certain lesson or unit of instruction. The components of instructional objectives are
observable behaviors, special conditions which the behavior must be exhibited and performance level considered
sufficient to demonstrate mastery.
 When a teacher developed instructional objectives, he must include an action verb that specifies learning
outcomes. Some educators and education students are often confused with learning outcome and learning
activity. An activity that implies a certain product or end result of instructional objectives as a means or processes
of attaining the end product, then it is considered as learning activity. Hence, revise it so that the product of the
activity is stated.

Learning Activities Learning Outcome

Study Identify
Read Write
watch Recall
listen List

TYPES OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

After developing learning outcomes the next step the teacher must consider is to identify whether the learning outcome is
stated as a measurable and observable behavior or non-measurable and non-observable behavior. If learning outcome is
measurable then it is observable, therefore, always state the learning outcomes in observable behavior. Teachers should
always develop instructional objectives that are specific, measurable statement of outcomes of instruction that indicates
whether instructional intents have been achieved (Kubiszyn,2007). The following are examples of verbs in terms of
observable learning outcomes and unobservable learning outcomes.

Observable Learning Outcomes Non-observable Learning Outcomes

Draw Understand
Build Appreciate
List Value
Recite Know
Add Be familiar
Examples of observable learning outcomes:

1. Recite the names of the characters in the story MISERY by Anton Chechov.
2. Add two-digit numbers with 100% accuracy.
3. Circle the initial sounds of words.
4. Change the battery of an engine.
5. List the steps of hypothesis testing in order.

Examples of non-observable learning outcomes:

1. Be familiar with the constitutional provisions relevant to agrarian reforms.

2. Understand the process of evaporation.
3. Enjoy speaking Spanish.
4. Appreciate the beauty of an art.
5. Know the concept of normal distribution.

Types of Learning Outcomes to Consider

Below are the lists of learning classified as a learning objective. The more specific outcome should not be regarded as
exclusive; there are merely suggestive as categories to be considered (Gronlund, Linn and Miller, 2009).

1. Knowledge
1.1 Terminology
1.2 Specific facts
1.3 Concepts and principles
1.4 Methods and procedures
2. Understanding
2.1 Concepts and principles
2.2 Methods and procedures
2.3 Written materials, graphs, maps and numerical data
 2.4 Problem situations
3. Application
3.1 Factual information
3.2 Concepts and principles
3.3 Methods and procedures
3.4 Problem solving skills
4. Thinking skills
4.1 Critical Thinking
4.2 Scientific thinking
5. General skills
5.1 Laboratory skills
5.2 Performance skills
5.3 Communication skills
5.4 Computational skills
5.5 Social skills
6. Attitudes
6.1 Social Attitudes
6.2 Scientific skills
7. Interests
7.1 Personal interests
7.2 Educational interests
7.3 Vocational interests
8. Appreciations
8.1 Literature, art and music
8.2 Social and scientific achievements
9. Adjustments
9.1 Social Adjustments
9.2 Emotional adjustments

TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is a useful guide for developing a comprehensive list of instructional objectives. A
taxonomy is primarily useful in identifying the types of learning outcomes that should be considered when developing
comprehensive list of objectives for classroom instruction.

Benjamin S. Bloom (1948, as cited by Gabuyo, 2011), a well-known psychologist and educator, took the initiative to lead
in formulating and classifying the goals and objectives of the educational processes. The three domains of educational
activities were deteremined:cognitive domain, affective domain and the psychomotor domain.

1. Cognitive Domain called for outcomes of mental activity such as memorizing, reading problem solving, analyzing,
synthesizing and drawing conclusions.
2. Affective Domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion or degree of
acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but
internally consistent qualities of character and conscience. We found a large number of such objectives in the
literature expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations, values and emotional sets or biases (Krathwhohl et al.,
1964 as cited by Esmane, 2011). It refers to the persons’ awareness and internalizing of objects and simulations,
it focuses on the emotions of the learners.
3. Psychomotor Domain is characterized by the progressive levels pf behaviors from observation to mastery of
physical skills (Simpson, 1972 as cited by Esmane, 2011). This includes Physical movement, coordination and use
of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed,
precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution. It focused on the physical and kinesthetic skills of the
learner. This domain is characterized by the progressive levels of behaviors from observation group of mastery of
physical skills.

CRITERIA FOE SELECTING APPROPRIATE OBJECTIVES

1. The objectives should include all important outcomes of the course or subject matter.
 2. The objectives should be in harmony with the content standards of the state and with general goals of the
school.
3. The objectives should be in harmony with the sound principles of learning.
4. The objectives should be realistic in terms of the abilities of the students, time and the available facilities.

