MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

RURAL ROAD MAINTENANCE

TRAINING MODULES
FOR FIELD ENGINEERS

Module-1
INTRODUCTION
 Ministry of Rural Development

RURAL ROAD MAINTENANCE

TRAINING MODULES
FOR FIELD ENGINEERS

Module-1
Introduction
This training module is produced through a collaborative effort between the
International Labour Organization and the National Rural Road Development Agency
under the technical assistance component of the World Bank supported Rural Roads
Project-II of Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana Project (PMGSY).

Contents:
• Introduction to maintenance of road works
• Classification of maintenance works
• Road components and terminology
• Standard design for rural roads

Learning Objective:
At the end of this Module you are expected:
• To know why maintenance is important
• To know classification of road maintenance
• To know each components of the road
• To know the standards applicable for rural road maintenance works

Acknowledgement
The following publications were also used as reference materials:
• Managing Maintenance of Rural Roads in India, ILO/NRRDA,
January 2015
• Team-based maintenance of rural roads – Conceptual guide, Serge
Cartier van Dissel, ILO Office in Nepal and Employment Intensive
Investment Programme (EIIP), International Labour Organisation, 2009
1
Foreword
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), was launched in December,
2000 as a special intervention of the Government of India with the broad
objective of ensuring sustainable poverty reduction. The scheme aims
to provide good quality all-weather single connectivity to every eligible
habitation. Rural roads are a state subject under the Constitution and as
such are the basic responsibility of the states. However under the PMGSY,
the construction of good quality and well-engineered roads are fully funded
by the central government. Maintenance of these roads is the responsibility
of the states. The year 2013 saw the launch of PMGSY-II with the objectives
of consolidating the existing rural road network and upgrading existing rural
roads that provide connectivity to rural growth centres. PMGSY-II envisages
sharing of construction costs between the Centre and the states with
maintenance costs continuing to be funded fully by the states.
Over the last 14 years, the PMGSY has carved out a place for itself as a
programme characterised by creation of good quality assets, effective
management and technical proficiency by the National Rural Road
Development Agency (NRRDA), along with capable state road agencies. For
implementation and operations, the involved agencies have been supported
with detailed documentation in the form of programme guidelines, an
operations manual, standard bidding documents, specifications, a standard
data book, a procurement and contracts management manual and the
Quality Assurance Hand Book with support from the Indian Roads Congress.
These documents have also contributed significantly towards effective
implementation of PMGSY and even for mainstreaming good practices in
other rural roads programmes being executed by the states from their own
resources.
An area of concern has been lack of regular maintenance as per the
“Programme Guidelines”. However, in recent years, there has been increased
awareness and commitment to maintenance by the states. The tempo needs
to be sustained and further accelerated.
Under the technical assistance component of the World Bank supported
Rural Roads Project-II, the International Labour Organization (ILO), in
collaboration with NRRDA has prepared a manual “Managing Maintenance
of Rural Roads in India”. This initiated the execution of maintenance works
and the development of these training modules for engineers and contractors
associated with rural road maintenance works. To strengthen such activities
in the participating states of RRP-II, a series of training of trainers workshops
were arranged at national and state level based on the course material
developed.
The training modules broadly cover the principles for maintenance
management of rural roads, planning and execution of common maintenance
interventions to ensure reliable transport services and safety to users and
the local communities served by the rural roads, and arrangements for
monitoring the performance of contractors engaged for the task.
I would like to acknowledge the support of all those associated with the
development of these training modules, especially the ILO and its technical
assistance team, Mr. Htun Hlaing, Mr. Bjorn Johannessen and the project’s
Rural Roads Maintenance Engineers. I would also place on record the
valuable suggestions of my colleagues Ms. Manju Rajpal, IAS, (ex Director –
RC), Mr. R. Basavaraja, Director NRRDA, Mr. S. S. Bhatia, Deputy Director,
NRRDA, Mr. A. K. Sharma, Consultant World Bank and senior engineers as
well as secretaries from State Governments in bringing the document to its
present shape.
I sincerely believe, the training modules would be found useful for the states
in their efforts to secure adequate maintenance of all rural roads, not merely
the PMGSY roads and improve maintenance practices so that benefits of
access continue to remain available for our rural people on a sustainable
basis.

