CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN FOCUS

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Urry Cain Wasserman Minorsky Jackson Reece
Lecture Presentations by
Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge
2
The Chemical
Context of Life
Overview: A Chemical Connection to Biology
Biology is a multidisciplinary science
Living organisms are subject to basic laws of physics
and chemistry
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.1
Concept 2.1: Matter consists of chemical elements
in pure form and in combinations called
compounds
Organisms are composed of matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has
mass
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Elements and Compounds
Matter is made up of elements
An element is a substance that cannot be broken
down to other substances by chemical reactions
A compound is a substance consisting of two or
more elements in a fixed ratio
A compound has emergent properties,
characteristics different from those of its elements
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.2
Sodium chloride Sodium Chlorine
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Figure 2.2a
Sodium
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Figure 2.2b
Chlorine
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Figure 2.2c
Sodium chloride
The Elements of Life
Of 92 natural elements, about 2025% are essential
elements, needed by an organism to live a healthy
life and reproduce
Trace elements are required in only minute
quantities
For example, in vertebrates, iodine (I) is required for
normal activity of the thyroid gland
In humans, an iodine deficiency can cause goiter
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Evolution of Tolerance to Toxic Elements
Some naturally occurring elements are toxic to
organisms
In humans, arsenic is linked to many diseases and
can be lethal
Some species have become adapted to environments
containing elements that are usually toxic
For example, sunflower plants can take up lead, zinc,
and other heavy metals in concentrations lethal to
most organisms
Sunflower plants were used to detoxify contaminated
soils after Hurricane Katrina
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Concept 2.2: An elements properties depend on
the structure of its atoms
Each element consists of a certain type of atom,
different from the atoms of any other element
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that still
retains the properties of an element
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Subatomic Particles
Atoms are composed of smaller parts called
subatomic particles
Relevant subatomic particles include
Neutrons (no electrical charge)
Protons (positive charge)
Electrons (negative charge)
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Neutrons and protons form the atomic nucleus
Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus
Neutron mass and proton mass are almost identical
and are measured in daltons
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.3
Cloud of negative
charge (2 electrons)
Electrons
Nucleus
(a) (b)
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
Atoms of the various elements differ in number of
subatomic particles
An elements atomic number is the number of
protons in its nucleus
An elements mass number is the sum of protons
plus neutrons in the nucleus
Atomic mass, the atoms total mass, can be
approximated by the mass number
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Mass number = number of protons + neutrons
= 23 for sodium
Atomic number = number of protons
= 11 for sodium
23
Na
11
Because neutrons and protons each have a mass of approximately
1 dalton, we can estimate the atomic mass (total mass of one atom)
of sodium as 23 daltons
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Isotopes
All atoms of an element have the same number of
protons but may differ in number of neutrons
Isotopes are two atoms of an element that differ in
number of neutrons
Radioactive isotopes decay spontaneously,
giving off particles and energy
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Some applications of radioactive isotopes in
biological research are
Dating fossils
Tracing atoms through metabolic processes
Diagnosing medical disorders
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.4
Cancerous
throat
tissue
The Energy Levels of Electrons
Energy is the capacity to cause change
Potential energy is the energy that matter has
because of its location or structure
The electrons of an atom differ in their amounts of
potential energy
Changes in potential energy occur in steps of fixed
amounts
An electrons state of potential energy is called its
energy level, or electron shell
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.5
Third shell (highest
energy level in this
model)
Energy
lost
Energy
absorbed
Atomic
nucleus
Second shell (higher
energy level)
First shell (lowest
energy level)
(a) A ball bouncing down a flight
of stairs provides an analogy
for energy levels of electrons.
(b)
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Figure 2.5a
(a) A ball bouncing down a flight
of stairs provides an analogy
for energy levels of electrons.
Electrons are found in different electron shells,
each with a characteristic average distance from the
nucleus
The energy level of each shell increases with
distance from the nucleus
Electrons can move to higher or lower shells by
absorbing or releasing energy, respectively
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.5b
Third shell (highest
energy level in this
model)
Energy
lost
Energy
absorbed
Atomic
nucleus
Second shell (higher
energy level)
First shell (lowest
energy level)
(b)
Electron Distribution and Chemical Properties
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by
the distribution of electrons in electron shells
The periodic table of the elements shows the
electron distribution for each element
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.6
First
shell
Second
shell
Hydrogen
1
H
Lithium
3
Li
Beryllium
4
Be
Third
shell
Sodium
11
Na
Magnesium
12
Mg
Boron
5
B
Aluminum
13
Al
Carbon
6
C
Silicon
14
Si
Nitrogen
7
N
Phosphorus
15
P
Oxygen
8
O
Sulfur
16
S
Fluorine
9
F
Chlorine
17
Cl
Neon
10
Ne
Argon
18
Ar
Helium
2
He
Atomic mass
Atomic number
Element symbol
Electron
distribution
diagram
2
He
4.00
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Figure 2.6a
Helium
2
He
Atomic mass
Atomic number
Element symbol
Electron
distribution
diagram
2
He
4.00
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Figure 2.6b
First
shell
Hydrogen
1
H
Helium
2
He
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Figure 2.6c
Second
shell
Lithium
3
Li
Beryllium
4
Be
Third
shell
Sodium
11
Na
Magnesium
12
Mg
Boron
5
B
Aluminum
13
Al
Carbon
6
C
Silicon
14
Si
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Figure 2.6d
Nitrogen
7
N
Phosphorus
15
P
Oxygen
8
O
Sulfur
16
S
Fluorine
9
F
Chlorine
17
Cl
Neon
10
Ne
Argon
18
Ar
Second
shell
Third
shell
Chemical behavior of an atom depends mostly on the
number of electrons in its outermost shell, or valence
shell
Valence electrons are those that occupy the
valence shell
The reactivity of an atom arises from the presence of
one or more unpaired electrons in the valence shell
Atoms with completed valence shells are unreactive,
or inert
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Concept 2.3: The formation and function of
molecules depend on chemical bonding between
atoms
Atoms with incomplete valence shells can share or
transfer valence electrons with certain other atoms
This usually results in atoms staying close together,
held by attractions called chemical bonds
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Covalent Bonds
A covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of valence
electrons by two atoms
In a covalent bond, the shared electrons count as
part of each atoms valence shell
Two or more atoms held together by valence bonds
constitute a molecule
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.7-1
Hydrogen atoms (2 H)
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Figure 2.7-2
Hydrogen atoms (2 H)
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Figure 2.7-3
Hydrogen
molecule (H
2
)
Hydrogen atoms (2 H)
The notation used to represent atoms and bonding
is called a structural formula
For example, HH
This can be abbreviated further with a molecular
formula
For example, H
2


