BE3254 – ELECTRICAL & INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING UNIT – V: BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Subject Name : ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

Subject Code : BE3254
Regulation : 2021
Department : Electronics and Communication Engineering
Year / Semester : I/II

UNIT-V

BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Power system structure -Generation , Transmission and distribution , Various voltage

levels, Earthing – methods of earthing, protective devices- switch fuse unit- Miniature
circuit breaker molded case circuit breaker- earth leakage circuit breaker, safety
precautions and First Aid.

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BE3254 – ELECTRICAL & INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING UNIT – V: BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

1. STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM:

Explain with a simple diagram the basic structure of electric power system to
deliver electricity to the consumer place [MAY 2018]. (OR) Explain in detail about
the transmission and distribution of electrical energy.

Figure 5.1: Structure of an AC power system

 The structure of power system can be divided into three parts,

 Generating station
 Transmission system
 Distribution system
 The transmission system is sub-divided into two—primary transmission and
secondary transmission.
 The distribution system is sub-divided into two— primary distribution and secondary
distribution.
 Fig. 1.1 shows the layout of a typical AC power supply scheme by a single line
diagram.

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Generating station:
 In the generating station, electric power is produced by 3-phase alternators.
 The usual generation voltage is 11 kV.
 The generation voltage is stepped-up to 220 KV at the generating station with help of
3-phase transformers.
Advantages of high voltage transmission:
 The saving of conductor material
 High transmission efficiency
Disadvantages of high voltage transmission:
 It introduces insulation problems
 The cost of switchgear and transformer equipment is increased
 The primary transmission is carried at 66 KV, 132 KV, 220 KV, 400 KV or 765 KV.
 The highest transmission voltage adopted for power transmission in India is 765 KV.
Primary transmission:
 The electric power at 220KV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system. This
forms the primary transmission.
Secondary transmission:
 The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station (RS).
 At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33 KV by step-down transformers.
 From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33 KV by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead
system to various sub-stations (SS). This forms the secondary transmission.
Primary distribution:
 The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station (SS), where voltage is
reduced from 33 kV to 6.6 KV by step-down transformer.
 The 6.6KV lines run along the important road sides of the city. This forms the primary
distribution.
 Big consumers (>50 kW) are supplied power at 6.6KV with their own sub-stations.
Secondary distribution:
 The electric power from primary distribution line (6.6KV) is delivered to distribution
sub-stations (DS).
 These distribution sub-stations are located near the consumer localities.
 Here, step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution.
 The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase and neutral is
230 V.
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 The single-phase residential lighting load is connected between any one phase and
neutral.
 3-phase, 400V motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
 The secondary distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service
mains.
2. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
The part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system.
 In general, the distribution system is the electrical system between the sub-station fed
by the transmission system and the consumer’s meters.
 It generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.
 Fig. 1.2 shows the elements of low voltage distribution system.

Figure 5.2: Distribution Systems

Feeders:
 A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub-station (or localized generating station)
to the area where power is to be distributed.
 Generally, no tapings are taken from the feeder so that current in it remains the same
throughout.
 The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the current carrying capacity.
Distributor:
 A distributor is a conductor from which tapping’s are taken for supply to the
consumers. In Fig. 1.2, AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
 The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at
various places along its length.

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BE3254 – ELECTRICAL & INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING UNIT – V: BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

 While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration
since the statutory limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of rated value at the consumer’s
terminals.
Service mains:
 The service mains are generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the
consumers’ terminals.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS:

A distribution system may be classified according to;
i. According to supply:
 According to supply, distribution system may be classified as:
(a) DC Distribution system
(b) AC Distribution system
ii. According to construction:
Compare the Overhead and Underground Distribution System. (Apr/May 2017)
 According to type of construction distribution system may be classified as:
(a) Overhead system
(b) Underground system
(a) Overhead system:
 The overhead system is employed for distribution.
 It is 5 to 10 times cheaper than the underground system.
 The spacing is provided between the conductors, at the supports & intermediate points.
 This spacing provides insulation which avoids an electric discharge between the
conductors.
(b) Underground system:
 The underground system is used at places where overhead construction is
impracticable.
 In crowded areas, underground system using cables is preferred.
 The line surges are suppressed by using the cables.
 It can save transformers and generators from the damage due to line surges.

S.NO OVERHEAD SYSTEM UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

It is employed for distribution as it is 5
It is used at places where overhead
1 to 10 times cheaper than the
construction is not practicable.
underground system.