(Rajesh Bhushan, IAS)

JS (RC) & DG, NRRDA
Ministry of Rural Development
Government of India
October, 2015
1
Introduction to Training Modules
The purpose of this training manual is to provide technical management staff
and contractors with appropriate guidelines for the effective management
of road maintenance works. The training modules are based on the manual
“Managing Maintenance of Rural Roads in India”. These modules broadly
cover the principles for maintenance management of rural roads, planning
and execution of common maintenance interventions to ensure reliable
transport services and safety to users and the local communities served
by the rural roads. The arrangements for monitoring the performance of
contractors engaged for the task are also covered in these modules.
This manual is broken down into the following categories composed of
different modules:
Module 1: INTRODUCTION
Module 2: TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
ARRANGEMENTS
Module 3: FINANCING RURAL ROAD MAINTENANCE
Module 4: PLANNING, INSPECTION, REPORTING AND MONITORING
Module 5: APPROPRIATE SETTING OUT TECHNIQUES
Module 6: HAND TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Module 7: ROUTINE MAINTENANCE WORK METHODS
Module 8: OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH & SAFETY, ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES AND DECENT WORK
Module 9: CONTRACT MANAGEMENT

The trainer may decide to conduct a full course consisting of all the nine
modules or may selectively conduct specific modules depending on the
needs of the target group.
As a general advice the trainer should:
• Encourage active participation
There is sometimes a tendency of the trainer to act like a teacher in
school and to read or lecture directly from the course material. This
behaviour should be avoided. Trainees remember information better if
they participate actively in discussions and if there is a free exchange of
views and of questions between everyone participating in the course.

INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING MODULES | i

 • Guiding the discussion
There are times during a discussion when everyone wants to speak
at the same time. When such situations arise, the trainer should insist
that the group listen to one person at the time. If one speaker hijacks
the floor too long, the trainer needs to interrupt, pointing out that other
participants may also want to speak.
• Listen attentively
E  qual attention should be paid to each speaker. Listen attentively and
let the speaker understand that ideas and opinions expressed are both
interesting and relevant. It is sometimes useful to take a brief note of
participants’ suggestions while they are speaking, noting them down on
a flipchart or blackboard. A summary of these notes may prove useful
for later discussions.
• Emphasise important points
E  ach time the participants make an important point or expresses an
interesting opinion, the trainer should draw the group’s attention to it by
repeating the idea in simple terms which are understood by the majority
of the trainees.
• Preparing the sessions
When trainees only listen to a description of how a particular job should
be done, they are likely to forget what they heard. If however, they
actually carry out the task concerned, they will remember how to do
it. For this reason, every effort should be made to include as many
practical exercises and demonstrations as possible, be they carried out
on the worksite or in the training room. Practical sessions should always
be carefully planned in advance.
• Recapping
A  discussion is more than just a conversation. A subject is discussed
with an aim in mind. It may occasionally be worthwhile recapping the
topic considered and recalling the aim of the discussion by intervening
from time to time to give a brief summary of the main points dealt with
so far.
• Questioning
An important role of the trainer is to ensure that the atmosphere during
training is sufficiently relaxed to allow participants to feel at ease to
speak freely. Questions set by the trainer should not be regarded by
the trainees as tests. Often there is no strict “right or wrong” answer to
a question, except for mathematics. Questions should simply give your
trainees the opportunity to put forward their individual points of view.