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In a structural formula, a single bond, the sharing of
one pair of electrons, is indicated by a single line
between the atoms
For example, HH

A double bond, the sharing of two pairs of electrons,
is indicated by a double line between atoms
For example, O O
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.8
(d) Methane (CH
4
)
(c) Water (H
2
O)
(b) Oxygen (O
2
)
(a) Hydrogen (H
2
)
Name and
Molecular
Formula
Electron
Distribution
Diagram
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Model
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Figure 2.8a
Name and
Molecular
Formula
Electron
Distribution
Diagram
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Model
(a) Hydrogen (H
2
)
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Figure 2.8b
Name and
Molecular
Formula
Electron
Distribution
Diagram
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Model
(b) Oxygen (O
2
)
Each atom that can share valence electrons has a
bonding capacity, the number of bonds that the
atom can form
Bonding capacity, or valence, usually corresponds
to the number of electrons required to complete the
atom
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Pure elements are composed of molecules of one
type of atom, such as H
2
and O
2

Molecules composed of a combination of two or
more types of atoms are called compounds, such as
H
2
O or CH
4

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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.8c
Name and
Molecular
Formula
Electron
Distribution
Diagram
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Model
(c) Water (H
2
O)
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Figure 2.8d
Name and
Molecular
Formula
Electron
Distribution
Diagram
Structural
Formula
Space-
Filling
Model
(d) Methane (CH
4
)
Atoms in a molecule attract electrons to varying
degrees
Electronegativity is an atoms attraction for the
electrons in a covalent bond
The more electronegative an atom, the more
strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself
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In a nonpolar covalent bond, the atoms share the
electron equally
In a polar covalent bond, one atom is more
electronegative, and the atoms do not share the
electron equally
Unequal sharing of electrons causes a partial positive
or negative charge for each atom or molecule
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Animation: Covalent Bonds
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Figure 2.9
H
2
O
H H
O
o
+

o

o
+

Ionic Bonds
Atoms sometimes strip electrons from their bonding
partners
An example is the transfer of an electron from
sodium to chlorine
After the transfer of an electron, both atoms have
charges
Both atoms also have complete valence shells
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.10-1
Na
Sodium atom
Cl
Chlorine atom
Na Cl
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Figure 2.10-2
Na
Sodium atom
Cl
Chlorine atom
Na
+