CLEAR STATEMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

To obtain a clear statement of instructional objectives you should define the objectives in two steps. First, state the
general objectives of instruction as intended learning outcomes. Second, list under each objective a sample of the
specific types of performance that the students should be able to demonstrate when they have achieved the objective
(Gronlund, 2000 as cited by Gronlund, Linn, and Miller, 2009). This procedure should result in the statement of
general objectives and specific learning outcomes such as the given example below.

1. Understands the scientific principles

1.1 Describes the principle in their own words.
1.2 Identifies examples of the principle.
1.3 States reasonable hypotheses based on the principle.
1.4 Uses the principle in solving problem.
1.5 Distinguishes between two given principles.
1.6 Explains the relationships between the given principles.

In this example, the expected learning outcome is concerned with the understanding of the students regarding scientific
principles. As the verb understands is expressed as a general objective, the statement immediately starts with the word
understands. It is very important to start immediately with the verb so that it will focus only on the intended outcomes.
No need to add phrase such as “the student should be able to demonstrate that the understand,” and the like. Beneath
the general objective are statements of specific learning outcomes that start immediately with verbs that are specific,
indicate definite and observable responses that is, one can be seen and can be assessed by outside observers or
evaluators. The verbs describes, identifies, states, uses, distinguishes and explains are specific learning outcomes stated
in terms of observable student performance.

MATCHING TEST ITEMS TO INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

When constructing test items, always remember that they should match the instructional objectives. The learning
outcomes and the learning conditions specified in the test items should match with the learning outcomes and conditions
stated in the objectives. If a test developer followed this basic rule, then the test is ensured to have content validity. The
content. The content validity is very important so that you can measure what you want to measure from the students.
Always remember that your goal is to assess the achievement of the students, hence, don’t ask tricky questions. To
measure the achievement of the students ask them to demonstrate a mastery of skills that was specified in the conditions
in the instructional objectives.

Consider the following examples of matching test items to instructional objectives as the author adapted and modified
Kubiszyn and Borich’s (2007) instructional objectives. From the table below, items 1 and 3 have learning outcomes that
match with the test item while items 2, 4 and 5 have learning outcomes that were unmatched with the test items.

Match
Yes No
1. Objective: Discriminate fact from Pres. Benigno C. Aquino’s first State of the Nation Address
(SONA).
Test Item. From the State of the Nation Address speech of President Aquino, give five (5)
examples of facts and five (5) examples of opinions.
2. Objective: Recall the names and capitals of all the different provinces of Regions 1 and II in
the Philippines.
Test Item: List the names and capitals of two provinces in Region I and three provinces in
Region II.
3. Objective: List the main event in chronological order, after reading the short story A
VENDETTA by Guy de Maupassant.
Test Item: From the short story A VENDETTA by Guy Maupassant, list the main event
 chronological order.
4. Objective: Circle the nouns and pronouns from the given list of words.
Test Item: Give five examples of pronouns and five examples of verbs.
5. Objective: Make a freehand drawing about Region II using your map as a guide.
Test Items: Without using your map, draw the map of Region II.

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY

Lorin Anderson a former student of Bloom together with Krathwolh, revised the Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive
domain in the mid-90s in order to fit the more outcome-focused modern education objectives. There are two
major changes: 1) the names in the six categories from noun to active verb, and 2) the arrangement of the
order of the last two highest levels as shown in the given figure below. This new taxonomy reflects a more
active form of thinking and is perhaps more accurate.

Paste a picture here! Page 24 of the book.

