BIOLOGY FOR

BBOC407
ENGINEERS (CSE)
ADARSHA M R
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGG
SJCIT
 MODULE 1: CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application.
Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins,
lipids. Importance of special biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes,
vitamins and hormones
 CELL
• A cell is de ned as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life's
processes."
• Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings.
• A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building
blocks of life.
• Each cell contains a uid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.
• Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids
and lipids.
• Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.
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 CELL

• Size of a cell can vary from 10 micrometres to 20cms.

• Most of the animal cells are small and range between 1-100 micrometres. But
the average size of human body cells is between 20-30 micrometres.
• The organism Mycoplasma gallicepticum is the smallest cell. It is about 10
micrometres in size. The largest cell is the egg of the ostrich. It is about 15 to
18 cm long and wide.
 CELL
• The study of cells from its basic structure to the functions of every cell organelle
is called Cell Biology.
• Robert Hooke (1665) was the rst Biologist who discovered cells.
• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell
(unicellular), or many cells (multicellular).
• Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the
body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.
• Cells are complex and their components perform various functions in an
organism. They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty much like bricks of the
buildings. Our body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes.
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 CELL

• Cells are the lowest level of organisation in every life form. From organism to
organism, the count of cells may vary. Humans have more number of cells
compared to that of bacteria.
• Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to
carry out life processes. Every organelle has a speci c structure. The
hereditary material of the organisms is also present in the cells.

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CELL
 Who discovered CELLs?

• Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665- small rooms named as "cells".
• Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound
microscope with higher magni cation- “living”.
• In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very rst insights
into the cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells
of orchids.
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 Characteristics of CELLs

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded
by a separate membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
 Types of CELL

• Prokaryotic cell
• Eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotic CELL
Eukaryotic CELL
 Prokaryotic CELL

• Prokaryotic cell is a primitive cell and have simple structural organization.

• It has a single membrane system.
• It includes bacteria, viruses, blue-green algae, mycoplasmas, rickettsias,
spirochetes. Cyanobacteria or blue green algae are the largest and most
complex prokaryote, in which photosynthesis of higher plants type have
evolved.
• Prokaryotes belong to kingdom Monera and super kingdom Prokaryota.
 Components of Prokaryotic CELL
• Characteristics: 1. The size of prokaryotic cells ranges between 1 to 10 µm. They
occur in a variety of forms. 2. Prokaryotic cell consists of three main components:
(I) Outer covering: It is composed of inner cell or plasma membrane, middle cell
wall and outer slimy capsule.
a. Cell membrane: Cell membrane is made up of lipids and proteins, and it is thin
and exible and controls the movement of molecules across the cell. Respiratory
enzymes are carried by it for energy releasing reactions. Mesosomes, the in-folds of
plasma membrane bears respiratory enzymes and these are considered analogous
to mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. The pigments and enzymes molecules that
absorb and convert the light into chemical energy in photosynthetic cells are also
associated with the plasma membrane’s in-folds called photosynthetic lamella.
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 Components of Prokaryotic CELL

b. Cell wall : It is a rigid or semi-rigid non-living structure that surrounds the

cell membrane. Chemically it is composed of peptidoglycans. Some bacteria
such as mycoplasmas lack cell wall.

c. Slimy capsule: A gelatinous coat outside the cell wall is the slimy capsule.
 Components of Prokaryotic CELL
(II) Cytoplasm: Prokaryotic cytoplasm contains proteins, lipids, glycogen and inorganic
ions along with enzymes for biosynthetic reactions and ribosomes, tRNA and mRNA
for protein synthesis. Prokaryotic cytoplasm has some special features as follows:
a. It lacks cell organelles like endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
Centrosomes, vacuoles, Lysosomes, micro laments, intermediate laments and
microtubules
b. The only cytoplasmic organelle found in prokaryotic cells is the ribosomes. They are
smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes i.e., 70S and lie free in the cytoplasm.
c. Gas vacuoles are also formed in some prokaryotic cells.
d. They may contain deposits of polysaccharides or inorganic phosphates.
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 Components of Prokaryotic CELL

(III) Nucleoid: Nuclear envelope is absent in prokaryotic cell and the genetic
material lies directly into the cytoplasm. Such nuclear material is known as
nucleoid. Nucleoid consists of greatly coiled single pro-chromosome.
 Eukaryotic CELL
Eukaryotic Cells: The internal organization of eukaryotic cell is more developed
than prokaryotic cells from which they are believed to have been evolved.
• They are evolved to have double membrane system.

• Primary membranes - surrounds the cell, celled cell or plasma membrane

• Secondary membrane - surround the nucleus and other cellular organelles.