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The overhead lines can be easily

The underground lines is difficult to
repaired from the faults occurring due to
2 repair from the faults occurring due to
lightening, short circuits, breakage of
short circuits, breakage of line etc.,
line etc.,
The maximum stress exists between the
The maximum stress exists on the
3 conductor and earth (supporting
insulation between the conductors.
structure).
The voltage level used in underground
The voltage level used in overhead
4 system is below 66KV (due to insulation
system can be as high as 400KV.
difficulties).
The volume of copper required is 1/4 the
The volume of copper required is same as
5 volume of copper required for 2-wire DC
that required for two wire DC system.
system.
It is difficult to find the exact point of
It is easy to find the exact point of fault as
6 fault if the transmission lines are very
compared with overhead system.
long.
The transmission by overhead system is The transmission by underground system
7
cheaper. is costlier.
The maintenance cost of the The maintenance cost of the underground
8
underground system is more. system is less.

iii. According to connection:

(a) Radial distribution system
(b) Ring main distribution system
(c) Inter-connected distribution system
Radial distribution system:
 When the distributor is connected to substation on one end only with the help of feeder,
then the system is called radial distribution system.
 The feeders, distributors and service mains are radiating away from the substation
hence name given as radial system.
 There are combinations of one distributor and one feeder, connecting that distributor to
the substation.

Figure 5.3: Radial distribution system

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Advantages:
 Simplest.
 The initial cost is low.
 Useful when the generation is at low voltage.
 Preferred when the station is located at centre of the load.
Disadvantages:
 The end of distributor near to the substation gets heavy loaded.
 When load on the distributor changes, the consumer faces serious voltage
fluctuations.
 As consumers are dependent on single feeder and distributor, a fault on any of these
two causes interruption in supply.
Drawbacks:
 A distributor nearest to the substation is heavily loaded.
 Due to load variation, voltage fluctuations are more at the far ends.
 If any fault occurs, there is no continuity of supply.

Ring Main Distribution system:

 A ring main distribution system is arranged to form a closed loop.
 It may have one or more feeding points.
 The feeder covers the whole area of supply in the ring fashion and finally returning to
the substation.

Figure 5.4: Ring Main distribution system

 The feeder in the ring fashion is divided into number of sections as AB, BC, CD, DE and
EA.
 The various distributors are connected at A, B, C, D and E.
 Each distributor is supplied by the two feeders.

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Advantages:
 Due to load variations, the voltage fluctuation is less at the far end.
 Better reliability.
 It gives continuity of supply, when fault occurs at any one distributor.
Interconnected system:
 When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations is called as interconnected system.
Advantages of Interconnected System:
 Better reliability.
 During peak load, reserve power capacity reduces and efficiency increases.
 It gives continuity of supply.

Figure 5.5: Interconnected system

4. AC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

 Electrical energy is generated, transmitted & distributed in the form of AC.

 Because, alternating voltage can be changed in magnitude by means of a transformer.
 Transformer has made it possible to transmit AC power at high voltage.
 High transmission and distribution voltages have reduced the current in the
conductors & the line losses.
 The AC distribution system is classified into:
i. primary distribution system and
ii. Secondary distribution system.

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i. Primary distribution system:

Figure 5.6: Primary distribution system

 It is that part of AC distribution system which operates at voltages higher than general
utilization.
 It handles large blocks of electrical energy than the average low voltage consumer uses.
 The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power to be
conveyed and the distance of the substation required to be fed.
 The most commonly used primary distribution voltages are 11 kV, 6·6 kV and 3·3 kV.
 Due to economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by 3- phase, 3-wire
system.
 Electric power from the generating station is transmitted at high voltage to the
substation located in or near the city.

ii. Secondary distribution system:

 It is that part of AC distribution system.

 The secondary distribution employs 400/230V, 3phase, 4wire system.
 Fig 5.6 shows a typical secondary distribution system.
 The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called
distribution sub-stations.

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Figure 5.7: Secondary distribution system

 The substations are situated near the consumer’s localities.
 It contains step-down transformers.
 At each distribution substation, the voltage is stepped down to 400V.
 The power is delivered by 3-phase, 4-wire AC system.
 The voltage between any two phases is 400V and between any phase and neutralize
230V.
 The single phase domestic loads are connected between anyone phase and the neutral.
 The 3phase 400V motor loads are connected across 3- phase lines directly.

5. D.C. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:

 The electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed as AC.

 For certain applications, DC supply is necessary.
 DC supply is required for the operation of variable speed machinery (DC motors).
 For this purpose, AC power is converted into DC power at the substation by rectifiers.
 The DC system is classified into
i. 2-wire DC system
ii. 3-wire DC system

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(i) 2-wire DC system:

 This system consists of two wires.
 One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative wire.
 The loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel between the two wires.
 This system is never used for transmission purposes due to low efficiency.
 It may be employed for distribution of DC power.

Figure 5.8: DC distribution system

(ii) 3-wire DC system:
 It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the
substation.
 The voltage between the outers is twice the voltage between outer and neutral wire.
Advantage:
It have two voltages at the consumer terminals viz., V between any outer and the neutral
and 2V between the outers.
 Loads requiring high voltage are connected across the outers.
 Loads requiring less voltage are connected between outer and the neutral.

