ENGINEERING MATERIALS

An introduction to properties, applications and design

Instructor: Shun-Peng ZHU

School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
Ph: (+86) 18384136885

[email protected]
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shun-Peng_Zhu

Teach Assistant: Shen XU (Ph: (+86) 15008490521)

Thanks to Prof. A. Subramaniam @ Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
An introduction to properties, applications and design
Course Objective...
• Introduce fundamental concepts in MSE & ME
• Investigate the structures & properties of materials and correlate these
with the design or engineering or technology objectives

You will learn about:

• material structure
• how structure dictates properties
• how processing can change structure

This course will help you to:

• use materials properly
• realize new design opportunities
with materials
Prerequisites: Engineering Mechanics

Textbook: Engineering materials 1: An introduction to properties,

applications and design,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 4th Edition, 2013
David R.H. Jones, Michael F. Ashby

Course Description:
 An introductory course in engineering materials including metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites.
 Study of atomic and crystalline structures of materials.
 Application of basic principles to the study of mechanical, physical, and chemical
behavior of materials.
 Selection of materials in engineering applications based on materials properties
and processing.
 Design project on materials properties, selection or application.
The learning objectives are:
 To understand the principles of engineering and science in applications of
materials and design.
 To learn to find information in literature and other available sources.
 To learn to use information systems (computer, internet, and other available
sources) in engineering practice.

REFERENCES

Few major references are included here. Other references may be found in individual chapters.
 Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, William D. Callister, Jr. David G. Rethwisch, John Wiley &
Sons, 9th Edition, 2014;
 Essentials of Materials Science and Engineering, Donald R. Askeland, Pradeep P. Fulay, Cengage Learning, 2nd
Edition, 2010;
 Engineering materials 2: an introduction to microstructures and processing, David R. H. Jones, Michael F. Ashby,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 4th Edition, 2013.
ONLINE
http://www.tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/def_en/overview_main.html

Caution Note: In any chapter, amongst the first few pages (say 5 pages) there will be some ‘big picture’
overview information. This may lead to ‘overloading’ and readers who find this ‘uncomfortable’ may skip
particular slides in the first reading and come back to them later.
Methods of Students evaluation:
• Grading Policy
• Homework 20%
• Design Project 20%
• Final Exam 60%

• Homework: Homework problems will be passed out in class. Each

student will turn in homework one week after it is assigned. On the
day homework is due, students will be randomly selected to solve
selected homework problems at the board, explaining to the class
how each problem is worked. Students are encouraged to work
together on homework. Students will be evaluated on both the
quality of their written answers and board presentations.
• Exams: Exams will be based on homework and
information provided in lecture and assigned reading. All
exams will be closed book. The final will be cumulative.
Relevant formulas, tables, etc. will be provided.

• Design Presentation: The class will be divided evenly

into groups for a materials selection design project.
Projects for each group will be assigned by the
instructor. Each group will write a report on their
respective project, as well as make an oral presentation
to the class.
Suggestions for success in this class:
• 1. Read the relevant material in the book (preferably
before the lecture topic)
• 2. Review and understand the examples given in the
book.
• 3. Do the assigned homework. If you are having
difficulty with a particular concept, work additional
problems given in the book on that topic that have
the answers given in the back of the book.
• 4. Come to office hours.
• 5. Seek help: student services, tutors, TA, etc.

Academic success is directly proportional to

the amount of time devoted to study.
 The Materials Science Mantra:

The properties of a material depend upon

its composition and microstructure

The microstructure of a material depends

upon its composition and the processing
that it undergoes
What are the kind of questions that a student of ME / MSE would like answers for?
 Why is glass brittle, while copper is ductile? What is meant by a ductile material?
 If we take two rods, one of Al and one of steel, why is it easier to bend the Al rod as
compared to the steel rod?
 How can I change properties like hardness, without changing the composition (say of 0.8% C steel)?

 Why is wire of copper conducting, while piece of brick or wood non-conducting?

 Why is glass transparent, while any typical metal is opaque?
 Why does the electrical conductivity of Cu decrease on heating, while that of Si increases?
 Why does Iron corrode easily, while Aluminium does not (or does not seem to?!)?
 How come I can hold a molten material in the liquid state below the melting point (e.g. water
can be held at sub-zero (C) temperatures), for at least some time (in many cases this is not difficult)?
 How come bubbles tend to form in a aerated drink glass around the straw and glass walls?
 What is the melting point? Is it different from the freezing point?