Bloom’s Taxonomy in 1956 Anderson/Krathwohl’s Revision in 2001

1. Knowledge: Remembering 1. Remembering: Objectives written on the remembering level
or retrieving previously (lowest cognitive level): Retrieving, recalling, or recognizing
learned material. knowledge from memory. Remembering is when memory is used
Examples of verbs that to produce definitions, facts, or lists: to recite or retrieve
relate to this function are: material.
identify, relate, list, Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the
define, recall, memorize, remembering level: state, tell, underline, locate, match, spell, fill
repeat, record, name, in the blank, recall, memorize, repeat, record, name, recognize,
recognize acquire acquire
2. Comprehension: The 2. Understanding: Objectives written on the understanding level (higher
ability to grasp or level of mental ability than remembering, requires the lowest level of
construct meaning from understanding from the student): Constructing meaning from different
material. types of functions be they written or graphic message activities like
Examples of verbs that interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring,
relate to this function are: comparing and explaining
restate, locate, report, Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the understanding
recognize, explain, level: restate, locate, report, recognize, explain, express, identify,
express, identify, discuss, discuss, describe, review, infer, conclude, illustrate, interpret, draw,
describe, review, infer, represent, differentiate
conclude, illustrate,
interpret, draw,
represent, differentiate
3. Application: The ability to 3.Applying: Objectives written on the applying level require the learner
use learned material in to implement (use) the information: Carrying out or using a procedure
new and concrete through executing or implementing. Applying relates and refers to
situations. situations where learned material is used through products like models,
Examples of verbs that presentations, interviews or simulations
relate to this function are: Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the applying level:
apply, relate, develop, apply, relate, develop, translate, use, operate,organize, employ,
translate, use, operate, restructure, interpret, demonstrate, illustrate, practice, calculate, show,
organize, employ, exhibit, dramatize
restructure, interpret,
demonstrate, illustrate,
practice, calculate, show,
exhibit, dramatize
4. Analysis: The ability to 4.Analyzing: Objectives written on the analyzing level require the learner
break down or distinguish to break the information into component parts and describe the
 the parts of the material relationship. Breaking material or concepts into parts, determining how
into their components so to one another or to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions
that their organizational included in this function are differentiating, organizing and attributing,
structure may be better as well as being able to distinguish between the components or parts.
understood. When one is analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by
Examples of verbs that creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts or diagrams or graphic
relate to this function are: representations.
analyze, compare, probe, Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the analyzing level:
inquire, examine, analyze, compare, probe, inquire, examine, contrast, categorize,
contrast, categorize, differentiate, contrast, investigate, detect, survey, classify, deduce,
differentiate, investigate, experiment, scrutinize, discover, inspect, dissect, discriminate, separate
detect, survey, classify,
deduce, experiment,
scrutinize, discover,
inspect, dissect,
discriminate, separate
5. Synthesis: The ability to 5.Evaluating: Objectives written on the evaluating level require the
put parts together to form student to make judgment about materials or methods. Making
a coherent or unique new judgements based on criteria and standards through checking and
whole. critiquing. Critiques, recommendations and reports are some of the
Examples of verbs that relate products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of
to this function are: compose, evaluation comes before creating as it is often a necessary part of the
produce, design, assemble, precursory behavior before creating something.
create, prepare, predict, Remember this part has now changed places with the last one on the
modify, plan, invent, old taxonomy.
formulate, collect, set up, Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the evaluating level:
generalize, document, appraise, choose, compare, conclude, decide, defend, evaluate, give
combine, propose, develop, your opinion, judge, justify, prioritize, rank, rate, select, rate, support,
arrange, construct, organize, value
originate, derive, write
6. Evaluation: The ability to 6.Creating: Objectives written on the creating level require the student
judge, check, and even to generate new ideas, products and ways of viewing things. Putting
critique the value of elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing
material for given elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning
purpose. or producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a new way
Example of verbs that relate or synthesize parts into something new and different form or product.
to this function are: judge, This process is the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy.
asses, compare, evaluate, This one used to be No.5 in Bloom’s taxonomy and was known as the
conclude, measure, deduce, synthesis.
argue, decide, choose, rate, Sample verbs appropriate for objectives written at the creating level:
select, estimate, validate, change, combine, compose, construct, create, invent, design, formulate,
consider, appraise, value, generate, produce, revise, reconstruct, rearrange, visualize, write, plan
criticize, infer

Cognitive Domain

Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain is arranged according to the lowest level to the highest level.
Knowledge as the lowest level followed by comprehension, analysis, application, synthesis and evaluation as
the highest level.

1. Knowledge recognizes students’ ability to use rote memorization and recall certain facts. Test questions
focus on identification and recall information.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
 Cite, define, identify, label, list, match, name, recognize, reproduce, select, state
Instructional objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to identify the different steps in testing hypothesis.
Test Item:
What are the different steps in testing hypothesis?
2. Comprehension involves students’ ability to read course content, interpret important information and
put others’ ideas into words. Test questions should focus on the use of facts, rules and principles.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
Classify, convert, describe, distinguish between, give examples, interpret, summarize
Instructional objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to summarize the main events of the story
INVICTUS in grammatically correct in English.
Test Item: Summarize the main events in the story INVICTUS in grammatically correct English.
3. Application students take new concepts and apply them to new situation. Test questions focus on
applying facts and principles.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
Apply, arrange, compute, construct, demonstrate, discover, extend, operate, predict, relate, show,
solve, use
Instructional objective: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to write a short poem in
iambic pentameter.
Test Item: Write a short poem in iambic pentameter.
4. Analysis students have the ability to take new information and break it down into parts and
differentiate between them. The test questions focus on separation of a whole into component parts.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
Analyze, associate, determine, diagram, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, estimate, point out,
infer, outline, separate
Instructional objective:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to describe the statistical tools needed in testing
the difference between two means.
Test Item: What kind of statistical test would you run to see if there is a significant difference between
pre-test and post-test?
5. Synthesis students are able to take various pieces of information and form a whole creating a pattern
where one did not previously exist. Test question focuses on combining new ideas to form a new
whole.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
Combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise, formulate, integrate, modify,
revise, rewrite, tell, write
Instructional objective: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to compare and contrast
the two types of error.
Test Item:
What is the difference between type I and type II error?
6. Evaluation involves students’ ability to look at someone else’s ideas or principles and the worth of the
work and the value of the conclusion.
Sample verbs of stating specific learning outcomes:
Appraise, assess, compare, conclude, contrast, criticize, evaluate, judge, justify, support
Instructional objective: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to conclude the
relationship between two terms.
Test Item: What should the researcher conclude about the relationship in the population?
Affective Domain
Affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion or a degree or
rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally
consistent qualities of character and conscience. We found a large number of such objectives in the literature
expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations, values and emotional sets or biases (Krathwohl et al., 1964 as
cited by Esmane, 2011). The affective domain includes objectives pertaining to attitudes, appreciations, values
and emotions.