6. EARTHING:
 The process of connecting the metallic frame (i.e., non- current carrying part) of
electrical equipment or some electrical part of the system (e.g., neutral point in a star-
connected system) to the earth is called grounding or Earthing.
 The potential of the earth is to be considered zero for all practical purposes.
 Earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire,
making it to attain earth’s potential.
 This ensures safe discharge of electrical energy due to failure of the insulation line
coming in contact with the casing, etc.
 Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to zero i.e., to the earth’s
potential, thus protecting the operating personnel against electrical shock.

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The earth resistance is affected by the following factors:

(a) Material properties of the earth, wire and the electrode.

(b) Temperature and moisture content of the soil.

(c) Depth of the pit.

(d) Quantity of the charcoal used.

Necessity of Earthing:
The requirement for provision of earthing can be listed as follows:
 To protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.
 To maintain the line voltage constant, under unbalanced load condition.
 To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.
 Protection of the equipments.
 Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines against lighting.

Methods of Earthing:
The various methods of earthing in common use are,
(a) Plate earthing

(b) Pipe earthing

(c) Rod earthing

(d) Strip or wire earthing

(a) Plate earthing:

 In this method either a copper plate of 60cm × 60cm ×3.18cm

(Or)
GI plate of 60cm × 60cm × 6.35cm is used for earthing.
 The plate is buried into the ground not less than 3m from the ground level.
 The earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coal and salt for a thickness of 15cm
as shown in figure (5.9).
 In addition, water is poured for keeping the earth’s electrode resistance value below a
maximum of 5Ω. The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate.
 A cement masonry chamber is built with a cast iron cover for easy regular
maintenance.

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Figure 5.9: Plate Earthing

(ii) Pipe earthing:

Figure 5.10: Pipe Earthing

 Earth electrode made of a GI (galvanized iron) pipe of 38mm in diameter and length of
2m (depending on the current) with 12mm holes on the surface is placed upright at a
depth of 4.75cm in a permanently wet ground.

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 To keep the value of the earth resistance at the desired level, the area (15 cm)
surrounding the GI pipe is filled with a mixture of salt and coal.
 The efficiency of the earthing system is improved by pouring water through the funnel
periodically.
 The GI earth wires of sufficient cross-sectional area are run through a 12.7mm
diameter pipe (at 60cm below) from the 19mm diameter pipe and secured tightly at the
top as shown in figure (5.10).

(iii) Rod earthing:

 It is the same method as pipe earthing.
 A copper rod of 12.5cm (1/2 inch) diameter or 16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized
steel or hollow section 25mm (1 inch) of GI pipe of length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried
upright in the earth manually or with the help of a pneumatic hammer.
 The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance to a desired
value.

Figure 5.11: Rod Earthing

(iv) Strip or wire earthing:

 In this method of earthing strip electrodes of cross- section not less than 25mm ×
1.6mm (1 in × 0.06in) is buried in horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m.
 If copper with a cross-section of 25mm × 4mm (1inch × 0.15inch ) is used and a
dimension of 3.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.
 If at all round conductors are used, their cross-section area should not be too small,
say less than 6.0 mm2 if it’s a galvanized iron or steel.

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 The length of the conductor buried in the ground would give a sufficient earth
resistance and this length should not be less than 15m.
 The electrodes shall be as widely distributed as possible in a single straight or circular
trenches radiating from a point.
 This type of earthing is used where the earth bed has a rocky soil and excavation work
is difficult.
Selection of Earthing:
 The type of earthing to be provided depends on many factors such as type of soil, type
of installation, etc.
 The following table helps in selecting a type of earthing for a particular application.

Earth Resistance:
 The earth resistance should be kept as low as possible so that the neutral of any
electrical system, which is earthed, is maintained almost at the earth potential.
 The earth resistance for copper wire is 1Ω and that of GI wire less than 3Ω.
 The typical value of the earth resistance at large power stations is 0.5Ω , major
substations is 1Ω, small sub stations is 2 Ω and in all other cases 5Ω.
 The resistance of the earth depends on the following factors:
 Condition of soil.
 Moisture content of soil.
 Temperature of soil.

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 Depth of electrode at which it is embedded.

 Size, material and spacing of earth electrode.
 Quality and quantity of coal and salt in the earth pit.
Difference between Earth Wire and Neutral Wire:
Neutral Wire:
 In a 3-phase 4-wire system, the fourth wire is a neutral wire.
 It acts a return path for 3-phase currents when the load is not balanced.
 In domestic single phase AC circuit, the neutral wire acts as return path for the line
current.
Earth Wire:
 Earth wire is actually connected to the general mass of the earth and metallic body of
the equipment.
 It is provided to transfer any leakage current from the metallic body to the earth.