• Eukaryotic cells occur in protists, fungi, plants and animals.

 Characteristics of Eukaryotic CELL
Eukaryotic cells have the following characteristics:
1. Number- In multicellular organisms the numbers of cells are correlated with
the body size. The human blood contains about 30 quadrillion (3 × 1015)
corpuscles and a 60 kg human being has about 60 × 1015 cells.
2. Shape- A cell may be spherical, cuboidal, oval, disc-like, polygonal, columnar,
spindle like or irregular.
3. Size- Most of the eukaryotic cells is microscopic and their size ranges between
10 to 100µm. Nerve cells are the longest having the size of its ber to be of few
meters long. Human cells generally range from 20 to 30µm.

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CELL & its organelles
 CELL theory

• Schleiden and Schwann rst proposed the cell theory, which was later
modi ed by Rudolf Virchow.
• Postulated and widely accepted hypothesis of how most life on Earth
operates is known as the "cell theory.
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 Parts of CELL theory

• There are three main postulates of cell theory are as follows:

• First, cells make up all living things.
• Second, cells are the basic building blocks for developing tissues, organs, and
fully developed living creatures.
• The third, and maybe most crucial, aspect of the hypothesis is that cells can
only develop from other cells.
 Functions of CELL

• Cellular Respiration :

✔ Means generation of energy.

✔ The Mitochondrion, generates energy in the form of Adinosine Tri Phosphate
(ATP), through cellular respiration.

✔ It is a process of producing energy by cell.

 Functions of CELL

• Photosynthesis (in Plant Cells) :

✔ Process of generating food by cells present in plant leaves.

✔ Plants absorb water from soil using roots, which gets transferred to leaves.

✔ Leaves contain specialized cells called CHLOROPLAST that converts

sunlight into glucose.
 Functions of CELL

• DNA Replication and Cell Division :

✔ The Nucleus (Eucrayotic) having DNA has this process.

✔ DNA produces single strand, that will grow into double strand and
replicates it.

✔ Replication and division of cell is controlled by cell for the purpose of

growth in animals.
 Functions of CELL

• Protein Synthesis :

✔ Ribosomes synthesis proteins using the feed (genetic information) given by

nucleus.
✔ Proteins are generated in cells and are very essential for any animal.

✔ Type of protein to be generated in cell is decided by genetic information or

DNA.

✔ Based on requirement proteins are synthesized or supplied.

 Stem CELLs

• "Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types
of cells, from muscle cells to brain cells."
• They are different from other cells.
• Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells.
• These cells have strong healing power.
• They can evolve into any type of cell.
 Stem CELLs - Types

Types of stem cells are:

1. Embryonic Stem cells

2. Adult Stem cells

3. Induced Pluripotent Stem cells

4. Mesenchymal Stem cells

 Embryonic Stem CELLs
The fertilized egg begins to divide immediately. All the cells in the young embryo are totipotent
cells. These cells form a hollow structure within a few days. Cells in one region group together to
form the inner cell mass. This contains pluripotent cells that make up the developing foetus.
◆ These are derived from embryo.
◆ They have potential to become any body cells and forms.
◆ For example, these cells can become heart cells and tissues or they can become kidney cells and
so on.
◆ After fertilization, within 3 days the healthy embryo is formed and it will contain upto 6 to 10
embryo cells
◆ Within a week a fertilized egg is formed and its called Blastocyst.
◆ From embryo, cells are separated and stored, for research purpose.
 Embryonic Stem CELLs
The embryonic stem cells can be further classi ed as:
• Totipotent Stem Cells: These can differentiate into all possible types of stem cells.
• Pluripotent Stem Cells: These are the cells from an early embryo and can differentiate into
any cell type.
• Multipotent Stem Cells: These differentiate into a closely related cell type. E.g., the
hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into red blood cells and white blood cells.
• Oligopotent Stem Cells: Adult lymphoid or myeloid cells are oligopotent. They can
differentiate into a few different types of cells.
• Unipotent Stem Cells: They can produce cells only of their own type. Since they have the
ability to renew themselves, they are known as unipotent stem cells. E.g., Muscle stem cells.
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 Adult or Somatic Stem CELLs
These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues. They can repair and
replace the damaged tissues in the region where they are located. For eg., hematopoietic
stem cells are found in the bone marrow. These stem cells are used in bone marrow
transplants to treat speci c types of cancers.
◆ These cells are found in various tissues.
◆ These cells are obtained from specialized organelles and are adult/ grown up cells.
◆ If cells are taken from brain, then they become Brain Somatic stem cells, if taken from
heart, they become heart somatic stem cells.
◆ Each cells perform their particular role.
◆ They can be used to replace damaged cells in organs accordingly.
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 Induced Pluripotent Stem CELLs

These cells have been tested and arranged by converting tissue-speci c cells
into embryonic cells in the lab. These cells are accepted as an important tool to
learn about the normal development, onset and progression of the disease and
are also helpful in testing various drugs. These stem cells share the same
characteristics as embryonic cells do. They also have the potential to give rise to
all the different types of cells in the human body.