 Usually, good thermal conductors are also good electrical conductors. Why is this so?
Why is diamond a good thermal conductor, but not a good electrical conductor?
 If I pull a spring and then release the load, it ‘comes back’ to its original shape. However, a if
I bend an aluminium rod, does not come back to its original shape. How can one understand
these observations?
What will you learn in this chapter?
 Where does Materials Science lie in the broad scheme of things?
 What are the common types of materials?
 What are the Scientific and Engineering parts of Materials Science & Engineering?
 What is the important goal of Mechanical Engineering?
 What determines the properties of Materials?
(We will list the important points which will put the issues involved in perspective)

The full implication of the aspects presented in this introductory chapter will only become clear after the student has
covered major portions of this course. Hence, students are encouraged to return to this chapter many times during
his/her progress through the course.
A Broad Overview Skip the next slide if it makes you nervous!
 We shall start with a broad overview of .. well...almost everything! (the next slide)
 The typical domain of materials science is enclosed in the ellipse. (next slide)
 Traditionally materials were developed keeping in view a certain set of properties and were
used for making components and structures.
 With the advancement of materials science, materials are expected to perform the role of an
‘intelligent’ structure or a mechanism.
A good example of this would be applications of shape memory alloys:
● they can be used to make deployable antennas (STRUCTURE) or
● actuators (MECHANISM).
 Though it will not be practical to explain all aspects of the diagram (presented in the next
slide) in this elementary course, the overall perspective should be kept at the back of one’s
mind while comprehending the subject.
 A point to be noted is that one way of classification does not clash with another.
E.g. from a state perspective we could have a liquid which is a metal from the band
structure perspective. Or we could have a metal (band structure viewpoint) which is
amorphous (structural viewpoint).
 Entropic force
UNIVERSE STRONG
WEAK
HYPERBOLIC ELECTROMAGNETIC
EUCLIDEAN SPACE ENERGY GRAVITY
SPHERICAL
nD + t
PARTICLES FIELDS

METAL
ATOMIC NON-ATOMIC
SEMI-METAL BAND STRUCTURE
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
INSULATOR STATE / VISCOSITY

LIQUID CRYSTALS
GAS SOLID LIQUID
Solid Electrolytes
STRUCTURE

AMORPHOUS QUASICRYSTALS RATIONAL CRYSTALS

APPROXIMANTS
SIZE

NANO-QUASICRYSTALS NANOCRYSTALS

Note: Some fields are hyperlinks

Materials Science
 METAL The Materials Zone
Please spend time over this figure and its implications (notes in the next slide)

SEMI-METAL
BAND STRUCTURE ATOMIC
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
INSULATOR
STATE / VISCOSITY

LIQUID CRYSTALS
GAS SOLID LIQUID
Solid Electrolytes
STRUCTURE

AMORPHOUS QUASICRYSTALS RATIONAL CRYSTALS

APPROXIMANTS
SIZE

NANO-QUASICRYSTALS NANOCRYSTALS

Faceted glass objects

are sometimes called
Strange? crystals!
A polycrystalline vessel for drinking fluids is sometimes referred to as GLASS!
And, a faceted glass object is sometimes referred to as a crystal!

Continued…
  Based on state (phase) a given material can be Gas, Liquid or Solid
(based on the thermodynamic variables: P, T,…).
Intermediate/coexistent states are also possible (i.e clear demarcations can get blurred).
(Kinetic variables can also affect how a material behaves: e.g. at high strain rates some materials may
behave as solids and as a liquid at low strain rates)
 Based on structure (arrangement of atoms/molecules/ions) materials can be
Crystalline, Quasicrystalline or Amorphous.
Intermediate states (say between crystalline and amorphous; i.e. partly
crystalline) are also possible. Polymers are often only partly crystalline.
 Liquid Crystals (‘in some sense’) are between Liquids and Crystals.
 Similarly Solid Electrolytes (also known as* fast ion conductors and superionic conductors) are also
between crystals and liquids. These materials have a sublattice which is ‘molten’
and the ions in this sublattice are highly mobile (these materials are similar to liquid electrolytes in this sense).
 Based on Band Structure we can classify materials into Metals, Semi-metals,
Semiconductors and Insulators.
 Based on the size of the entity in question we can Nanocrystals,
Nanoquasicrystals etc.
 There are other classifications we will encounter during the course (readers may want to check this out: Slide 7).

* Though these other terms are misnomers.