7. SWITCH FUSE UNIT:

 The electrical equipments are designed to carry a particular rated value of current
under normal conditions.
 Under abnormal conditions such as short circuits, overload, or any fault; the current
rises above this value, damaging the equipment and sometimes resulting in fire
hazard.
 Fuses come into operation under fault conditions.
 A fuse is short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the circuits.
 Under normal operating conditions it designed to carry the full load current.
 If the current increases beyond this designed value due to any of the reasons
mentioned above, the fuse melts, isolating the power supply from the load.

a) Desirable characteristics of a Fuse Element:

 The material used foe fuse wires must have the following characteristics:
 Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
 High conductivity e.g., copper.
 Free from deterioration due oxidation e.g., silver.
 Low cost e.g., tin, copper.

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b) Materials:
 Materials used are tin lead or silver having low melting points. Use of copper or iron is
dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.
c) Types of Fuses:
Fuses are classified into following types,
1. Re-wireable or kit-Kat fuse
2. High rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse
1. Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse:
 Re-wireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted.
 These fuses are simple in construction, cheap and available up to a current rating of
200A.
 They are erratic in operation and their performance deteriorates with time.
 An image of re-wireable fuse is as shown in figure (5.12)

Figure 5.12: Re-wireable or Kit-Kat Fuse

2. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse:

 Figure (5.13) shown an image of HRC cartridge fuse and figure (5.14) shown the
essential parts of a typical HRC cartridge fuse.
 It consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps to which a silver
current-carrying element is welded.
 The space within the body surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling
powder.
 The filling material may be chalk, plaster of Paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as
an arc quenching and cooling medium.
 Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating.
 Under normal loading conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its
melting point.
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 When a fault occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault
current reaches its first peak.
 The heat produced in the process vaporizes the melted silver element.
 The chemical reaction between the silver vapours and the filling powder results in the
formation of a high resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.

Figure 5.13: HRC Cartridge Fuse

Figure 5.14: Cross section of HRC Cartridge Fuse

8. CIRCUIT BREAKER:
 Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually and
automatically for the controlling and protection of electrical power system, respectively.
 During shirt circuits fault or any other type of electrical fault, these equipments, as
well as the power network, suffer a high stress of fault current, which in turn damage
the equipment and networks permanently.
 For saving these equipment and the power networks, the fault current should be
cleared from the system as quickly as possible.
 Again after the cleared, the system must come to its normal working condition as soon
as possible for supplying reliable quality power to the receiving ends.
 The circuit breaker is the special device all the required switching operations during
current carrying condition.

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 A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes.
 Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open
automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty.
 The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired.
 When a fault occurs in any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker get
energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening
the circuits.
The main types of circuit breakers are,
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCCB)
 Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)
 Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)
 SF6 Circuits Breaker.
9. MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MCB)
 Minimum circuit breakers are electromechanical devices which protect an electrical
circuit from over currents.
 Over currents in an electrical circuit may results from short circuits overload, or faulty
design.
 MCB is better alternative than fuse, since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected.
 MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuits
once a fault is detected.
 In simple terms, MCB is a switch which automatically turns off when the current
flowing through it passes the maximum allowable limit.
 Generally MCB is designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults
(over heating).
Working Principle:
 There are two contacts - one is fixed and the other is moveable.
 When the current exceeds the predefined limit, a solenoid forces the moveable contact
to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB turns off, thereby
stopping the current from flowing in the circuits.

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Operation:
 An image of MCB is shown in figure (5.15) and internal parts of an MCB are shown in
figure (5.16).
 It mainly consists of one bi- metallic strip, one trip coil and one hand operated on-off
lever.
 Electric current carrying path of a MCB is as follows - first left hand side power
terminal-then bimetallic strip - then current coil - then moving contact - then fixed
contact and lastly right hand side power terminal, and all are arranged in series.

Figure 5.15: Miniature circuit breakers

Figure 5.16: Cross section of MCB

 If circuit is overload for a long time, the bi -metallic strip becomes over heated and
deformed. This deformation of bi-metallic strip causes displacement of latch point.
 The moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring, with this latch
point, that a little displacement of latch causes releases of spring and makes the
moving contact to move for opening the MCB.

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 The current coil or trip coil placed in such a manner that during SC faults, the MMF of
that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and force the latch to be
displaced. Hence, the MCB will open in the same manner.
 Again when operating lever of the MCB is operated by hand, that means when we
make the MCB at off position manually, the same latch point is displaced as a result
moving contact separated from fixed contact in same manner.
 So, whatever may be the operating mechanism, i.e., may be due to deformation of bi-
metallic strip or may be due to increased MMF of trip coil or may be due to manual
operation - actually the same latch point is displaced and the deformed spring is
released, which is ultimately responsible for movement of the moving contact.
 When the moving contacts are separated from fixed contact, there may be a high
chance of arc.
 This are then goes up thorough the arc runner and enters into arc splitters and is
finally quenched.
 When we switch on the MCB, we actually reset the displaced operating latch to its
previous on position and make the MCB ready for another switch off or trip operation.
 These are available in single pole, double pole, triple pole, and four pole versions with
neutral poles, if required.
 The normal current ratings are available from 0.5-63 A with a sym-metrical short
circuits rupturing capacity of 3-10kA, at a voltage level of 230/440v.
 MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault
arises.
 In case of temperature rise or over heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 min for the MCB
to trip.
Advantages:
 MCBs are replacing the re-wireable switch i.e., fuse units for low power domestic and
industrial applications.
 The disadvantages of fuses, like low SC interrupting capacity (say 3kA), Etc, are
overcome with high SC breaking capacity of 10kA.
 MCB is combination of all three functions in a wiring system like switching, overload
and short circuits protection. Overload protection can be obtained by using bi-metallic
strips where as shorts circuit protection can be obtained by using solenoid.