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 Mesenchymal Stem CELLs

These cells are mainly formed from the connective tissues surrounding other
tissues and organs, known as the stroma. These mesenchymal stem cells are
accurately called stromal cells. The rst mesenchymal stem cells were found in
the bone marrow that is capable of developing bones, fat cells, and cartilage.

There are different mesenchymal stem cells that are used to treat various
diseases as they have been developed from different tissues of the human body.
The characteristics of mesenchymal stem cells depend on the organ from where
they originate.
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 Stem CELLs - Applications
1. Regenerative Medicine : Stem cells are used to regenerate damaged tissues
& organs.
• Tissue Repair
• Orthopedic Treatments : Joint and bone regeneration

2. Treatment of Diseases
• Blood Disorders : treating Anaemia, leukemia by replacing blood cells.
• Neurological Disorders : In Parkinson and Alzheimer diseases.
 Stem CELLs - Applications
3. Drug Development and Testing : For testing new drugs before using on
animals.

4. Understanding Disease Mechanisms : In labs and controlled manner,

diseases and their spread and control, can be studied using stem cells.

5. Cell-Based Therapies : To address various medical conditions and treating a

particular malignant cell to stop spreading of disease.

6. Personalized Medicine : Tailoring treatments based on personalized traits

and genetics and characteristics.
 Stem CELLs - Challenges

• Controlling Cell Differentiation : Ensure precise control of differentiation of

stem cells into speci c stem cells.
• Genetic Stability : Maintaining stability during their growth, so that mutation
/ abnormalities does not happen.
• Tumor Formation : Potential of stem cells to form tumors to be addressed.
• Immunological Rejection : In some treatments body may not accept stem cells
injected in / may be bio incompatible, this called immunology rejection.
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 Stem CELLs - Ethical Considerations

• Source of Stem Cells :

◆ The concern here is in using the embryonic cell. It involves disturbing the
embryo.

◆ There are many debates happening on sanctity of human life.

◆ The challenge here is, in balancing, scienti c progress with ethical concerns.

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 Stem CELLs - Ethical Considerations

• Informed Consent :
◆ The source of embryo is a concern as it is only few cells.

◆ Bio technologist has to take consent before taking the Stem cells for research
and treatment.
 Stem CELLs - Ethical Considerations

• Global Regulations :
◆ There are different rules and regulations in different countries.

◆ Universal guidelines are required in this area of study.

 Stem CELLs - Ethical Considerations

• Commercialization and Access :

◆ Making the therapy as a business, the affordability becomes a major
challenge for general population.

◆ It is a concern, so government should ensure fairness here.

 Stem CELLs - Future Prospects
• Stem cells in gene editing: Gene-edited stem cells may be used to treat
genetic diseases and lessen the chance of damaging mutations being passed
onto future generations.
• Stem cells for autoimmune illnesses: The immune de ciencies suffered due to
AIDS can be treated using stem cells.
• Regenerative medicine: In the eld of regenerative medicine, damaged or
diseased tissues and organs can be repaired or replaced with healthy cells
derived from stem cells. Example:Heart disease, Parkinson’s, spinal cord
injuries, and more.
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 Stem CELLs - Future Prospects
• Personalized medicine: IPSCs can be genetically matched to the patient,
signi cantly reducing the risk of immune rejection, and enabling tailored
treatments for various medical conditions.
• Tissue engineering: Organoids can be used for drug testing, disease
modeling, and personalized medicine, paving the way for more precise and
ef cient treatments.
• Arti cial organs and body parts: This could potentially alleviate the organ
shortage for transplants and provide customized solutions for patients in
need.
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 Biomolecules
• The Iiving matter is composed of mainly six elements - C, H, O, N, P and S -
constitute about 90% of the dry weight of the human body.
• Several other functionally important elements are also found in the cells like Ca,
K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, I, Zn, F, Mo and Se.
Chemical Molecules of Life :
• Life is composed of lifeless chemical molecules.
• E.coli contains about 6,000 different organic compounds.
• Man may contain about 1,00,000 different types of molecules.
• All these biomolecules are organic, which means they contain 'carbon'
 Carbohydrates