Krathwohl’s affective domain is perhaps the best known of any of the affective domain. “The taxonomy is
ordered according to the principle of internalization.” Internalization refers to the process whereby a person’s
affect toward an object passes from a general awareness level to a point where the affect is internalized and
consistently guides or controls the person’s behavior. The arrangement of the affective domain from lowest
level to the highest level as articulated by Esmane (2011).

Levels of Affective Domain

Level Definition Sample Verbs

1. Receiving Refers to being aware of or Example: Listens to the ideas of
sensitive to the existence of others with respect.
certain ideas, materials, or Sample verbs appropriate for
phenomena and being able to objectives written at the receiving
tolerate them. The learners are level: masks, chooses, describes,
willing to listen. follows, gives, holds, identifies,
locates, names, points to, selects,
sits, erects, replies, uses
2. Responding Refers to the commitment in some Example: Participates in class
measure to ideas, materials, or discussions actively.
phenomena involved by actively Sample verbs appropriate for
responding to them. It answers objectives written at the receiving
question about ideas. The learning level: answers, assists, aids,
outcomes emphasize compliance complies, conforms, discusses,
in responding, willingness to greets, helps, labels, performs,
respond, or satisfaction in practices, presents, reads, recites,
responding. The learners are reports, selects, tells, writes
willing to participate.
3. Valuing Refers to the willingness to be Example: Demonstrates belief on
perceived by others as valuing the democratic process.
certain ideas, materials, Shows the ability to solve
phenomenon or behavior. It is problems.
based on the internalization of a Sample verbs appropriate for
set of specified values, while clues objectives written at the receiving
to these values are expressed in level: completes, demonstrates,
the learner’s overt behavior and differentiates, explains, follows,
are often identifiable. This ranges forms, initiates, invites, joins,
from simple acceptance to the justifies, proposes, reads, reports,
more complex state of selects, shares, studies, works
commitment. The learners are
willing to be involved.
4. Organization Refers to the ability to relate the Examples: Explains the role of
value to those already held and systematic planning in solving
bring it into a harmonious and problems.
internally consistent philosophy. Prioritizes time effectively to meet
Commits to using ideas and the needs of the organization,
incorporate them to different family and self.
activities. It emphasizes on Sample verbs appropriate for
 comparing, relating and objectives written at the receiving
synthesizing values. The learners level: adheres, alters, arranges,
are willing to be an advocate. combines, compares, completes,
defends, explains, formulates,
generalizes, identifies, integrates,
modifies, orders, organizes,
prepares, relates, synthesizes
5. Characterized by value or Incorporate ideas completely into Examples: Shows self-reliance
value set practice, recognized by the use of when working independently.
them. The value system that Values people for what they are,
controls their behavior. not how they look.
Instructional objectives are Sample verbs appropriate for
concerned with the student’s objectives written at the receiving
general patterns of adjustment level: acts, discriminates, displays,
such as a personal, social and influences, listens, modifies,
emotional. The learners are willing performs, practices, proposes,
to change one’s behavior, lifestyle qualifies, questions, revises,
or way of life. serves, solves, verifies

Psychomotor Domain

Psychomotor domain is characterized by the progressive levels of behaviors from observation to mastery of
physical skills. Esmane (2011) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to
the most complex. The Psychomotor Domain includes objectives that require basic motor skills and or physical
movement such as construct, kick or ski.