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10. EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUITS BREAKER (ELCB):

 None of the protection devices like MCB, MCCB, etc; it can protect the human life
against electric shocks or avoid fire due to leakage current.
 An Earth Leakage Circuits Breakers (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents
leaking to earth from an installation and cut the power.
 There are two types of ELCBs:
(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB)
(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker ( Current -ELCB)

(i) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (voltage -ELCB):

 Voltage –ELCB is a voltage operated circuits breakers. The device will function when
the current passes through the ELCB.
 Voltage-ELCB contains relay coil and one end of the coil is connected to metallic load
body and the other end is connected to ground wire as shown in figure (5.17).
 If the voltage of the equipment body rises (by touching phase to metal part or
insulation failure of equipment), which could cause the difference between earth and
load body voltage, and the danger of electric shock will occur.

Figure 5.17: Voltage Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker

 This voltage difference will produce an electric current from the load metallic body and
phase through the loop to the Earth.
 When voltage on the equipment metallic body rises to danger level i.e., which exceed to
50V, the flowing current through relay loop could move the relay contact by
disconnecting the supply current and avoid from any danger electric shock.

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 The ELCB detects fault currents from line to the earth (ground) wire within the
installation it protects.
 If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB’s sensing coil, it will switch off the power,
and remain off until manually reset.
 A voltage – sensing ELCB does not sense fault current from line to any other earthed
body.

(ii) Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker (Current -ELCB):

 Current –ELCB is a current operated circuit breaker which is a commonly used ELCB.
 Current-ELCB consists of a 3- winding transformer, which has two primary windings
and 1 secondary winding as shown in figure (5.18).
 Neutral and line wires act as the two primary windings. A wire wound coil is the
secondary winding.
 The current thorough the secondary winding is zero at the balanced condition.
 In the balanced condition, the flux due to current through the phase wire will be
neutralized by the current through the neutral wire, since the current which flows
from the phase will be returned back to the neutral.
 When a fault occurs, a small current will flow to the ground also. This makes an
unbalanced between line and neutral currents and creates an unbalanced magnetic
field.
 This induces a current through the secondary winding, which is connected to the
sensing circuits.
 This will sense the leakage and send a signal to the tripping system and trips the
contact.

Figure 5.18: Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker

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11. MOLDED CASE CIRCUITS BREAKER (MCCB):

 Molded case circuits breakers are electromechanical devices which protect a circuits
from over current and short circuits.
 They provide over current and short circuits protection for circuits ranging from 63A
up to 3000 A.
 Their primary functions are to provide a means to manually open a circuit and
automatically open a circuit under overload or short circuits conditions respectively.
 The over current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuits, overload of
faulty design.
 MCCB is an alternative to a fuse, since it does not require replacement once an
overload is detected.
 Unlike a fuse, an MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offer improved operational
safety and convenience without incurring operating cost.
 Molded case circuits breakers generally have a,
 Thermal element for over current and
 Magnetic element for short circuits release which has to operate faster.
 The MCCBs are comprised of five major components such as molded case or frame
operating mechanism, arc extinguishers, contacts and trip components as shown in
figure (5.19)

Figure 5.18: Current Earth Leakage Circuits Breaker

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 MCCB are manufactured such that the end user will not have access to internal
workings of the over-current protection device.
 Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically insulated plastic, these
halves are riveted together to form the whole.
 Inside the plastic shell is series of thermal elements and a spring-loaded trigger.
 When the thermal element gets too warm, from an over current situation, the spring
trips, which in turn will shut off the electrical circuits.

Operating mechanism:
 At its core, the protection mechanism employed by MCCBs is based on the same
physical principles used by all type of thermal – magnetic circuit breakers.
 Overload protection is accomplished by means of a thermal mechanism.
 MCCBs have a bimetallic contact that expands and contacts in response to changes on
temperature.
 Under normal operating conditions, the contact allows electric current through the
MCCB.
 However as soon as the current exceeds the adjusted trip value, the contact will start
to heat and expend until the circuits is interrupted.
 The thermal protection against overload is designed with a time delay to allow short
duration over current, which is a normal part of operation for many devices.
 Fault protection is accomplished with electromagnetic induction, and the response is
instant.
 Fault currents should be interrupted immediately, no matter if their duration is short
or long.
 Whenever a fault occurs, the extremely high current induces a magnetic field in a
solenoid coil located inside the breaker – this magnetic induction trips a contact and
current it interrupted.
 As a complement to the magnetic protection mechanism, MCCBs have internal arc
dissipation measure to facilitate interruption.
 As with all types of circuit breakers, the MCCB includes a disconnection switch which
is used to trip the breaker manually.
 It is used whenever the electric supply must be disconnected to carry out field work
such as maintenance or equipment upgrades.