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Table of Contents
1.  INTRODUCTION 1
1.1  PURPOSE OF MAINTENANCE 1
1.2  CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE 9
1.2.1  Routine Maintenance 9
1.2.2  Periodic Renewal 10
1.2.3  Emergency Maintenance 10
1.3  ROAD COMPONENTS 11
1.4  RURAL ROADS STANDARDS 14
1.4.1  Terrain Classification 14
1.4.2  Design Speed 14
1.4.3  Road Land Width 15
1.4.4  Roadway Width 15
1.4.5  Carriageway Width 17
1.4.6  Camber 17
1.4.7  Side Slopes 17
1.4.8  Scour Checks 18
1.4.9  Cross Drainage Structures 18
1.4.10  Widening at Curves 18

TABLE OF CONTENTS | iii

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Introduction

1.1 PURPOSE OF MAINTENANCE

The basic objective of road maintenance
is implicit in the word itself. It is done Definition
to ensure that the road that has been The Indian Roads Congress defines road
constructed, rehabilitated or improved, maintenance as “routine work performed
is to the extent possible kept in its to upkeep pavement, shoulders and other
original condition. All roads require facilities provided for road users, as nearly
maintenance as they are subjected as possible in their constructed conditions
to traffic and the forces of weather. under normal conditions of traffic and forces
Even with the highest possible of nature”. Maintenance is “essential to
quality of construction, maintenance get optimum service from the pavement
is essential to get optimum service structure during its life period.”
from the road structure during its life
period. By applying preventive maintenance, the deterioration of the road
and its components can be slowed down, thus postponing the need for costly
investments in rehabilitation and securing the planned design life.
Road deterioration is generally slow at first and not very visible, taking the
form of wear and tear and minor damage to the road surface and the drainage
system (see phase A in Figure 1). Because the damage to the road is
minimum the road user tends not to make a fuss on the deterioration, despite
the gradual increase of isolated minor failures. As a result of no maintenance
intervention, the road deteriorates from a very good to a fair condition. At
this time the rate of deterioration tends to increase, as the road base and

Figure 1: Illustration of deterioration effects on a non-maintained road

INTRODUCTION | 1
the foundations of the physical road structures start to become affected
(Figure 1 phase B). This is especially due to water, which is no longer guided
safely away from the road as a result of deterioration of the carriageway,
shoulders and other drainage system, and thus damaging and weakening
the road and making it more susceptible to damage by traffic. Although the
damage to the road can be observed at various scattered locations at the
beginning of this phase, it spreads out until the entire road can be said to
be in poor condition. Once the road condition has become very poor, the
deterioration tends to decrease, as traffic levels goes down severely, and
because there is little left to deteriorate (Figure 1 phase C).
The condition of the road can be improved by carrying out corrective
maintenance. Repairs are made to the road surface and shoulder, the
drainage system and other physical road structures. The more deteriorated
the road is, the more intensive and thus costly the repairs will be
(Figure 2). For instance, corrective maintenance when the road is still in good
or fair condition (Figure 2 arrow 1) may entail patching potholes and minor
repairs to the drainage system and other road structures. However corrective
maintenance carried out once the road is already in poor condition (Figure 2
arrow 2), is likely to entail complete resurfacing and possible reconstruction
of the road base. The distance from the line (in black colour) indicating the
road condition, to the desired good or very good condition of the road is
therefore indicative of the level of corrective maintenance required and thus
for the cost of this maintenance.

Figure 2: Illustration of corrective maintenance cost

By carrying out regular routine maintenance the deterioration of the road is

slowed down considerably, as can be seen in the blue line (line 3) in
Figure 3. Consequently, the corrective maintenance is required less frequently
(Figure 3 arrow  1) leading to reduced overall maintenance costs, and the
road is generally in better condition, resulting in lower travel times and costs.

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Figure 3: Illustration of the effects if routine maintenance is implemented

The need for maintenance depends upon a number of external factors such
as traffic, terrain, soil types and climate. It is also very much determined
by the original technical designs applied and the quality of the works when
the road was constructed. Depending on these parameters, it is possible to
devise maintenance solutions and corresponding management systems that
optimise maintenance costs and efforts. To make the most out of available
funding, emphasis should always be on preventive measures in the planning
and management of road maintenance. In terms of non-emergency related
works, experience clearly shows that it is the regular or routine maintenance
activities related to preserving the drainage system which have the most
significant effect in terms of extending the lifetime of a rural road as shown
in Figure 4. Most of these works do not involve any sophisticated technology
or skills, can be carried out using manual labour and simple hand tools, and
are inexpensive.
As shown in Figure 4, providing routine and periodic maintenance in a planned
manner has a significant impact in terms of achieving an extended service life
Figure 4: Effects of maintenance on road design life