Levels of Psychomotor Domain

Level Definition Example

1. Perception The ability to use sensory cues to Examples: Detects nonverbal
guide motor activity. This ranges communication cues.
from sensory stimulation, through Estimate where a ball will land
cue selection to translation. after it is thrown and then moving
to the correct location to catch the
ball.
Sample verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the receiving
level: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes,
identifies, isolates, relates, selects
2. Set Readiness to act. It includes Example: Recognizes one’s
mental, physical and emotional. abilities and limitations. Shows
These three sets are dispositions desire to learn a new process
that predetermine a person’s (motivation).
response to different situations Note: This subdivision of
(sometimes called mindsets). Psychomotor domain is closely
related to the “responding to
phenomena” subdivision of the
Affective domain.
Sample verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the receiving
 level: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows,
states, volunteers
3. Guided Response The early stages in learning a Examples: Performs a
complex skill that includes mathematical equation as
imitation and trial and error. demonstrated.
Adequacy of performance is Follows instructions to build
achieved by practicing. model.
Sample verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the receiving
level:copies, traces, follows,
reacts, reproduces, responds
4. Mechanism This is the intermediate stage Examples: Uses a personal
in learning a complex skill. computer.
Learned responses have Repairs a leaking faucet.
become habitual and the Drives a car.
movements can be performed Sample verbs appropriate for
with some confidence objectives written at the
proficiency. mechanism level: assembles,
calibrates, constructs, dismantles,
displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
heats, manipulates, measures,
mends, mixes, organizes, sketches
5. Complex Overt The skillful performance of Examples: Operates a
Response motor acts that involves computer quickly and
complex movement patterns. accurately.
Proficiency is indicated by a Displays competence while
quick, accurate and highly playing the piano.
coordinated performance, Sample verbs appropriate for
requiring a minimum of objectives written at the complex
energy. This category includes overt level:
performance, requiring a Assembles, builds, calibrates,
minimum of energy. This constructs, dismantles, displays,
category includes performing fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
without hesitation and manipulates, measures, mends,
automatic performance. For mixes, organizes, sketches
example, players often utter Note: The key words are the same
sounds of satisfaction or as mechanism, but will have
expletives as soon as they hit adverbs or adjectives that indicate
a tennis ball or throw a that the performance is quicker,
football because they can tell better, more accurate, etc.
by the feel of the act what the
result will produce.
6. Adaptation Skills are well developed and Examples: Responds
the individual can modify effectively to unexpected
movement patterns to fit experiences.
special requirements. Modifies instruction to meet
the needs of the learners.
Sample verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the
adaptation level: adapts, alters,
changes, rearranges, reorganizes,
revises, varies
 7. Origination Creating new movement Example: Creates a new
patterns to fit a particular gymnastic routine.
situation or specific problem. Sample verbs appropriate for
Learning outcomes emphasize objectives written at the
creativity based upon highly origination level: arranges, builds,
developed skills. combines, composes, constructs,
creates, designs, initiates, makes,
originates

Other Psychomotor Domains

Aside from the discussion of Simpson (1972) about the psychomotor domain, there are two other popular
versions commonly used by educators. The works of Dave, R.H (1975) AND Harrow, Anita (1972) and
Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) were discussed below.

Dave’s (1975)

Level Definition Example

Imitation Observing and pattering behavior Copying a work of art.
after someone else. Performance
may be of low quality.
Manipulation Being able to perform certain Creating work on one’s own, after
actions by following instructions taking lesson, or reading about it.
and practicing.
Precision Refining, becoming more exact. Working and reworking
Few errors are apparent. something, so it will be “just
right”
Articulation Coordinating a series of actions, Producing a video that involves
achieving harmony and internal music, drama, color, sound, etc.
consistency.
Naturalization Having high level performance Michael Jordan playing
become natural, without needing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a
to think to much about it. golf ball, etc.

Harrow’s (1972), Kubiszyn and Borich (2007)

Level Definition Example

Reflex Movements Reactions that are not Flexion, extension, stretch,
learned. postural adjustment
Fundamental movements Inherent movement patterns Basic movement such as
which are formed by walking, grasping, twisting,
combinations of reflex manipulating
movements, the basis for
complex skilled movements.
Perception Response to stimuli such as Coordinated movements such
visual, auditory, kinesthetic, as jumping rope, punting,
or tactile discrimination. catching
Physical abilities Stamina that must be Muscular exertion, quick
developed for further precise movement
development such as strength
and agility.
Skilled movements Advanced learned movements Skilled activities in sports.
as one would find in sports or Recreation and dance
 acting.
No discursive communication Effective body language, such Body postures, gestures,
as gestures and facial facial expressions efficiently
expressions. executed in skilled dance
movement and
choreographies

Chapter 3
 Development of Classroom Assessment Tools
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the process of developing instructional objectives must be specific,
measurable and observable. Teachers must develop test items that should match with the instructional
objectives appropriately and accurately. In this section, we shall discuss the general principles of testing, the
different qualities of assessment tools, steps in developing assessment tools, format of table of specifications,
and different types of classroom assessment tools.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TESTING

Ebel and Frisbie (1999) as cited by Garcia (2008) listed five basic principles that should guide teachers is assessing the
learning progress of the students and in developing their own assessment tools. These principles are discussed below.