• Class of organic compounds that play crucial role in biology and important
source of energy.
• Composed of C, H and O
• General formula Cn(H2O)n
 Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides
• Simplest form of carbs and include glucose and fructose.
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars in which there are one oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms for each carbon atom present in the molecule. They have general formula as (CH2O)n
• Monosaccharides are reducing sugars. The test for reducing sugar is called Benedict's test
• They are sugars, which taste sweet, are soluble in water and are insoluble in non-polar solvents.
• They exist in straight chains or in the ring or cyclic forms
• They are classi ed according to the number of carbon atoms in each molecule as trioses (3C),
tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C), heptoses (7) and so on.
• They are used as a source of energy in respiration. They are important building blocks for large
molecules.
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 Carbohydrates - Monosaccharides

• The names of all sugars end with -ose

• Examples: Glyceraldehyde (triose), Erythrose (tetrose), Ribose (pentose),
Glucose (hexose), Fructose (hexose), Galactose (hexose), Sedoheptulose
(heptose), etc
 Carbohydrates - Disaccharides

• The condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules with the formation
of a new chemical bond and a water molecule is released when the bond is
formed.
• A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides. If carbon 1 on
one monosaccharide joins to carbon 4 on another monosaccharide, it is called
a 1,4-glycosidic bond.
• Sucrose is the transport sugar and Lactose is the sugar found in milk which
an important constituent of the diet of young mammals.
 Carbohydrates - Polysaccharides
• These are polymers formed by combining many monosaccharide molecules
(more than two) by condensation reactions.
• Molecules with 3-10 sugar units are known as oligosaccharides while molecules
containing 11 or more monosaccharides are true polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides do not taste sweet.
• Because their molecules are so enormous, the majority of polysaccharides do not
dissolve in water
• Polysaccharides made solely from one kind of monosaccharides are
called homopolysaccharides (Starch) while those made of more than one
monomer are called heteropolysaccharides (Hyaluronic acid).
 Carbohydrates - Functions
• Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown of protein
molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
• They serve as primary energy sources. Glucose is broken down by glycolysis/ Kreb’s
cycle to yield ATP.
• They are the most abundant dietary source of energy (4kcal/gram) for all living beings.
• They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
• They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential amino acids.
• Energy stores - as glycogen in animals and starch in plants.
• Structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria (peptidoglycan or murein), plants
(cellulose), and animals (chitin).
 Carbohydrates - Functions
• Carbohydrates are intermediates in the biosynthesis of fats and proteins.
• Carbohydrates aid in the regulation of nerve tissue and is the energy source for
the brain.
• Carbohydrates get associated with lipids and proteins to form surface
antigens, receptor molecules, vitamins, and antibiotics.
• Formation of the structural framework of RNA and DNA (ribonucleic acid and
deoxyribonucleic acid).
• Constituent of connective tissues.
• Carbohydrates that are rich in ber content help to prevent constipation.
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 Carbohydrates - Functions

• Stored carbohydrates act as an energy source instead of proteins.

• Modulation of the immune system.
• They are linked to many proteins and lipids. Such linked carbohydrates are
important in cell-cell communication and in interactions between cells and
other elements in the cellular environment.
 Carbohydrates - Industrial Applications

• Food and Beverages : Sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers. Energy sources -

sports drinks and energy bars.
• Pharmaceuticals: Excipients in pharmaceu cal formula ons to improve the
stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. Source of energy - medical nutri on
products.

• Cosmetics: Moisturizers, shampoos, and condi oners, to provide hydra on and

improve skin and hair health.
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 Carbohydrates - Industrial Applications

• Biotechnology: Produc on of biodegradable plas cs, biofuels and other renewable

energy sources.

• Research: Research tools - immunology, virology, and cellular biology. Ligands

in protein-carbohydrate interactions and as probes to study cellular signaling
pathways
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 Nucleic Acids

• They are long chain biological polymers.

• Same Molecules are repeated many times in sequence.
• It is used for storage and transfer of genetic information.
• Arti cial Nucleic Acids are also synthesized now-a-days.
• Types: DeoxyRibonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
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 Nucleic Acids

• Both DNA and RNA are used for processes like replication, Transcription ,
Translation of genetic information.
• DNA and RNA are responsible for the inheritance and transmission of
speci c characteristics from one generation to the other. There are
prominently two types of nucleic acids known to us.
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 Nucleic Acids - DNA

• DNA information is for development, functioning and for reproduction.