Sodium ion
(a cation)
Cl

Chloride ion
(an anion)
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Na Cl Na Cl
+
A cation is a positively charged ion
An anion is a negatively charged ion
An ionic bond is an attraction between an anion and
a cation
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Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called ionic
compounds, or salts
Salts, such as sodium chloride (table salt), are
often found in nature as crystals
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Animation: Ionic Bonds
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Figure 2.11
Na
+

Cl





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Figure 2.11a
Weak Chemical Bonds
Most of the strongest bonds in organisms are
covalent bonds that form a cells molecules
Weak chemical bonds, such as ionic bonds and
hydrogen bonds, are also important
Many large biological molecules are held in their
functional form by weak bonds
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Hydrogen Bonds
A hydrogen bond forms when a hydrogen atom
covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is
also attracted to another electronegative atom
In living cells, the electronegative partners are
usually oxygen or nitrogen atoms
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.12
Hydrogen bond
Ammonia (NH
3
)

Water (H
2
O)
o

o
+

o

o
+

o
+

o
+

o
+

Van der Waals I nteractions
If electrons are distributed asymmetrically in
molecules or atoms, they can result in hot spots
of positive or negative charge
Van der Waals interactions are attractions
between molecules that are close together as a
result of these charges
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Van der Waals interactions are individually weak
and occur only when atoms and molecules are
very close together
Collectively, such interactions can be strong, as
between molecules of a geckos toe hairs and a
wall surface
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN01
Molecular Shape and Function
A molecules shape is usually very important to its
function
Molecular shape determines how biological
molecules recognize and respond to one another
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.13
Water (H
2
O)
Methane (CH
4
)
104.5
Ball-and-Stick
Model
Space-Filling
Model
Biological molecules recognize and interact with each
other with a specificity based on molecular shape
Molecules with similar shapes can have similar
biological effects
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.14
Natural
endorphin
Endorphin
receptors
Brain cell
Morphine
(b) Binding to endorphin receptors
(a) Structures of endorphin and morphine
Natural endorphin
Morphine
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Key
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Figure 2.14a
(a) Structures of endorphin and morphine
Natural endorphin
Morphine
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Key
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Figure 2.14b
Natural
endorphin
Endorphin
receptors
Brain cell
Morphine
(b) Binding to endorphin receptors
Concept 2.4: Chemical reactions make and
break chemical bonds
Chemical reactions are the making and breaking
of chemical bonds
The starting molecules of a chemical reaction are
called reactants
The final molecules of a chemical reaction are
called products
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN02
Reactants Reaction Products
2 H
2
O
2
2 H
2
O
Photosynthesis is an important chemical reaction
Sunlight powers the conversion of carbon dioxide
and water to glucose and oxygen
6 CO
2
+ 6 H
2
O C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6 O
2