1. Measure all instructional objectives. When a teacher constructs test items to measure the learning progress of
the students, they should match all the learning objectives posed during instruction. That is why the first step in
constructing a test is for the teacher to go back to the instructional objectives.
2. Cover all the learning tasks. The teacher should construct a test that contains a wide range of sampling of items.
In this case, the teacher can determine the educational outcomes or abilities that the resulting scores are
representatives of the total performance in the areas measured.
3. Use appropriate test items. The test items constructed must be appropriate to measure learning outcomes.
4. Make test valid and reliable. The teacher must construct a test that is valid so that it can measure what is
supposed to measure from the students. The test is reliable when the scores of the students remain the same or
consistent when the teacher gives the same test for the second time.
5. Use test to improve learning. The test scores should be utilized by the teacher properly to improve learning by
discussing the skills or competencies on the items that have not been learned or mastered by the learners.

PRINCIPLES OF HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Assessing the performance of every student is a very critical task for classroom teacher. It is very important that a
classroom teacher should prepare the assessment tool appropriately. Teacher-made tests are developed by a classroom
teacher to assess the learning progress of the students within the classroom. It has weaknesses are the limited time and
resources for the teacher to utilized. Its weaknesses are the limited time and resources for the teacher to utilize the test
and also some of the technicalities involved in the development of the assessment.

Test constructors believed that every assessment tool should possess good qualities. Most literatures consider the most
common technical concepts in assessment are the validity and reality. For any type of assessment. Whether traditional
or authentic, it should be carefully developed so that it may serve whatever purpose it is intended for and the test
results must be consistent with the type of assessment that will be utilized.

In this section, we shall discuss the different terms such as clarity of the learning target, appropriateness of an
assessment tool, fairness, objectivity, comprehensiveness, and ease of scoring and administering. Once these qualities of
a good test are taken into consideration in developing an assessment tool, the teacher will have accurate information
about the performance of each individual pupil or student.

Clarity of the Learning Target

When a teacher plans for his classroom instruction, the learning target should be clearly stated and must be focused on
student learning objectives rather than teacher activity. The learning outcomes must be Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Realistic and Time-bounded (SMART) as discussed in the previous chapter. The performance task of the
students should also be clearly presented so that they can accurately demonstrate what they are supposed to do and
how the final product should be done. The teacher should also discuss clearly with the students the evaluation
procedures, the criteria to be used and the skills to be assessed in the task.
Appropriateness of Assessment Tool

The type of test used should always match the instructional objectives or learning outcomes of the subject matter posed
during the delivery of the instruction. Teachers should be skilled in choosing and developing assessment methods
appropriate for instructional decisions. The kinds of assessment tools commonly used to assess the learning progress of
the students will be discussed in details in this chapter and in succeeding chapters.

1. Objective test. It is a type of test that requires student to select the correct response from several alternatives
or to supply a word or short phrase to answer a question or complete a statement.
2. Subjective test. It is a type of test that permits the student to organize and present an original answer. It
includes either short answer questions or long general questions.
3. Performance Assessment. It is an assessment in which students are asked to perform real- world tasks that
demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge and skills.
4. Portfolio Assessment. It is an assessment based on the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work
created in response to specific, known instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to the same criteria.
Portfolio is a purposeful collection of student’s work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress and
achievements in one or more areas over a period of time.
5. Oral Questioning. This method is used to collect assessment data by asking oral questions. The most commonly
used of all forms of assessment in class, assuming that the learner hears and shares the use of common
language with the teacher during instruction.
6. Observation Technique. Another method of collecting assessment data is through observation. The teacher will
observe how students carry out certain activities either observing the process or product. There are two types of
observation techniques: formal and informal observations. Formal observation are planned in advance like when
the teacher assess oral report presentation in class while informal observation is done spontaneously, during
instruction like observing the working behavior of students while performing a laboratory experiment in a
biology class and the like.
7. Self-report. The responses of the students may be used to evaluate both performance and attitude. Assessment
tools could include sentence completion, likert scales, checklists or holistic scales.