Funda Check

One way of classification does not interfere with another

 From a state perspective we could have a liquid, which is a metal from the band structure
perspective
 Hg is liquid metal at room temperature.
 Or we could have a metal (band structure viewpoint), which is amorphous (structural
viewpoint)
 ZrTiCuNiBe bulk metallic glass.
 Or we could have a ferromagnetic material (from spontaneous spin alignment point of
view- a physical property), which is amorphous (e.g.) (structural viewpoint)
 amorphous Co-Au alloys are ferromagnetic.
A Common Description
 Let us consider the common types of Engineering Materials.
 These are Metals, Ceramics, Polymers and various types of composites of these.
 A composite is a combination of two or more materials which gives a certain benefit to at least one
property → A comprehensive classification is given in the next slide. The term Hybrid is a superset of
composites.
 The type of atomic entities (ion, molecule etc.) differ from one class to another, which in turn gives
each class a broad ‘flavour’ of properties.
● Like metals are usually ductile and ceramics are usually hard & brittle Bonding and structure are key
factors in determining the
● Polymers have a poor tolerance to heat, while ceramics can withstand high temperatures properties of materials
● Metals are opaque (in bulk), while silicate glasses are transparent/translucent
● Metals are usually good conductors of heat and electricity, while ceramics are poor in this aspect.
● If you heat semi-conductors their electrical conductivity will increase, while for metals it will decrease
● Ceramics are more resistant to harsh environments as compared to Metals
 Biomaterials are a special class of materials which are compatible with the body of an organism
(‘biocompatible’). Certain metals, ceramics, polymers etc. can be used as biomaterials.

Diamond is poor electrical

conductor but a good thermal
Common type of materials conductor!! (phonons are
responsible for this)

Metals Ceramics Polymers

& Glasses

Hybrids (Composites)
 Materials
Composites: have two (or more)
solid components; usually one is a
Monolithic Hybrids
matrix and other is a reinforcement
Metals (& Alloys) Composite
Sandwich structures: have a
Ceramics & Glasses material on the surface (one or
Sandwich more sides) of a core material
Polymers (& Elastomers)
Lattice* Structures: typically a
Lattice combination of material and space
(e.g. metallic or ceramic forms, aerogels
etc.).
Segment Hybrids are
designed to improve
Segmented Structures: are divided in 1D, 2D certain properties of
monolithic materials
or 3D (may consist of one or more materials).

Q&A What are functionally graded

materials?
 In functionally graded materials (FGM) the property varies from one side of the material (structure) to the other.
 E.g the outer surface may be made hard and abrasion resistant, while the interior could be made tough.
 The gradation in function could be obtained by composition changes, microstructure differences (via heat
Gradation of function
treatment), etc.

*Note: this use of the word 'lattice' should not be confused with the use of the word in connection with crystallography.
Also known by other names: foams, cellular materials)
Common materials: with various ‘viewpoints’

Graphite
Glass: amorphous
Ceramics

Crystal
Metals Polymers
 Common materials: examples

 Metals and alloys  Cu, Ni, Fe, NiAl (intermetallic compound), Brass (Cu-Zn alloys)
 Ceramics & glasses (usually oxides, nitrides, carbides)  Alumina (Al2O3), Zirconia (Zr2O3)
 Polymers (thermoplasts, thermosets) (Elastomers) Polythene, Polyvinyl chloride, Polypropylene

Based on Electrical Conduction

 Conductors  Cu, Al, NiAl
 Semiconductors  Ge, Si, GaAs
 Insulators  Alumina, Polythene*

Based on Ductility
 Ductile  Metals, Alloys
 Brittle  Ceramics, Inorganic Glasses, Ge, Si

* some special polymers could be conducting

 Classes of Materials

• From Chem1A Recall The Periodic Table of Elements

Polymers Ceramics
SemiConductors

Metals

20
• ALL of Engineering is impacted by Materials!
 The broad scientific and technological segments of Materials Science are shown
in the diagram below.
 To gain a comprehensive understanding of materials science, all these aspects
have to be studied.

MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Science of Metallurgy

 Thermodynamics  Kinetics

PHYSICAL MECHANICAL ELECTRO- TECHNOLOGICAL

CHEMICAL
• Extractive
• Structure • Casting
• Deformation • Corrosion
• Physical • Metal Forming
Behaviour
Properties • Welding
• Powder Metallurgy
• Machining
The Materials Tetrahedron
 A materials scientist has to consider four ‘intertwined’ concepts, which are schematically
shown as the ‘Materials Tetrahedron’.
  When a certain performance is expected from a component (and hence the material
constituting the
same), the ‘expectation’ is put forth as a set of properties.
 The material is synthesized and further made into a component by a set of processing
methods
(casting, forming, welding, powder metallurgy etc.).
 The structure (at various lengthscales*) is determined by this processing.
 The structure in turn determines the properties, which will dictate the performance of the
component.
 Hence each of these aspects is dependent on the others.

The broad goal of Materials Science &

Engineering is to understand and
‘engineer’ this tetrahedron The Materials Tetrahedron

* this aspect will be considered in detail later

 What determines the properties of materials?
 Cannot just be the composition!
 Few 10s of ppm of Oxygen in Cu can degrade its conductivity (that is why we have Oxygen free high conductivity
copper (OFHC))

 Cannot just be the amount of phases present!

 A small amount of cementite along grain boundaries can cause the material to have poor impact
toughness
 Cannot just be the distribution of phases!
 Dislocations can severely weaken a crystal
 Cannot just be the defect structure in the phases present!
 The presence of surface compressive stress toughens glass

 The following factors put together determines the properties of a material:

 Composition
 Phases present and their distribution
 Defect Structure (in the phases and between the phases)
 Residual stress (can have multiple origins and one may have to travel across lengthscales)
 These factors do NOT act independent of one another (there is an interdependency)

Phases & Their

Distribution
Composition Residual Stress
Defect Structure Click here to ‘understand stress’

Hence, one has to traverse across lengthscales and look at various aspects to understand the properties of materials.
  Properties of a material are determined by two important characteristics*:
 Atomic structure
(The way atoms, ions, molecules arranged in the material).
 Electromagnetic structure – the bonding character
(The way the electrons**/charge are distributed and spin associated with electrons).
(Bonding in some sense is the simplified description of valence electron density distributions).

 Essentially, the electromagnetic structure and processing determine the atomic structure.

Atomic structure

Properties influenced by

Electromagnetic structure
(Bonding characteristics)

* Both these aspects are essentially governed by (properties of) electrons and how they talk to each other!
** Including sharing of electrons.
 In the next three slides we will traverse across lengthscales to demarcate the usual
domain of Materials Science.
 Many of the terms and concepts in the slide will be dealt with in later chapters.
 As we shall see the scale of Microstructures is very important and in some sense
Materials Scientists are also ‘Microstructure Engineers’!
(Material scientists are microstructure engineers who ‘worry’ about
mechanisms).
 There could be issues involved at the scale of the component (i.e. design of the
component or its meshing with the remainder of the system), which are
traditionally not included in the domain of Materials Science.
E.g. sharp corners in a component would lead to stress concentration during loading, which could lead to crack
initiation and propagation, leading to failure of the component.
● The inherent resistance of the material to cracks (and stress concentrations) would
typically be of concern to materials scientists and not the design of the component.
 Diamond cubic
• Casting
• Metal Forming
• Welding
Thermo-mechanical • Powder Processing
Crystal Treatments • Machining

Atom Structure Microstructure Component

Electro-
magnetic

Processing determines shape and microstructure of

a component
 Materials Science • Casting
Thermo-mechanical • Metal Forming
Treatments • Welding
• Powder Processing
Crystal
• Machining

Atom Structure Microstructure Component

Electro-
magnetic Phases + Defects + Residual Stress
& their distributions

sl i de) • Vacancies
ex t
he n • Dislocations
in t
No tes • Twins
(
• Stacking Faults
• Grain Boundaries
• Voids
• Cracks
Processing determines shape and microstructure of a component

Please spend time over this figure and its implications (notes in the next slide)
  Structure could imply two types of structure:
 Crystal structure
 Electromagnetic structure
 Fundamentally these aspects are two sides of the same coin
 Microstructure can be defined as:
(Phases* + Defect Structure + Residual Stress) and their distributions
(more about these in later chapters)

 Microstructure can be ‘tailored’ by thermo-mechanical treatments

 A typical component/device could be a hybrid with many materials and having
multiple microstructures
E.g. a pen cap can have plastic and metallic parts