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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.15
All chemical reactions are reversible: Products of the
forward reaction become reactants for the reverse
reaction
Chemical equilibrium is reached when the forward
and reverse reaction rates are equal
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Concept 2.5: Hydrogen bonding gives water
properties that help make life possible on Earth
All organisms are made mostly of water and live in
an environment dominated by water
Water molecules are polar, with the oxygen region
having a partial negative charge (o) and the
hydrogen region a slight positive charge (o+)
Two water molecules are held together by a
hydrogen bond
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.16
Hydrogen
bond
Polar covalent
bonds
Four emergent properties of water contribute to
Earths suitability for life:
Cohesive behavior
Ability to moderate temperature
Expansion upon freezing
Versatility as a solvent
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Cohesion of Water Molecules
Water molecules are linked by multiple hydrogen
bonds
The molecules stay close together because of this;
it is called cohesion
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Cohesion due to hydrogen bonding contributes to
the transport of water and nutrients against gravity
in plants
Adhesion, the clinging of one substance to
another, also plays a role
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Animation: Water Structure
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Figure 2.17
Adhesion
Cohesion
Direction
of water
movement
Two types of
water-conducting
cells
300 m
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Figure 2.17a
Two types of
water-conducting
cells
300 m
Surface tension is a measure of how hard it is to
break the surface of a liquid
Surface tension is related to cohesion
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Animation: Water Transport
Animation: Water Transport in Plants
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Figure 2.18
Moderation of Temperature by Water
Water absorbs heat from warmer air and releases
stored heat to cooler air
Water can absorb or release a large amount of heat
with only a slight change in its own temperature
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Temperature and Heat
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
Thermal energy is a measure of the total amount of
kinetic energy due to molecular motion
Temperature represents the average kinetic energy
of molecules
Thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter
to another is defined as heat
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The Celsius scale is a measure of temperature
using Celsius degrees (C)
A calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1C
The calories on food packages are actually
kilocalories (kcal), where 1 kcal = 1,000 cal
The joule (J) is another unit of energy, where
1 J = 0.239 cal, or 1 cal = 4.184 J
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Waters High Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of
heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that
substance to change its temperature by 1C
The specific heat of water is 1 cal/g/C
Water resists changing its temperature because of
its high specific heat
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Waters high specific heat can be traced to
hydrogen bonding
Heat is absorbed when hydrogen bonds break
Heat is released when hydrogen bonds form
The high specific heat of water keeps temperature
fluctuations within limits that permit life
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.19
Santa Barbara 73
San Bernardino
100
Riverside 96
Pacific Ocean 68
Burbank
90
Santa Ana
84
Palm Springs
106
Los Angeles
(Airport) 75
San Diego 72
40 miles
70s (F)
80s
90s
100s
Evaporative Cooling
Evaporation is transformation of a substance from
liquid to gas
Heat of vaporization is the heat a liquid must absorb
for 1 g to be converted to gas
As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools, a
process called evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling of water helps stabilize
temperatures in organisms and bodies of water
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Floating of Ice on Liquid Water
Ice floats in liquid water because hydrogen bonds
in ice are more ordered, making ice less dense
Water reaches its greatest density at 4C
If ice sank, all bodies of water would eventually
freeze solid, making life impossible on Earth
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.20
Hydrogen bond
Ice:
Hydrogen bonds
are stable
Liquid water:
Hydrogen bonds
break and re-form
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Figure 2.20a
Water: The Solvent of Life
A solution is a liquid that is a homogeneous mixture
of substances
A solvent is the dissolving agent of a solution
The solute is the substance that is dissolved
An aqueous solution is one in which water is the
solvent
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Water is a versatile solvent due to its polarity, which
allows it to form hydrogen bonds easily
When an ionic compound is dissolved in water, each
ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules
called a hydration shell
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.21
Cl

Cl

Na
+

Na
+

Water can also dissolve compounds made of
nonionic polar molecules
Even large polar molecules such as proteins can
dissolve in water if they have ionic and polar regions
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.22
o+
o+
o
Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substances
A hydrophilic substance is one that has an affinity
for water
A hydrophobic substance is one that does not
have an affinity for water
Oil molecules are hydrophobic because they have
relatively nonpolar bonds
A colloid is a stable suspension of fine particles in
a liquid
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Solute Concentration in Aqueous Solutions
Most biochemical reactions occur in water
Chemical reactions depend on collisions of molecules
and therefore on the concentration of solutes in an
aqueous solution
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Molecular mass is the sum of all masses of all
atoms in a molecule
Numbers of molecules are usually measured in
moles, where 1 mole (mol) = 6.02 10
23
molecules
Avogadros number and the unit dalton were defined
such that 6.02 10
23
daltons = 1 g
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per liter
of solution
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Acids and Bases
Sometimes a hydrogen ion (H
+
) is transferred from
one water molecule to another, leaving behind a
hydroxide ion (OH

)
The proton (H
+
) binds to the other water molecule,
forming a hydronium ion (H
3
O
+
)
By convention, H
+
is used to represent the
hydronium ion
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN03
+
Hydronium
ion (H
3
O
+
)
2 H
2
O
Hydroxide
ion (OH