• It is actually double stranded helical structure.
• It consists of sugar molecules, phosphates, and Nitrogen bases like Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
• Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and some
cyclic bases containing nitrogen.
 Nucleic Acids - DNA

• The sugar moiety present in DNA molecules is β-D-2-deoxyribose. The cyclic

bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C)
and thymine (T).
• These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of DNA play an
important role in the storage of information from one generation to the next
one.
• DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the strands are
complementary to each other.
 Nucleic Acids - RNA
• It involves expression of genetic information stored in DNA by carrying the
message from DNA to RNA.
• Used to duplicate the genetic information by separating 1 strand from DNA,
and this strand is called messenger RNA(mRNA).
• mRNA carries the information of various nucleotides and their sequence.
• The mRNA becomes a copy of DNA, and is used to build/ produce proteins.
• It acts as a base structure, to act and combine, with amino acids, to produce
protein, based on requirement.
 Nucleic Acids - RNA
• The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar and
some cyclic bases containing nitrogen.
• RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the sugar moiety.
• The heterocyclic bases present in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine(C) and uracil (U).
• In RNA the fourth base is different from that of DNA.
• The RNA generally consists of a single strand which sometimes folds back;
that results in a double helix structure.
 Nucleic Acids - RNA

• There are three types of RNA molecules, each having a speci c function:
• Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) – It is one of the components of ribosomes that are
involved in protein synthesis.
• Transfer RNA (t-RNA) – It is essential for the translation of mRNA in protein
synthesis.
• Messenger RNA (m-RNA) – It is the RNA transcript that is produced during
DNA transcription.

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 Nucleic Acids - Properties
Sequence The sequence of nitrogenous bases along the nucleic acid
Specificity chain is specific and carries genetic information.

Double Helix DNA has a double-helix structure, where two strands wind
(DNA) around each other.

Single-Stranded RNA is usually single stranded, with various types like

(RNA) mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Nucleic acids encode the genetic information that determines

Genetic Code
the traits and characteristics of living organisms.
 Nucleic Acids - Properties
Complementary In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with
Base Pairing cytosine, forming complementary base pairs.

Role in Protein Nucleic acids facilitate protein synthesis by carrying and

Synthesis translating genetic instructions.

Essential for Nucleic acids are vital for the inheritance of genetic traits
Heredity from one generation to the next.

Cellular They participate in regulating cellular processes, gene

Regulation expression, and various metabolic activities.
 Nucleic Acids - Functions
Genetic
Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store and carry genetic information
Information
that dictates the hereditary characteristics of living organisms.
Storage
Nucleic acids, through the process of transcription and translation,
Protein
play a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins, the building blocks of
Synthesis
cells.
They participate in the regulation of various cellular processes,
Cellular
controlling gene expression and influencing the overall functioning
Regulation
of cells.
Hereditary Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting hereditary traits from
Transmission parents to offspring, ensuring the continuity of genetic information.
Transfer of RNA, a type of nucleic acid, carries the genetic code from DNA to
Genetic Code the ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.
 Nucleic Acids - Functions
Enzymatic Some nucleic acids, like ribozymes, exhibit enzymatic activities,
Activities participating in biochemical reactions within cells.
Nucleic acids contribute to the transfer and storage of energy in the
Energy Transfer form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule crucial for
cellular energy currency.
Certain nucleic acids are involved in cellular signalling pathways,
Cellular
influencing responses to external stimuli and environmental
Signalling
changes.
Maintenance of Nucleic acids contribute to the maintenance and integrity of cell
Cell Structure structures, influencing cell division and growth.
They are involved in the synthesis of various biomolecules,
Synthesis of
contributing to the overall structure and function of living
Biomolecules
organisms.
 Proteins
• Proteins are large, complex molecules made up of chains of smaller building
blocks called amino acids.
• Proteins play vital role in forming structure.
• Each protein is formed by different aminoacids.
• There are totally 20 amino acids, out of which 9 are essential and 11 are non
essential aminoacids.
• Amino Acids are the organic compounds that combine to form proteins,
hence they are referred to as the building components of proteins.
 Essential Amino Acids

• These are not synthesized by mammals and are therefore dietarily essential
or indispensable nutrients.and has to be taken through diet/ or supply
through food.
• Methionine
• Histidine
• Phenylalanine
• Isoleucine
• Threonine
• Leucine
• Tryptophan
• Lysine
• Valine
 Non - Essential Amino Acids
Essential for body and generated/ synthesized in body whenever required.
Alanine
• Arginine • Glutamine

• Asparagine • Glycine

• Aspartic Acid • Proline

• Cysteine • Serine

• Glutamic Acid • Tyrosine

 Proteins - Classification
Based on the molecular shape, proteins can be classi ed into two types.
• Fibrous Proteins: When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held
together by hydrogen and disul de bonds, then the ber-like structure is
formed. Such proteins are generally insoluble in water. These are water-
insoluble proteins. Example: keratin (present in hair, wool, and silk) and
myosin (present in muscles), etc.
• Globular Proteins: This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil
around to give a spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water.
Example: Insulin and albumins are common examples of globular proteins.
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 Denaturation of Proteins

Denaturation is the term used for any change in the three-dimensional

structure of a protein that renders it incapable of performing its assigned
function.
A denatured protein cannot do its job.