Different Qualities of Assessment Tools

1. Validity refers to the appropriateness of score-based inferences; or decisions made based on the students’ test
results. The extent to which a test measures what is supposed to measure.
2. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement; that is, how consistent test results or other assessment
results from one measurement to another.
3. Fairness means the test item should not have any biases. It should not be offensive to any examinee subgroup.
4. Objectivity refers to the agreement of two or more raters or test administrators concerning the score of a
student.
5. Scorability means that the test should be easy to score, direction for scoring should be clearly stated in the
instruction.
6. Adequacy means that the test should contain a wide range of sampling of items to determine the educational
outcomes or abilities so that the resulting scores are representatives of the total performance in the areas
measured.
7. Administrability means that the test should be administered uniformly to all students so that the scores
obtained will not vary due to factors other than differences of the students’ knowledge and skills.
8. Practicality and Efficiency refers to the teacher’s familiarity with the methods used, time required for the
assessment, complexity of the administration, ease of scoring, ease of interpretation of the test results and the
materials used must be at the lowest cost.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING ASSESSMENT TOOLS
1. Examine the instructional objectives of the topics previously discussed.
2. Make a table of specification (TOS).
 3. Construct the test items.
4. Assemble the test items.
5. Check the assembled test items.
6. Write directions.
7. Make the answer key.
8. Analyze and improve the test items.

Let us discuss in details the different steps needed in developing good assessment tools. Following the different steps is
very important so that the test items developed will measure the different learning outcomes appropriately. In this case,
the teacher can measure what is supposed to measure. Consider the following discussions in each step.

Examine the Instructional Objectives of the Topics Previously Discussed

The first step in developing an achievement test is to examine and go back to the instructional objectives so that you can
match with the test items to be constructed.

Make a Table of Specification (TOS)

Table of Specification (TOS) is a chart or table that details the content and level of cognitive level assessed on a test as
well as the types and emphases of test items. Table of specification is very important in addressing the validity and
reliability of the test items. The validity of the test means that the assessment can be used to draw appropriate result
from the assessment because the assessment guarded against any systematic error.

Table of specification provides the test constructor a way to ensure that the assessment is based from the intended
learning outcomes. It is also a way of ensuring that the number of questions on the test is adequate to ensure
dependable results that are not likely caused by chance. It is also a useful guide in constructing a test and in determining
the type of test items that you need to construct.

Preparing Table of Specification

Below are the suggested steps in preparing a table of specification used by the test contractor. Consider these steps in
making a two-way chart table of specification.

a. Selecting the learning outcomes to be measured. Identify the necessary instructional objectives needed to
answer the test items correctly. The lists of the instructional objectives will include the learning outcomes in the
areas of knowledge, intellectual skills or abilities, general skills, attitudes, interest and appreciation. Use Bloom’s
Taxonomy or Krathwolh’s 2001 revised taxonomy of cognitive domain as guide.
b. Make an outline of the subject matter to be covered in the test. The length of the test will depend on the areas
covered in its content and the time needed to answer.
c. Decide on the number of items per subtopic. Use the formula to determine the number of items to be
constructed for each subtopic covered in the test so that the number of item in each topic should be
proportioned to the number of class sessions.

Number of items = number of class sessions x desired total number of items

Total number of class session
d. Make two-way chart as shown in the format2 and format 3 of Table of Specification.
e. Construct the test item. A classroom teacher should always follow the general principle of constructing test
items. The test item should always correspond with the learning outcome so that it serves whatever purpose it
may have.

If properly prepared, a table od specifications will help you limit the coverage of the test and identify the necessary skills
or cognitive level required to answer the test item correctly.

Different Formats of Table od Specification

Grolund (1990) lists several examples and format on how a table of specification should be prepared.

a. Format 1 of a Table of Specification

The first format of a table of specification is composed of the specific objectives, cognitive level, type of test
used, the item number and the total points needed in each item. Below is the template of the said format.

Specific Objective Cognitive Level Type of Test Item Number Total Points
Solve worded Application Multiple choice 1 and 2 4 points
problems in
consecutive
integers.

Specific Objectives refer to the intended learning outcomes stated as specific instructional objective covering a particular
test topic.

Cognitive Level pertains to the intellectual skill or ability to correctly answer a test item using Bloom’s Taxonomy of
educational objectives. We sometimes refer to this this as cognitive demand of a test item. Thus, entries in this column
could be “knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.”

Type of Test Item identifies the type or kind of test a test item belongs to. Examples entries in this column could be
“multiple-choice, true or false, oi even essay.”

Item number simply identifies the question number as it appears in the test.

Total Points summarize the score given to a particular test.

Example on how to compute the number of items in each topic.

Number of item for the topic: Synthetic division

Number of class session discussing the topic: 3

Desired number of items: 10

Total number of class sessions for the unit: 10

Number of items= number of class sessions x desired total number of items

Total number of class session

Number of items= 3 x 10

10

Number of items= 30

10

Number of items for the topic synthetic division=3

b. Format 2 of Table of Specification (one-way table of specification)

Contents Number of Number of Cognitive Level Test Item

Class Items K-C A HOTS Distribution
Sessions
 Basic Concepts 1 2 1-2
Fraction
Addition of Fraction 1 2 3-4
Subtraction of 1 2 5-6
Fraction
Multiplication and 3 6 7-12
Division of Fraction
Application/Problem 4 8 13-20
Solving
Total 10 20

c. Format 3 of Table of Specification (two-way table of specification)

Content Class Krathwohl’s Cognitive Level

Sessions Remembering Understanding Applying Evaluating Creating Total Item
Items Distribution
Concepts 2
z-score 4
t-score 4
Stanine 6
Percentile 6
rank
Application 8
Total 30
Note: The number of each item for each level will depend on the skills the teacher wants to develop in his students. In
the case of tertiary level, the teacher must develop more higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) questions.

