GE 8 - ETHICS

THE MORAL
AGENT
MODULE TWO

INTRODUCTION
A moral agent is someone who is capable of distinguishing good from evil
and holding himself or herself accountable for his or her actions. Moral agents
have a moral obligation to refrain from causing unjustifiable damage.

Historically, moral agency has been reserved for individuals who can be held
accountable for their acts. Children and people with various mental disorders
may lack or lack the ability to act morally. Adults with full mental ability only
surrender moral agency in severe circumstances, such as being kept captive.

By requiring individuals to act morally, we hold them accountable for the harm
they inflict on others.

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 As a result, do businesses possess moral agency? Will robots gain moral agency
as artificial intelligence advances? And what about non-human creatures with
social intelligence, such as dolphins and elephants?

Indeed, future philosophers and legal academics will be required to evaluate

moral agency in light of these and other circumstances.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Articulate what culture means
2. Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture
3. Recognize differences in the moral behavior of different cultures
4. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism
5. Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own moral
experiences
6. Evaluate elements that need to be changed

LESSON 2A: Culture and Moral

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:
1. Demonstrate your understanding of culture
2. Attribute aspects of one's conduct to culture Recognize cultural
distinctions in moral behavior
3. Assess the relative merits and demerits of cultural relativism.
4. Analyze critical components of the Filipino moral identity via the
lens of their own moral experiences.
5. Determine which components require modification.
 CONTENT EXPLORATION:
THE MORAL AGENT

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT

Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as
integrity, courage fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.

To say that a certain person has a good moral character means that
he/she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass.

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 MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES
The term ‘character is derived from the Greek word ‘charakter’ which
means initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin. Which later chiefly
known as the assemblage of qualities that distinguish one person from
another. This stress on the distinctiveness of individuality tends to merge
‘character’ with personality in modern usage or habits of dress, we might say
that ‘he has a personality or that he is quite a character.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that there are two distinct
human excellences, 1) excellences of thought and 2) excellences of
character. The phase of moral character is often translated as ‘moral virtues
and moral excellences. In Greek, ethics is the adjective cognate of character.

So, when we speak of a ‘virtue’ or excellence of moral character, the

highlight is on the blend of qualities that make a person the sort of ethically
admirable individual he/she is. Philosophers also think that moral character
traits, the moral agent are responsible for having the moral character trait
itself or for the outcome of the trait.

THE CIRCULAR RELATIONS OF ACTS AND CHARACTER

In the process of moral development, there is a circular relation
between ‘acts that build character’ and ‘moral character’ itself. Not all acts
help build moral character, but those acts which emanate from moral
characters certainly matter in moral development. Hence, a person’s actions
determine his/her moral character, but the moral character itself generates
that help in developing either virtue or vice.
It means moral development is in the sense of moral flourishing. This
flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual
excellence, or virtues. And acting in line with virtues is acting following
reason, which is the activity characteristic of human beings. In this sense, the
Greek moralists believe, virtuous acts complete or perfect human life.

Aristotle reminds though that it is not easy to define in rules ‘which

acts deserve moral praise and blame, and that, these matters require the
judgment of the virtuous person, that is, someone with good moral character

SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) is best
known for his theory of stages of moral development. He believed that
people can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage

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 replaces the kind of reasoning typical of the previous stage. Some do not
achieve all the stages.

LEVEL 1 – Pre-conventional Morality

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
LEVEL 2 – Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good interpersonal Relationship
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
LEVEL 3 – Post Conventional Morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6. Universal Principles

GETTING TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL, CONSCIENCE-BASED

MORAL DECISIONS
Another way to view Kohlberg’s stages when combined with Swiss
clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s (1896-1980) theory of moral development
is as follows:

Stage 1 – Respect for Power and Punishment

A young child (age 1-5) chooses what to do – what is right –

according to what he/she wants to do and can do without getting into
trouble. In this level, to be right, one ought to be obedient to the people in
power and, thus avoid punishment. Motto: “might makes right”.
Stage 2 – Looking or for #1

Children (age 5-10) are disposed to be egoistic or self-serving. They

lack the respect of other’s rights but may give to others on the assumption
that they will get as much or even more in turn. Instead of loyalty, gratitude,
or justice, the case is more a matter of ‘you scratch my back and I’ll scratch
you.” Motto: “What’s in it for me?”

Stage 3 – Being a “Good Boy or Nice Girl”

In this stage, people (age 8-16) have shifted from pleasing

themselves to pleasing important others, usually parents, teachers, or
friends. They seek to conform to some else’s expectations. When charged
with doing something wrong, their behavior is likely to be justified by stating
“everyone else is doing it” or “I didn’t intend to hurt anyone”. Motto: “I want
to be nice.”

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 Stage 4 – Law and order thinking

Here, the majority of people (16 years old and older) have
internalized society’s rules about how to behave. They ell indebted to
conform, no longer to just family and friends, but also society’s laws and
customs. They realized that it is important to do one’s duty to maintain social
order. Social leaders are assumed to be right and social rules are adopted
without considering the core moral principles involved. Thus, social control in
this stage is exercised through guild associated with breaking a rule; though
the guild, in this case, is an automatic emotional response, not a rational
reaction of conscience based on moral principles. In this stage, individuals
believe that anyone breaking the rules deserves to be punished and ‘pay
his/her debt to society. Motto: “I’ll do my duty.”