Type I: Denaturation by change in pH.

Type II: Chemical Denaturation.

Type III: Denaturation by Heat and Radiation

 Properties of Proteins
Proteins exhibit a complex three-dimensional structure
Proteins determined by their amino acid sequence.
Structure They have primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary,
and quaternary structural levels.
Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Amino Acid
The specific arrangement of amino acids dictates the protein's
Composition
structure and function.
Proteins can vary in solubility, with some being soluble in water
Solubility
(hydrophilic) and others in lipids (hydrophobic).
Proteins can undergo denaturation due to factors like heat, pH
Denaturation
changes, or chemicals, resulting in loss of structure and function.
Proteins exhibit specificity in their interactions, with each type
Specificity
designed for a particular function or molecular interaction.
 Properties of Proteins
Proteins serve diverse biological roles, including enzymes for
Biological
catalysis, antibodies for immune response, and structural
Functions
proteins for support.
Proteins can change their conformation to adapt to different
Flexibility
biological environments and perform their functions.
Binding and Proteins can bind to other molecules, facilitating cellular
Recognition processes such as signaling and transport.
Catalytic Many proteins act as enzymes, accelerating biochemical
Activity reactions within cells.
The diversity of proteins allows them to carry out a wide range
Diversity
of functions critical to cellular life.
 Proteins - Functions
1) Catalyzing chemical reactions
• Amylase: An enzyme that breaks down starch into simple sugars like glucose and maltose. It
is found in saliva and pancreatic juice.
• Lipase: An enzyme that breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol. It is found in the
pancreas and small intestine.
• Catalase: An enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. It is found in
most cells of the body.
• Trypsin: An enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. It is produced in the
pancreas and released into the small intestine.
• ATP synthase: An enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) from
ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate. It is found in the mitochondria of cells.
 Proteins - Functions
2) Transporting molecules
• Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to
the tissues in the body.
• Albumin: Albumin is a protein found in blood plasma that helps transport various substances such as
hormones, fatty acids, and drugs throughout the body.
• Transferrin: Transferrin is a protein that transports iron in the blood from the site of absorption in the
gut to the bone marrow, liver, and other tissues that require it.
• Apolipoproteins: Apolipoproteins are a family of proteins that transport lipids (fats) in the bloodstream.
Examples include ApoA, ApoB, and ApoE.
• Ferritin: Ferritin is a protein that stores iron in a non-toxic form in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
• Glut transporters: Glut transporters are a family of proteins that transport glucose and other sugars
across cell membranes. Examples include GLUT1 and GLUT4.
 Proteins - Functions
3) Providing mechanical support
• Collagen: Collagen is the main structural protein in the body and provides support to tissues such as
skin, tendons, cartilage, bone, and teeth.
• Elastin: Elastin is a protein that provides elasticity and stretchability to tissues such as skin, lungs,
arteries, and ligaments.
• Keratin: Keratin is a protein that forms the structural basis of hair, nails, and the outer layer of skin.
• Actin and Myosin: Actin and myosin are proteins that are involved in muscle contraction and provide
the mechanical force required for movement.
• Tubulin: Tubulin is a protein that forms the structural basis of microtubules, which provide support to
cells and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell division and intracellular transport.
• Laminin: Laminin is a protein that forms part of the extracellular matrix and provides structural
support to cells in tissues such as skin, muscles, and organs.
 Proteins - Functions
4) Regulating cell behavior
• Receptor proteins: Receptor proteins are proteins that are located on the surface of cells
and bind to speci c signaling molecules such as hormones, growth factors, and
neurotransmitters. When these molecules bind to the receptor, they trigger a cellular
response, such as a change in gene expression or the activation of an intracellular
signaling pathway.
• Enzymes: Enzymes are proteins that catalyze speci c chemical reactions in the body.
Many enzymes are involved in regulating cellular behavior, such as kinases and
phosphatases that regulate protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, respectively.
• Cytoskeleton proteins: Cytoskeleton proteins, such as actin and tubulin, play a critical
role in regulating cell shape, movement, and division.
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 Proteins - Functions
• Transcription factors: Transcription factors are proteins that bind to DNA and
regulate gene expression. They play a critical role in regulating cellular
differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis.
• Adhesion proteins: Adhesion proteins are proteins that are involved in cell-to-cell
and cell to-matrix adhesion. They play a critical role in regulating cell behavior such
as cell migration, tissue development, and wound healing.
• Ion channels: Ion channels are proteins that allow ions to move across the cell
membrane. They play a critical role in regulating cellular excitability and
communication.
• Proteins are also involved in immune responses, hormone regulation, and muscle
contraction.
 Lipids