For elementary and secondary levels, the guidelines in constructing test will be as stipulated in the DepEd Order 33,
Series 2004 must be followed. That is, factual information 60%, moderately difficult or more advanced questions 30%
and higher-order thinking skills 10% for distinguishing honor students.

Construct the Test Items

In this section, we shall discuss the different format of objective type of test items the steps in developing objective and
subjective test, the advantages and its limitations. The different guidelines of constructing different types of objective
and subjective test items will also be discussed in this lesson.

General Guidelines for Constructing Test Items

Kubiszyn and Borich (2007) suggested some general guidelines for writing test items to help classroom teachers improve
the quality of test items to write.

1. Begin writing items far enough or in advance so that you will have time to revise them.
2. Match items to intended outcomes at appropriate level of difficulty to provide valid measure of instructional
objectives. Limit the question to the skill being assessed.
3. Be sure each items deals with an important aspect of the content area and not with trivia.
4. Be sure the problem posed is clear and unambiguous.
5. Be sure that the item is independent with all other items. The answer to one item should not be required as a
condition in answering the next item. A hint to one answer should be embedded to another item.
6. Be sure the item has one or best answer on which experts would agree.
7. Prevent unintended clues to an answer in the statement or question. Grammatical inconsistencies such as a or
an give clues to the correct answer to those students who are not well prepared for the test.
 8. Avoid replication of the textbook in writing test items; do not quote directly from the textual materials. You are
usually not interested in how well students memorize the text. Besides, taken out context, direct quotes from
the text are often ambiguous.
9. Avoid trick or catch questions in an achievement test. Do not waste time testing how well the students can
interpret your intentions.
10. Try to write items that require higher-order thinking skills.

Determining the Number of Test Items

Consider the following average time in constructing the number of test items. The length of time and the type of item
used are also factors to be considered in determining the number of items to be constructed in an achievement test.
These guidelines will be very important in determining appropriate assessment for college students.

Assessment Format Average Time to Answer

True-False 30 seconds
Multiple-choice 60 seconds
Multiple-choice of higher level learning objectives 90 seconds
Short Answer 120 seconds
Completion 60 seconds
Matching 30 seconds per response
Short Essay 10-15 minutes
Extended Essay 30 minutes
Visual Image 30 seconds

The number of items included in a given assessment will also depend on the length of the class period and the type of
items utilized. The following guidelines will assist you in determining an assessment appropriate for college-level
students aside from the previous formula discussed.

Yes No
The item is appropriate to measure a learning objective.
The item format is the most effective means of measuring the desired knowledge.
The item is clearly worded and can be easily understood by the target students population.
The items of the same format are grouped together.
There are various item types included in the assessment.
The students have enough time to answer all test items.
The test instructions are specific and clear.
The number of questions targeting each objective matches the weight of importance of that
objective.
The scoring guidelines are discussed clearly and available to students.

Assemble the Test Items

After constructing the test items following the different principles of constructing test item, the next step to consider is
to assemble the test items. There are two steps in assembling the test: 1) packaging the test; and 2) reproducing the
test.

In assembling the test, consider the following guidelines:

a. Group all test items which similar format. All items in similar format must be grouped so that the students will
not be confused.
b. Arrange test items from easy to difficult. The test items must be arranged from easy to difficult so that students
will answer the first few items correctly and build confidence at the start.
 c. Space the test items for easy reading.
d. Keep items and option in the same page.
e. Place the illustrations near the description.
f. Check the answer key.
g. Decide where to record the answer.

Write Directions

Check the test directions for each item format to be sure that it is clear for the students to understand. The test
direction should contain the numbers of items to which they apply; how to record their answers; the basis of which they
select answer; and the criteria for scoring system.

Check the Assembled Test Items

Before reproducing the test, it is very important to proofread first the test items for typographical and grammatical
errors and make necessary corrections if any. If possible, let others examine the test to validate its content. This can save
time during the examination and avoid destruction of concentration of the students.

Make the Answer Key

Be sure to check your answer key so that the correct answer follow a fairly random sequence. Avoid answer such as
TFTFTFTF, ECT., or TTTFFF for a true or false type, and ABCDABCD patterns for multiple choice type. The number of true
answers must be equally the same with false answers and also among the multiple-choice options.