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Applications:
 Molded case circuits breakers can have very high current ratings, which allows them
to be used in heavy duty applications. Such as,
 Main electric feeder protection
 Capacitor bank protection
 Generator protection
 Welding applications
 Low current application that require adjustable trip setting
 Motor protection

12. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND FIRST AID

Safety precautions in Handling Electrical Appliance:
It is essentially important to take precautions when we are working with electricity and
using electrical appliances. Here, some of the basic precautions are mentioned for safe
usage of electrical appliance:
1. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions:
 Always read the manufacturer’s instructions carefully before using a new appliance.
2. Replace or repair damaged power cords:
 Exposed wiring is a danger that cannot be ignored. If you see the protective coating on
a wire is stripped away, be sure to replace it or cover it with electrical tape as soon as
possible.
3. Keep electrical equipment or outlets away from water:
 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or repairing any
electrical equipments or circuits with wet hands.
 It increases the conductivity of electrical current. Keep all electrical appliances away
from water such as sinks, bathtubs, pools or overhead vents that may drip.
4. Use insulated tools while working:
 Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves, goggles, protective clothes and shoes
with insulated soles while working on any branch circuits or any other electrical
circuits.
 Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working on electrical
devices.
 Never use metallic pencils or rulers or wear rings or metal watchbands when working
with electrical equipment as they cause a strong electric shock.

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5. Don’t overload your outlets:

 Every outlet in your home is designed to deliver a certain amount of electricity; by

plugging too many devices into it at once, you could cause a small explosion or a fire.
 If you have a lot of things to plug in, use a power strip that can safely accommodate
your needs.

6. Shut-off the power supply:

 Always make sure that the power source should be shut-off before performing any
work related to electricity.
 For example; inspecting, installing, maintaining or repairing.

7. Avoid extension cords as much as possible:

 Running extension cords through the house can trip up residence; this can cause
injury and damage to the wire or outlet if it causes the cord to be ripped out of the
wall.
 If you find yourself using extension cords very often, consider having an electrician
install new outlets throughout your home.

8. Avoid the usage of flammable liquids:

 Never use highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment.

 Never touch another person’s equipment or electrical control devices unless instructed
to do so.

9. Use electric tester:

 Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-energized first by
using a tester.
 When an electric tester touches a live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up
showing that an electrical current is flowing through the respective wire.
 Check all the wires, the outer metallic covering of the service panel any other hanging
wires with an electrical tester before proceeding with your work.

10. Display danger board:

 Danger board should be displayed at the work place.

 We should not allow any unauthorized person to enter in the working place and we
should not put any new equipment into the service without necessary testing by the
concern authority.

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11. Usage of circuits breaker or fuse:

 Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current rating.
 Circuit breakers and fuses are protection devices that automatically disconnect the live
wire a condition of short circuits or over current occurs.
 The selection of the appropriate fuse or circuit breaker is essential.
 Normally for protection against short circuits a fuse rated of 150% of the normal
circuit current is selected.

First Aid for Electric Shock Victims:

1. Don’t touch them!

2. Unplug the appliance or turn off the power at the control panel.
3. If you can’t turn off the power, use a piece of wood, like a broom handle, dry rope or
dry clothing, to separate the victim from the power source.
4. Do not try to move a victim touching a high voltage wire. Call for emergency help.
5. Keeps the victim lying down. Unconscious victims should be placed on their side to
allow drainage of fluids. Do not move the victim if there is a suspicion of neck or
spine injuries unless absolutely necessary.
6. If the victim is not breathing, apply mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If the victim has
no pulse, begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Then cover the victim with a
blanket to maintain body heat, keep the victim’s head low and get medical attention.

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TWO MARKS

1. What are the advantages of three phase system?

 In the three phase circuit, the total power is more nearly uniform unlike in a single
phase circuit.
 Three phase machines have better power factor and efficiency.
 The capacity of three phase machine is higher.
2. What are the principle divisions of an electric power system?
 The structure of power system can be divided into three parts,
 Generating station
 Transmission system
 Distribution system
3. What is meant by distribution system?
 That part of power system which distributes electric power for local use is known as
distribution system.
4. What are the parts of distribution system?
 Feeders
 Distributors
 Service mains
5. What are the different types of distributions?
AC Distribution:
i. Primary distribution
ii. Secondary distribution
DC Distribution:
i. 2-wire dc system
ii. 3-wire dc system
6. What are the advantages of ring main distributor?
 There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
 The system is very reliable as each distributor is feed via two feeders.
7. What is an interconnected system?
 When a feeding ring is energized by two or more than two generating stations or
substations is called as interconnected system.