• Lipids: A group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and
some hormones. They form membrane structure.
• Our body has 70% water.
 Lipids
• "Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
atoms, which form the framework for the structure and function of living
cells." These organic compounds are non-polar molecules, which are soluble
only in non-polar solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar
molecule.
• In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are
found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red
meats.
• Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar
hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen.
 Lipids - Properties
1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon
chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life
processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents
and insolubility in water.
5. Lipids are signi cant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing
a cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane.
6. Lipids are generally hydrophobic, they repel water and do not dissolve in it.
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 Lipids - Functions
• Lipids, like adipose tissue, act as insulators and help to maintain body temperature by
reducing heat loss.
• Lipids, especially triglycerides, act as energy storage in organisms, providing a reserve of
metabolic fuel .
• Lipids protect the plant leaves from direct heat and dryin .
• Steroid hormones, derived from cholesterol, play vital roles in regulating various
physiological processes, including metabolism, growth, and reproducti n.
• In plants, lipids can be stored as oils in seeds, providing a source of energy for germination
and early gro .
• Lipids form waterproo ng structures, such as the waxy cuticle on plant leaves or the oil on
the feathers of water birds.
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 Lipids - Functions

• Lipids serve as signalling molecules. They are catalysts of electrical impulse

activity within the brain.
• Nerve response in myelinated neurons (right) propagate faster than in
unmyelinated neurons (left).
• Myelin is a mixture of proteins and phospholipids that insulates nerves. The
myelin coating is ~70% lipids.
 Enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance
that speeds up a chemical reaction but isn’t changed by the reaction.
• Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism.
• Enzymes are highly speci c to the reactions they catalyze.
• They alter or speed up the rates of chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
• They remain unchanged after a chemical reaction.
• They are affected by temperature.
• They are affected by pH.
• They catalyze reversible reactions.
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 Enzymes - Properties
• Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.

• They help in the breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules or bring together two
smaller molecules to form a larger molecule.
• Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.

• Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction.

• Enzymes are speci c in action.

• Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.

• They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 – 8.

• The velocity of enzyme increases with an increase in substrate concentration and then,
ultimately reaches maximum velocity.
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 Enzymes - Functions
• Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
• They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed by
the body.
• They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in the
synthesis of energy.
• Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.

• Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,

hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
• They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular activities.
 Vitamins
• Vitamins are essential micronutrients that play diverse roles in maintaining health and supporting
various physiological functions in the body.
• They are classi ed into two categories: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) and water-soluble
vitamins (B vitamins and vitamin C).
• Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fatty tissues,
while water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are excreted in urine when consumed in excess.
• Each vitamin has a speci c chemical name and description, along with plant and animal food sources
that provide signi cant amounts of the vitamin.
• Plant sources include fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and grains, while animal sources include meat,
poultry, sh, dairy products, and eggs.
• Consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of foods rich in vitamins is essential for meeting
the body's nutritional needs and maintaining optimal health.
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 Vitamins - Classification
Chemical Plant Animal
Vitamin Description
Name Source Source
carrot,
Essential for vision, immune spinach,
Liver, fish, oil,
function, mucous membranes, sweet
Vitamin A Retinol eggs, dairy
maintaining healthy skin, and potatoes,
products.
cell growth and differentiation. kale,
broccoli.
Whole
Energy metabolism, nerve Pork, beef,
Vitamin grains,
Thiamine function, and carbohydrate organ meats,
B₁ legumes,
metabolism. whole grains.
nuts, seeds.
 Vitamins - Classification
Chemical Plant Animal
Vitamin Description
Name Source Source
Energy production,
Dairy
metabolism of fats, Meat, poultry,
products,
Vitamin carbohydrates, and proteins, fish, eggs,
Riboflavin leafy greens,
B₂ and maintenance of healthy dairy
almonds,
skin and vision; acts as an products.
mushrooms
antioxidant.
Citrus fruits,
Antioxidant that supports Citrus fruits,
strawberries
Ascorbic immune function, collagen kiwi,
Vitamin C , bell
acid synthesis, wound healing, and strawberries,
peppers,
the absorption of iron. bell peppers
broccoli
 Vitamins - Classification
Chemical Plant Animal
Vitamin Description
Name Source Source
Essential for calcium
absorption, bone health, and Sunlight
immune function. It helps (UV Fatty fish
Vitamin Cholecalci regulate calcium and exposure), (salmon, tuna,
D ferol phosphorus levels in the blood fortified mackerel), egg
and supports the growth and dairy yolks
maintenance of strong bones products
and teeth.
 Vitamins - Classification
Chemical
Vitamin Description Plant Source Animal Source
Name
An antioxidant that protects cell
membranes from oxidative
damage. It plays a role in
Nuts, seeds,
immune function, skin health, Vegetable oils,
Vitamin vegetable
Tocopherol and gene expression regulation. nuts, seeds,
E oils, leafy
Vitamin E also supports avocado
greens
cardiovascular health and may
reduce the risk of chronic
diseases.
 Vitamins - Classification
Chemical
Vitamin Description Plant Source Animal Source
Name
Essential for blood clotting,
Leafy greens
bone metabolism, and heart Liver, egg
(kale,
Vitamin Phyllo health. It plays a crucial role in yolks, cheese,
spinach,
K Quinone the synthesis of clotting factors fermented
collard
and the regulation of calcium in foods
greens)
bones and blood vessels.
 Vitamins - Properties
• The vitamins are organic, low molecular weight substances that have key roles in metabolism.
• Few are single substances; most are families of chemically-related substances sharing
biological activities.
• The vitamins comprising a vitamin family may vary in biopotency.
• Otherwise, vitamin families are chemically heterogeneous; therefore, it is convenient to
classify the vitamins according to their physical properties.
• 'The water-soluble vitamins (C, thiamin, ribo avin, pyridoxine, biotin, pantothenic acid,
folate, B12) tend to have one or more polar or ionizable groups, whereas the fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K) have predominantly aromatic and aliphatic characters.
• These traits determine the nature of their absorption, transport, tissue distribution, and
metabolic function.
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 Vitamins - Functions
• Vitamin A - Hardening of the cornea in the eye, night blindness.
• Vitamin B1 - De ciency may cause beriberi and dwar sm.
• Vitamin B2 - De ciency can cause disorders in the digestive system, skin burning sensations.
• Vitamin B6 - De ciency of B6 causes convulsions, conjunctivitis, and sometimes neurological disorders.
• Vitamin B12 - Its de ciency can cause pernicious anaemia and a decrease in red blood cells in haemoglobin.
• Vitamin C - It is a water-soluble vitamin, its de ciency causes bleeding in gums and scurvy.
• Vitamin D - It is obtained by our body when exposed to sunlight. Its de ciency causes improper growth of
bones, soft bones in kids, and rickets.
• Vitamin E - De ciency of vitamin E leads to weakness in muscles and increases the fragility of red blood cells.
• Vitamin K - It plays an important role in blood clotting. The de ciency of vitamin K increases the time taken by
the blood to clot. Severe de ciency may cause death due to excessive blood loss in case of a cut or an injury.
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 Hormones
• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands or tissues in the body that regulate various
physiological processes and maintain homeostasis.
• Each hormone has speci c functions and targets, exerting effects on cells and tissues throughout the body.
• Insulin, for example, regulates blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake and storage, while testosterone
in uences male sexual development and secondary sexual characteristics.
• Estrogen plays a central role in female reproductive health and bone metabolism, while thyroxine regulates
metabolism and growth.
• Cortisol helps the body respond to stress and modulates metabolism, in ammation, and immune function.
• Growth hormone stimulates growth and tissue repair, while progesterone supports pregnancy and embryonic
development.
• Adrenaline triggers the ght-or- ght response, preparing the body for action during stressful situations.
• These hormones work in concert to regulate physiological processes and ensure the body's overall health and
well-being.
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 Hormones - Properties
• They have a low molecular weight; thus, they can easily pass through capillaries.
• Hormones always act in low concentration.
• They are soluble in water so that they can be transported via blood.
• The importance of hormones is that they are non-antigenic.
• They are organic catalysts. Hormones act as coenzymes of other enzymes in the human body.
• Hormones, in their rst action, cause a limited number of reactions and do not in uence any
metabolic activities of a cell directly.
• A signi cant characteristic of hormones is that, after their function is over, they are readily
destroyed, excreted or inactivated.
• Hormonal activities are not hereditary.
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 Hormones - Functions

• Food metabolism.
• Growth and development.
• Controlling thirst and hunger.
• Maintaining body temperature.
• Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
• Initiating and maintaining sexual development and reproduction.