Stage 5 – Justice through democracy

In this stage, people understand the underlying moral purposes that

are supposed to be served by laws and social customs. When a law in
democracy ceases to serve a good purpose, they thus feel the people ought
to get active and change the law. Understood in this manner, democracy is
seen as a social contract whereby everybody tries constantly to construct a
set of laws that best serves most people while protecting the basic rights of
everybody. Respect for the law and a sense of obligation to live by the rule
represents, as long as rules were established Legally and fulfill a moral
purpose. It is said that only 20-25% of today’s adults ever reach this stage
and most of those that do supposedly only get there after their mid-twenties.
Motto: “I’ll live by the rules or try to change them.”
Stage 6 – Deciding on basic moral principles by which you will
live their lives and relate to everybody fairly

In this stage, rare people have evaluated many values and have
rationally chosen a philosophy of life that truly guides their life. Morally
developed, they do not automatically conform to tradition or other’s beliefs,
and even to their own emotions, intuition, or impulsive notions about right
and wrong. In stage 6, individuals judiciously elect fundamental principles to
follow, such as caring for the respecting every living thing, feeling that
people are all equal and thus deserve equal opportunities, or subscribing to
the Golder Rules. They are tough enough to act on their values even if others
may think they are odd or if their beliefs are against man’s law, such as
refusing to fight in a war. Social control is exercised thru guilt associated with
the rational reaction of conscience based on moral principles. Reaching this

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 stage is thus seen, at least in Kohlberg and Piaget’s theories, as to the
highest level, conscience-based moral decisions.

Summary of Kohlberg’s Theory

Level Age Range Stage Nature of Moral Reasoning

Level 1: Seen in preschool Stage 1: People make decisions based on
Preconventional children, most Punishment- what is best for themselves,
without
Morality elementary school avoidance regard for other’s needs or
feelings.
students, some and They obey rules only if established
junior high school obedience by more powerful individuals; they
students, and a may disobey if they aren’t likely to
few high school get caught. “Wrong” behaviors are
students those that will be punished.
Stage 2: People recognize that others also

Exchange of have needs. They may try to

satisfy
favors others’ needs if their own needs
are also (“you scratch my
back, I’ll scratch yours”). They
continue to define right and
wrong primarily in terms of
consequences to themselves.
Level II: Seem in a few Stage 3: People make decisions based on
Conventional older elementary Good what actions will please others,
Morality school students, boy/girl especially authority figures and
some junior high other individuals with high status
school students, (e.g., teachers, popular peers).
They
and many high are concerned about maintaining
school students relationships through sharing,
trust,
(Stage4 typically and loyalty, and they take others

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 does not appear people’s perspectives
until the high and intentions into account
school years) when making decisions.
Stage 4: Law People look to society as a whole
and Order for guidelines about right or
wrong. They know rules are
necessary for keeping society
running smoothly and believe it is
their “duty” to obey them.
However, they perceive rules to
be inflexible; they don’t
necessarily recognize that as
society’s needs change, rules
should change as well.
Level II: Rarely seen Stage 5: People recognize that rules
Postconventional before college Social represent agreements among
Morality (Stage 6 is Contract many individuals about
extremely rare appropriate behavior. Rules are
even in adults) seen as potentially useful
mechanisms that can maintain
the general social order and
protect individual rights, rather
than as absolute dictates that
must be obeyed simply because
they are “the law.” People also
recognize the flexibility of rules;
rules that no longer severe
society’s best interests can and
should be changed.
Stage 6: Stage 6 is a hypothetical, “ideal”
Universal stage that few people ever reach.
ethical People in this stage adhere to a
principle few abstracts, universal principles
(e.g., equality of all people,
respect for human dignity,
commitment to justice) that
transcend specific norms and
rules. The answer to a strong
inner conscience and willingly
disobeys laws that violate their
ethical principles.

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 Learning Activity
DIRECTION: In a letter-size bond paper, do the following activities and
submit it online on our Google Classroom on the prescribed submission date.

ACTIVITY 1: IDENTIFICATION

Direction: On a letter-size bond paper, write your answer to the question below.

1. Name some skills required to be a moral agent.

EXERCISE 1: The Runaway Train: A "thought experiment"

Imagine you are standing on a bridge over two narrow ravines, each with
rail tracks at its base. In the distance you see a runaway train speeding
along the tracks. It is heading towards the first ravine in which there are
five people. You cannot stop or slow the train, but you are standing next
to a lever, which you can pull to switch the train to the tracks heading
into the second ravine. Unfortunately, there is one person in the second
ravine.

You have two options:

(a) Do nothing (the train will kill the five people in the first ravine) or
(b)Pull the lever to diver the train (this will kill one person in the second
ravine).

Answer the following questions

1. Which option do you choose? option a | option b

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 2. Select one statement from the list below that most closely reflects
your values
a. Five lives are more important than one life. 
b. One life is just as important as five lives. 
c. What matters is not what I do but whether I am virtuous. 
d. All moral wrongs and rights are just a matter of opinion. 
e. None of the above 


3. Further information
Now imagine that you are still on the bridge. You do not have mobile
phone access or any other method of communicating for help. The
people on both tracks can shout to you.

Setting your previous decision aside, for each of the six statements
below, please tick the box to show if you would pull/not pull the lever if
you had only that ONE piece of extra information.

I I would
Statement would not pull
pull the
the lever
lever
A. The person in the second ravine asks you
to divert the train to avoid killing the five  
in the first ravine.
B. The five people in the first ravine ask you
 
not to divert the train to the second ravine.
C. The five people in the first ravine are
convicted criminals, and the person in the  
second ravine is a world-famous cancer

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 specialist on the verge of a breakthrough.

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 D. The five people in the first ravine are a
team of world-famous cancer specialists  
on the verge of a breakthrough, and the
person in the second ravine is a convicted
criminal.
E. The five people in the ravine are in a
permanent vegetative state (i.e., so brain-
damaged they are considered  
permanently unaware of the world), and
the person in the second ravine is not
brain-damaged.
F. The five people in the first ravine are not
brain-damaged, and the person in the  
second ravine is in a permanent
vegetative state.

3. Explain your reasoning

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