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8. Define the terms feeders and service mains.

 Feeders: It is a circuit carrying power from a main substation to a secondary
substation such that the current loading is the same throughout its length.
 Service mains: They are small conductors, which delivers power to the consumer
premises up to the metering point.
9. What is earthing?
 It is the process of instant discharge of electrical energy into the earth through a low
resistance wire.
10. Name the types of earthing.
 Pipe earthing
 Plate earthing
 Rod earthing
 Strip earthing
11. How is earthing done?
 It is carried out by connecting the neutral or non-current carrying part of the
equipment to the ground.
12. What are the advantages of earthing?
 Ensures the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive amount of
electric current.
 Helps in the flow of electric current directly inside the ground.
 Keeps the electric appliance safe from the damage.
 It protects building breakdown from the lightning.
13. What are three main reasons for earthing?
 It keeps people safe by preventing electric shocks.
 It prevents damage to electrical appliances and devices by preventing excessive
current from running through the circuit.
 It prevents the risk of fire that could otherwise be caused by current leakage.
14. What is the purpose of Using Salt and Coal in the Earthing?
 The salt soaks the alkali of the ground and the Coal makes the soil to hold the
moisture.
 So, using these Salt and Coal helps to increase the overall conductivity of the
earthing system.
 When the conductivity increases, the leakage current easily flows to the ground.
 It increases the efficiency of the overall earthing system.
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15. What is pipe earthing?

 A galvanized steel perforated pipe is buried vertically, connecting all the electrical
conductors to the ground where the depth of the pipe depends on the soil
conditions.
 Pipe earthing is an economical type of earthing compared to other earthing
methods.
16. What is the procedure for pipe earthing?
 A layer of sand, salt and coal of 15 cm each is laid around the electrode.
 Such layer is laid up to 90 cm.
 After the rest of the pit is filled with black soil, usually after 2.5 meters, the Pipe
with earth conductor gets out, where the connection of Earthing is to be done.
 The Pipe which has a funnel on the top end.
17. What is Rod Earthing?
 This type of earthing system is similar to a pipe earthing system.
 A copper rod with galvanized steel pipe is placed upright in the ground physically or
using a hammer.
 The embedded electrode lengths in the earth decrease the resistance of the earth to
a preferred value.
18. What is Plate Earthing?
 The earthing system, where a copper or galvanized iron plate is used to connect all
the earthing conductors to the earth is called Plate Earthing.
 Generally, the plate is placed vertically at a depth not less than three meters or 10
feet from the ground level.
 And all the conductors are connected to the plate.
19. What are the advantages of Plate Earthing?
 It can carry a very high current than rod earthing.
 It provides a very good conductivity between earthing conductors and the ground.
 Plate earthing helps to connect more number of ground wires or earth wires from
different loads.
20. What are the applications of Plate Earthing?
 Plate Earthing is used in power stations, transmission lines, large electrical panels,
high voltage transformers, where the amount of fault current is very high.

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21. Mention the procedure for Plate Earthing.

 The size or dimension of the plate used in plate earthing is 60cm (H) x 60cm (W) x
3.18mm (D) for copper plate and 60cm (H) x 60cm (W) x 6.35mm (D) for the
galvanized iron plate.
 Place the earthing plate vertically at a depth of below 3 meter from the ground level.
 Use a 12.5 mm diameter pipe to lay the earthing conductors through it.
 Use a 190mm diameter pipe to connect the funnel and earthing plate.
 Put the Coal, Sand, and salt around the earthing plate. After that fill the top with
black soil.
 At last put the water to the earthing to increase the conductivity.
22. Mention the disadvantages of Plate Earthing.
 The main disadvantage of plate earthing is the high installation cost.
 It is very costly to install a plate earthing system than plate earthing.
23. What is strip Earthing?
 In this type of earthing, a copper strip or GI Strip of minimum cross-section 25 mm
× 1.6 mm is buried horizontally inside the Soil or ground.
 For this purpose around conductor can also be used and at that case the minimum
cross-sectional area for copper conductor would be 3 mm² and for galvanized iron
conductor it would be 6 mm².
24. What is difference between earthing and grounding?
 “Earthing” means that the circuit is physically connected to the ground which is
Zero Volt Potential to the Ground (Earth).
 Whereas in “Grounding” the circuit is not physically connected to ground, but its
potential is zero with respect to other points.
25. What is earth Resistance?
The resistance offered by the earth electrode to the flow of current into the ground is
known as the earth resistance or resistance to earth.
26. What are the factors affecting the Earth resistivity?
 Soil Resistivity. It is the resistance of soil to the passage of electric current.
 Soil Condition
 Moisture
 Dissolved salts
 Climate Condition
 Physical Composition
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 Location of Earth Pit