Click here to know more about microstructures

* Including aspects like morphology of phases

 What determines the properties of
Funda Check
materials?
 There are microstructure ‘sensitive’ properties (often called structure sensitive properties)
and microstructure insensitive properties (note the word is sensitive and not dependent).
  Microstructure ‘sensitive’ properties → Yield stress, hardness, Magnetic coercivity…
 Microstructure insensitive properties → Density, Elastic modulus…
 Hence, one has to keep in focus:
 Atomic structure
Electronic Interactions
 Electromagnetic structure/Bonding In materials
 Microstructure
to understand the properties. Bonding Structure
Weak Strong
Interactions Interactions
Hydrogen bond COVALENT

Etc. IONIC
Van der Waals
METALLIC

 From an alternate perspective:

Electronic interactions are responsible for most the material properties.
From an understanding perspective this can be broken down into Bonding and Structure.
 Effect of Bonding on properties: a broad flavour
 Two important contributing factors to the properties of materials is the nature of bonding
and the atomic structure.
 Both of these are a result of electron interactions and resulting distribution in the material.

Bond Melting Hardness Electrical

Bond Examples
Energy eV point (Ductility) Conductivity
5 Diamond, Graphite,
Covalent High Hard (poor) Usually Low
(8×1019 J) Ge, Si
Ionic 1-3 High Hard (poor) Low NaCl, ZnS, CsCl

Metallic 0.5 Varies Varies High Fe, Cu, Ag

Van der
0.001-0.1 Low Soft (poor) Low Ne, Ar, Kr
Waals
Hydrogen Low Soft (poor) Usually Low Ice

* For comparison thermal energy at RT (300K) is 0.03 eV

Funda Check What are the four founding pillars of materials
science?
 The four pillars of Materials Science and Engineering are:
(i) Physical structure→ Atomic structure (+ Microstructure)
(ii) Electromagnetic Structure→ Electronic and Magnetic structure
(iii) Thermodynamics
(iv) Kinetics
 If one gains understanding of these four pillars, one can comprehend most aspects of
Material behavior and engineer materials for applications.

Materials Science
Physical Structure

Electromagnetic structure
Thermodynamics

Kinetics

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Material usage strategies
 There are basically three strategies* available for the use of materials for specific purposes.
 Design a material with better properties
(e.g. materials with better creep resistance at high temperatures).
 Protect the material with surface coatings, cooling etc.
(e.g. paint the material to avoid corrosion).
 Use ‘sacrificial materials’ to protect the key component
(e.g. use of sacrificial anodes to prevent corrosion).
 The obvious has not been stated above i.e. use more “quantity” of material.
 Also, we could do a better design of the component/mechanism/machine/… itself (so that
the “load” on the material is not as much) .

* Note: in a given situation, only one/some of these strategies may work.

 Modern material (/component) design: smart materials*
Examples of smart materials, structures and ‘components’ (/organs) are abound in the biological world.
Many of the ‘stuff’ found in the biological world have amazing design strategies, some of which we are just
able to copy (biomimetic materials) and further use the ‘inspiration’ to design newer materials (biognostic
materials). Some of the important qualities, which a smart material can have are listed below.
Self reporting: lets us know of changes occurring in the material e.g. damage accumulation can lead to
magnetization.
Responsive: responds to the environment and alters its properties (e.g. photochromatic lenses which
darken on exposure to sun light).
Responsive and self healing: responds to the environment or changes within the material and can heal any
deleterious changes (e.g. if cracks grow material is released to heal the cracks).
Self cleaning: this is like the ‘gecko effect’, where the surface cleans itself.
Self lubricating: an old concept, wherein the material puts up a surface layer which acts like a lubricant
(e.g. Al-graphite composites, wherein the graphite acts like a lubricant).
Multi-functional: the material performs multiple roles in a single structure or component. E.g.: (i) the cover
of a mobile can be its power cell too, (ii) an antenna made of shape memory alloy can be transported in
collapsed form and extends itself on heating on-site (envisaged for space applications), (iii) ferroelectric and
ferromagnetic.

Also applicable to all students !!!!

Summary
 The goal of Materials Science and Engineering is to design materials with a certain set of properties,
which gives a certain desired performance. Using suitable processing techniques the material can be
synthesized and processed. The processing also determines the microstructure of the material.
 The material is expected to be used in a structure (e.g. bridge, truss, bolt) or a component (e.g. gear
wheel, battery, computer chip, filament of a light bulb).
 To understand the microstructure the material scientist has to traverse across lengthscales and has to
comprehend the defect structure in the material along with the phases and their distribution. The
residual stress state in the material is also very important.
 Common types of materials available to an engineer are: Metals, Ceramics and Polymers. A hybrid
made out of these materials may serve certain engineering goals better.
 Materials are also classified based on Band Structure (Metals, Semi-metals, Semiconductors,
Insulators) or Atomic Structure (Crystals, Quasicrystals, Amorphous phases).