)

Though water dissociation is rare and reversible, it
is important in the chemistry of life
H
+
and OH

are very reactive

Solutes called acids and bases disrupt the balance
between H
+
and OH

in pure water
Acids increase the H
+
concentration in water, while
bases reduce the concentration of H
+
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An acid is any substance that increases the H
+

concentration of a solution
A base is any substance that reduces the H
+

concentration of a solution
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HCl H
+
+ Cl

A strong acid like hydrochloric acid, HCl, dissociates
completely into H
+
and Cl

in water:
Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, acts as a strong base
indirectly by dissociating completely to form
hydroxide ions

These combine with H
+
ions to form water:
NaOH Na
+
+ OH

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NH
3
+ H
+
NH
4
+
Ammonia, NH
3
, acts as a relatively weak base when
it attracts an H
+
ion from the solution and forms
ammonium, NH
4
+

This is a reversible reaction, as shown by the double
arrows:

Carbonic acid, H
2
CO
3
, acts as a weak acid, which
can reversibly release and accept back H
+
ions:
H
2
CO
3
HCO
3

+ H
+
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The pH Scale
In any aqueous solution at 25C, the product of H
+
and OH

is constant and can be written as

The pH of a solution is defined by the negative
logarithm of H
+
concentration, written as


For a neutral aqueous solution, [H
+
] is 10
7
, so
[H
+
][OH

] = 10
14

pH = log [H
+
]
log [H
+
] = (7) = 7
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Acidic solutions have pH values less than 7
Basic solutions have pH values greater than 7
Most biological fluids have pH values in the range of
6 to 8
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.23
pH Scale
Battery acid
Gastric juice, lemon juice
Vinegar, wine,
cola
Tomato juice
Beer
Black coffee
Rainwater
Urine
Saliva
Pure water
Human blood, tears
Seawater
Inside of small intestine
Household
bleach
Oven cleaner
Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia
Neutral
[H
+
] = [OH

]
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g
l
y

A
c
i
d
i
c

[
H
+
]

>

[
O
H

]

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g
l
y

B
a
s
i
c

[
H
+
]

<

[
O
H

]

Basic
solution
Neutral
solution
Acidic
solution
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
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Figure 2.23a
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Figure 2.23b
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Figure 2.23c
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Figure 2.23d
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Figure 2.23e
Basic
solution
Neutral
solution
Acidic
solution
Buffers
The internal pH of most living cells must remain close
to pH 7
Buffers are substances that minimize changes in
concentrations of H
+
and OH

in a solution
Most buffers consist of an acid-base pair that
reversibly combines with H
+


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Carbonic acid is a buffer that contributes to pH
stability in human blood:

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Acidification: A Threat to Our Oceans
Human activities such as burning fossil fuels threaten
water quality
CO
2
is the main product of fossil fuel combustion
About 25% of human-generated CO
2
is absorbed by
the oceans
CO
2
dissolved in seawater forms carbonic acid; this
causes ocean acidification
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As seawater acidifies, H
+
ions combine with
CO
3
2
ions to form bicarbonate ions (HCO
3

)
It is predicted that carbonate ion concentrations
will decline by 40% by the year 2100
This is a concern because organisms that build
coral reefs or shells require carbonate ions
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2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.24
CO
2

CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3

H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3

H
+
+ CO
3
2
HCO
3

CO
3
2
+ Ca
2+
CaCO
3

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Figure 2.UN04
[CO
3
2

] (mol/kg of seawater)
C
a
l
c
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
m
o
l

C
a
C
O
3
/
m
2

-

d
a
y
)


220 280 260 240
20
10
0
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Figure 2.UN05
Neutrons (no charge)
determine isotope
Protons (+ charge)
determine element Electrons ( charge)
form negative cloud
and determine
chemical behavior
Nucleus
Atom
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN06
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN07
Ice: stable hydrogen
bonds
Liquid water:
transient hydrogen
bonds
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN08
Acids donate H
+
in
aqueous solutions.
Bases donate OH

or accept H
+
in
aqueous solutions.

Basic
[H
+
] < [OH

]
Neutral
[H
+
] = [OH

]
Acidic
[H
+
] > [OH

]
14
0
7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 2.UN09