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Data Link

The Data Link Layer provides three main functions: 1. It encodes binary data into electromagnetic signals for transmission and decodes received signals. 2. It encapsulates data into frames, adding headers and trailers that include physical addresses to identify source and destination nodes. 3. It coordinates access to shared links through link access control and uses flow control to pace transmissions and prevent nodes from overwhelming receivers.

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Ssemakula Frank
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32 views

Data Link

The Data Link Layer provides three main functions: 1. It encodes binary data into electromagnetic signals for transmission and decodes received signals. 2. It encapsulates data into frames, adding headers and trailers that include physical addresses to identify source and destination nodes. 3. It coordinates access to shared links through link access control and uses flow control to pace transmissions and prevent nodes from overwhelming receivers.

Uploaded by

Ssemakula Frank
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The Data Link Layer

Data Link layer


Link Layer services
• Encoding
• encode binary data into electromagnetic signals
• Framing
• encapsulate data into frame, adding header, trailer
‘physical addresses’ used in frame headers to identify
• source, dest (different from IP address!)
• Link access control
• coordinate access for shared link
• Flow control
• pacing between sending and receiving nodes such that the
sender does not overwhelm the receiver
• nodes on each side of a link have a limited amount of packet buffering
capacity
Types of errors
• An error occurs when a bit • Single bit error
is altered between
transmission and
reception
• Binary 1 is transmitted and • Bit error – 2 or more bits changed
binary 0 is received
• Binary 0 is transmitted and
binary 1 is received
Error detection process
Parity checking
• Single bit parity: • Two Dimension Bit Parity
Detects up to 3 bit errors
Detects single bit errors

Read about
• Internet checksum
• Cyclic Redundancy Check
Link Layer Multiple Access Protocols
two types of “links”:
• point-to-point
• PPP for dial-up access
• point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
• broadcast (shared wire or medium)
• Older Ethernet
• upstream Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC)
• 802.11 wireless LAN
Multiple Access Protocol
• Multiple access protocol:
• distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e.,
• determine when node can transmit
• communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
• Ideal multiple access protocol:
For a multiple access channel of rate R bps
1. When one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate R.
2. When M nodes want to transmit, each can send at average rate
R/M.
3. Fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronized clocks
• fault-tolerant/robust
Types of Multiple access Protocols
• Three broad classes:
• Channel partitioning
• divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency, code)
• allocate piece to node for exclusive use
• Random access
• channel not divided, allow collisions
• “recover” from collisions
• Centrally controlled/coordinated
• tightly coordinate shared access to avoid collisions
Channel partitioning
• TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
• access to channel in "rounds"
• each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt trans time) in
each round
• unused slots go idle

• FDMA: frequency division multiple access


• channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
• each station assigned fixed frequency band
• unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
Channel portioning cont’d
CDMA: Code division multiple access
• Transmissions are combined on the same channel at the same
time but are separated by codes
• Uses coding to allow multiple simultaneous transmission
without interference.
• Each user has it’s unique code.
Channel portioning cont’d

• F/TDMA
• 2G cellular
network

CDMA
3G cellular
network
How good are channel portioning
protocols
• Broadcast channel of rate R bps
1. When all M nodes want to transmit each can send at average
rate R/M
2. When one node wants to transmit it can send at rate R/M.
Inefficient!
3. Decentralization/fault tolerance:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• synchronized clocks for all but FDMA
Random Access protocols
• When node has data to send
• transmit at full channel data rate R.
• no a priori coordination among nodes
• Two or more transmitting nodes -> “collision”,
• Random access protocol specifies:
• how to detect collisions
• how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)
• Examples of random access protocols:
• slotted ALOHA
• ALOHA
• CSMA, CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
Used in ethernet

After
If a collision transmittin
If the is detected, g the
If the medium is transmit a jamming
medium busy, brief signal,
jamming wait a
is idle, continue to signal to random
transmit; listen until assure that amount of
otherwis the channel all stations time,
e, go to is idle, then know that referred to
step 2 transmit there has as the
been a backoff,
immediately collision and then
cease attempt to
transmission transmit
again
Ethernet
• dominant” for local-area networks:
• Developed at Xerox PARC in 1970s
• First widely used LAN technology
• Random access multiple access control

• Ethernet Frame structure


• Sending adapter encapsulates data payload in Ethernet frame
Ethernet frame
• Preamble:
• 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one byte with pattern10101011
• indicating the beginning of a frame, synchronizing receiver/sender clocks
• Addresses:
• link layer addresses, different from IP addresses
• Length: indicates the length of the body field (max 1500bytes)
• CRC: checked at receiver
• if error is detected, the frame is simply dropped
Connectionless, Unreliable
• Connectionless:
• No handshaking between sending and receiving adapter.
• Unreliable:
• corrupted frames are simply dropped
• no attempt is made on the receiver to detect and recover lost frames
• corrupted or lost packets may be recovered by higher layer protocols,
e.g. TCP
Ethernet uses CDMA/CD
• Random access, no • Before attempting a
synchronized clocks retransmission, adapter waits a
• adapter doesn’t transmit if it random
senses that some other
adapter is transmitting, that is,
carrier sense
• transmitting adapter aborts
when it senses that another
adapter is transmitting, that is,
collision detection
How good are random access protocols
• Multiple channel of rate R bps
1. When one node wants to transmit,
• it can send at full rate R.
2. When M nodes want to transmit,
• each can send at average rate less than R/M.
Not ideal!
3. Decentralization:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronized clocks except for slotted ALOHA
Centrally Controlled MAC protocols
• Polling: • Token passing:
• master node “invites”
• control token passed from one
• slave nodes to transmit in turn
• node to next sequentially.
• concerns:
• polling overhead (bandwidth & latency)
• transmit only when holding the token
• single point of failure (master) • concerns:
• token overhead (bandwidth & latency)
• single point of failure (token)
LAN Interconnection
• MAC addresses and ARP
• MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
• function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one interface to another
physically-connected interface (same network, in IP-addressing sense)
• 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC ROM, also
sometimes software settable
• e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
• Universally unique
Question
• How do we determine node
A’s link layer address knowing
it’s IP address.?
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Specific to internet Architecture
• Each node (Host, Router) on a LAN has an ARP table
• ARP Table: IP/Link layer address mappings for some LAN
nodes
How ARP work?
• A wants to send datagram to B with an IP
address.
• Suppose B’s link-layer address is not in
A’s ARP table.
• A broadcasts ARP query packet,
containing B's IP address.
• B receives ARP packet, replies to A with
its (B's) link-layer address.
• A caches (saves) IP-to-link layer address
pair in its ARP table until it times out when
can a mapping change?
• Broadcasting an ARP request • ARP reply
Interconnecting Nodes in LAN
• Hubs: physical-layer signal repeaters.
• Bridges: understands link-layer protocol (Ethernet), smarter
than hubs.
• Switches: essentially bridges with large number of ports.

• What is the difference between bridges, switches and hubs?


Questions ?

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