The chapter technically ends here but the inquisitive reader may
continue to read the slides which follow.
 Some excursions into a broader picture

Basic Overview Fundas

 The coming slides puts together some ‘Overview Fundas’.
 These technically do not fit into any chapter or topic hence they have been
included in this chapter.
 Some of the concepts involved may be advanced for a beginner however he/she
may have a cursory look at these and recollect them when the appropriate topics
have been understood.
Global versus local
 Often for an event to take place the necessary and sufficient conditions must be satisfied.
 For many processes taking place in materials science, one has to ‘worry’ about a picture
involving a global criterion and a local criterion*. In many circumstances the global
criterion is the necessary condition and local is a sufficient one.
 Let us take an example of a crack in a body loaded in tension (Fig. below). For the crack to grow,
there must be sufficient elastic energy stored in the body (global, necessary condition), but
this is not enough. The stresses at the crack tip (which depends on the crack tip radius or
‘sharpness’) must be sufficient to break the bonds at the crack tip (local, sufficient condition) and
lead to the propagation of the crack.
 In many situations the global criterion is energy based, while the local is stress based.
 Other examples include: grain growth, formation of interfacial misfit dislocation during the
growth of precipitate or epitaxial film, nucleation of second phase, etc.


A crack in a material

Crack tip stresses are higher than the  applied

* For now we assume that just one criterion needs to be satisfied.

Linear versus Angular
 For every linear (visualized as a straight arrow) entity there is usually an angular
counterpart (visualized as a arc of a circle with an arrow).
 Note: ‘Proper perspective’ is required to make the connection.

 For law of conservation of linear momentum, there is the angular counterpart

 the law of conservation of angular momentum.
 For the edge dislocation, there is the screw dislocation.
 For electric field, there is the magnetic field arising from ‘spinning’ (or
revolving) charges. [Electron is associated charge and magnetic moment].
 For linear frequency (), there is angular frequency ( = 2).

 We often want to convert linear ‘stuff’ to angular or vice-versa. Some examples are:
 A solenoid ‘converts’ ‘circular magnetic fields’ to linear fields.
 A spring converts linear loading into torsional loading of the material.
 In Bragg’s diffraction experiment (say XRD) linear information (d-spacing between atomic planes) is converted
to angular information (the diffraction angle).
 The crank of a ‘steam locomotive’ converts linear motion of a piston to circular motion (of the wheel).
Ode to the electron
 Fundamental particles have important properties associated with them (not all have all the
properties as below):

Size, Mass, Charge, Spin, Angular Momentum (arising from spin), Magnetic
Moment (arising from spin of charged particles), etc.
 The electron in spite of being a familiar ‘entity’, is perhaps one of the most
mysterious ‘objects’ around.
 It has no known size to less than about 1015 m  it is as close as we can get to a
geometrical point.
 Yet it has Mass, Charge and Spin (and hence angular and magnetic moments).
 It can behave a like a particle or a wave (hence used in electron microscopy).
 Q&A What is ‘residual stress’ and how can it arise in a material (/component)?

 The stress present in a material/component in the absence of external loading/forces or constraints (i.e.
in a free-standing body) is called residual stress.
 Residual stress can ‘be’ in the macro-scale or micro-scale and can be deleterious or beneficial
depending on the context (diagram below).
 Residual stress may have multiple origins as in the diagrams below.

• Residual stress can be beneficial (+) or detrimental (–)

Macro-scale
Residual • E.g.
Based on scale   Stress corrosion cracking
Stress
 + Residual Surface Stress in toughened glass
Micro-scale + 2.44
All values are in GPa
+ 1.00

+ 0.67

Due to a dislocation Residual stresses due to an coherent precipitate

+ 0.33

(a crystallographic defect)
0.00

− 0.33
Stress state (plot of y) due to a coherent -Fe precipitate
in a Cu–2 wt.%Fe alloy aged at 700 C for (a) 30 min. − 0.67

Residual y

x
Simulated σy contours
− 1.00

− 1.16

Stress
z

• Thermal
Physical properties • Magnetic
Defects • Vacancies, Dislocations, Voids, Cracks • Ferroelectric
Residual
Origins/Related to
Phase Transformation & reactions Stress
Thermal origin • Mismatch in coefficient of Geometrical entities
thermal expansion