 Effect of grain size and its distribution
27. What is switch fuse unit?
 Switch fuse unit is compact combination, generally metal enclosed of a switch and a
fuse. It is very widely used for low and medium voltages.
28. What is purpose of switch fuse unit?
 The Rewirable Switch Fuse Units are used for distributing power and protecting
electrical devices and cables from damage due to fluctuations.
29. What are the advantages of Kit Kat Fuse?
 It is simple and quick to install, and it takes very little time to replace.
 It is incredibly cost-effective and is the most cost-effective type of fuse.
 The Electrical Kit Kat Fuse requires little to no maintenance.
 With typical handle and lugs options, the range is available from 16A to 500A.
30. What is HRC Fuse?
 HRC fuse (high rupturing capacity fuse) is one kind of fuse, where the fuse wire
carries a short circuit current in a set period. If the fault occurs in the circuit then it
blows off.
31. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of HRC Fuse.
Advantages of HRC Fuse:
 It clears high as well as low fault currents.
 Do not deteriorate with age.
 Having high-speed operation.
 Provides reliable discrimination.
 Require no maintenance.
 Cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices with same rating.
 Permit consistent performance
 Fusing operation is fast without Noise and Smoke
Disadvantages of HRC Fuse:
 After each operation, they have to be replaced.
 Heat being produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.
32. What are the Applications of HRC Fuse?
The applications of these fuses include the following.
 HRC fuses are used to protect the circuit from short circuits in HV switchgear.
 Used for backup safety.
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 Used to protect electrical devices like motors, transformers, automobiles, etc

 These types of fuses are used in stators of motor.
33. What is circuit breaker?
 A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload of electricity or short circuit.
 A circuit breakers function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting
continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.
34. What is difference between fuse and circuit breaker?
 The main difference between fuse and circuit breakers is that fuses cannot be
reused while circuit breakers can be reused over and over again.
 Circuit breakers are used to protect homes and devices against overloading and
short-circuiting while fuses protect devices and homes against overloading only.
35. What type of circuit breaker is used in houses?
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs), Residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) and
Mounded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB) are the most widely used electrical circuit
breakers for domestic electrical connections.
36. What are the types of circuit breaker?
For low voltage rating circuits,
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Molded Case Circuits Breakers (MCCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) or Residual Current Breaker (RCCB)
For high voltage rating circuits,
 Air blast Circuits Breaker (ACB)
 Vacuum Circuits Breaker (VCB)
 SF6 Circuits Breaker.
37. What is Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB)?
 The MCB is an electromechanical device that switches off the circuit automatically if
an abnormality is detected. The MCB easily senses the over current caused by the
short circuit.
38. What is MCCB?
 MCCB is an abbreviation for Molded Case Circuit Breaker.
 The MCCB is a protective device protecting the circuit from overloading.
 Additionally, it has a switch that is operated manually for tripping the circuit.

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 The device features two arrangements, one for the over current and one for the over-
temperature.
39. Mention the similarity between MCB and MCCB.
 They both provide an element of protection
 The MCB and MCCB sense and protect the power circuit from the short circuit or
over current situation.
 They are mostly used in low tension or low voltage circuit.
40. Give the advantages of MCCB.
 MCCB has an adjustable trip setting.
 It can interrupt very large currents.
 It has a movable trip unit.
 It has a very small tripping time thus fast switching during fault current.
 It also offers remote ON/OFF feature.
 It has a compact design & takes less space.
41. Mention the differences between the MCB and MCCB.
 The MCB’s tripping circuit is fixed and is movable in the MCCB.
 MCBs have less than 100 amps, while MCCBs have as high as 2,500 amps.
 In MCB, the remote on/off is impossible, while in MCCB, it is possible by the use of
shunt wire.
 The MCB is largely used in low circuit current, while MCCB is used for the heavy
current circuit.
 The MCB is used for low energy requirements (domestic purposes), whereas the
MCCB is used in high energy requirement regions (large industries).
42. What is ELCB?
 An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical
installations with high earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray
voltages on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment and interrupts the circuit if
the voltage level exceeds danger threshold.
43. What is the Purpose of ELCB?
 The main purpose of ELCB is to detect Earth leakages and prevent injury to human
beings from electrical shocks and prevent electrical fires that are caused by short
Circuit.

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44. What are the types of ELCB?

 Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Voltage ELCB).
 Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current ELCB).
45. What is Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker?
 Voltage ELCB is a voltage-operated Circuit breaker. The device will function when the
current passes across the ELCB.
 Voltage ELCB contains a relay coil which is connected to the metal body at one and
connected to the ground on the other end.
46. What is Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker?
 The current ELCB is a circuit breaker that is commonly used. It is also
called RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker).
47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ELCB?
Advantages:
 ELCB instantly breaks the circuit to avoid electrical shock.
 It prevents damage caused due to broken wires or damaged insulation.
Disadvantages:
 ELCB cannot protect against overloading & short circuit current.
 It cannot protect against live-neutral shock.
 It may trip unnecessarily due to small current leakages in old appliances.

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