INTRODUCTION | 3
of a road. The periodic maintenance, e.g.
resurfacing, is equally important, but on Breaking a vicious circle
a different time scale with longer cycles Without an organised approach to
in terms of years rather than months. preserving the road network, it is often
Depending on the performance of the seen that road works agencies are forced
pavement, there may be several cycles of into a situation of consistently dealing with
periodic maintenance works on the road the effects of the lack of maintenance,
having to repair and reconstruct road
before its service life is exhausted.
sections that have failed since timely
The above figure also clearly shows that and adequate maintenance interventions
if routine maintenance is not provided, it were not carried out.
advances the point of time when periodic For obvious reasons, the first priority
maintenance is required. The experience is to keep all roads open throughout
actually show that on rural roads where the year (accepting that some road
basic access is the main priority, the sections are not passable during extreme
point at which periodic maintenance is weather conditions). Without a preventive
performed can be further delayed if the maintenance system in place, the efforts
routine maintenance levels are increased to keep roads open very much consists of
carrying out repairs after serious damage
(also linked to the defined service levels).
has taken place. Such interventions
However, at a certain point of time, periodic are much more costly than preventive
maintenance will eventually be required maintenance. Due to the extent of
since the maintenance challenges damages each year, the remedial works
become too large to be effectively often drain the entire road works budgets,
dealt with through routine maintenance leaving no resources left for preventive
interventions. Beyond a certain stage, measures.
the road becomes “unmaintainable” and With the damages taking place during
runs the risk of returning to the vicious the previous rainy season, road agencies
cycle in which substantial rehabilitation are left with no alternative than to use
works are once more required. Periodic subsequent budgets to once again repair
maintenance is therefore also in effect serious damages to its roads. Although
preventive although the operations are these repairs are necessary, it is obvious
reactive in nature, i.e. triggered by a that this way of managing the road
condition level where corrective actions network is costly and ineffective. The
only way of breaking this vicious circle
are required.
is to introduce the concept of preventive
Maintenance ensures that the road maintenance, thus reducing the extent
remains serviceable throughout its design to which the roads require major repair
life. Maintenance is important because it: works. The cost savings in repair works
can then be brought forward to the next
• Prolongs the life of the road by reducing maintenance season and instead utilise
the rate of deterioration, thereby for further preventive activities that may
safeguarding previous investments in preserve the road assets.
construction and rehabilitation,
• Lowers the cost of operating vehicles on the road by providing a smooth
running surface,

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• Improves the reliability of the road allowing it to remain open for traffic on a
continuous basis and thus contributes to more reliable transport services,
and
•  Sustains social and economic benefits of improved road access.
The first purpose is primarily in the interest of the responsible government
authorities. Road agencies need to protect their investments made in
improving the road network, thereby maintaining high service levels for the
road users. The last three are of more general interest to vehicle operators
and the inhabitants of the area serviced by the road.
No matter what technical designs are chosen, all roads, from major highways
to local roads, require regular and timely maintenance in order to secure a
reasonable lifetime on the construction investment. Attempts to find technical
designs that are maintenance-free are disillusions and in the long run only
prove that lack of maintenance leads to accelerated rates of deterioration.
It is also important to make a clear distinction between maintenance and
repair works. Effective maintenance is clearly time-linked, and to be efficient
is carried out before major damages take
place. This involves activities relating Figure 5: Benefits of roads and the
importance of maintenance
to supervision and monitoring of the
road assets even while they are still in
good condition. It also requires that road
authorities are sufficiently responsive and
capable of taking action when it is required -
as opposed to responding with repairs when
major damages have taken place or road
access has finally been cut off.
Timely and regular maintenance requires
securing sufficient funding before repairs and
maintenance become an urgent matter. The
most effective maintenance is achieved when
an organisation is capable and prepared to
carry out appropriate interventions at an
early stage of deterioration and thus limit
the extent of damages. This implies that the
responsible authority is furnished with the
necessary human and financial resources
to effectively manage all facets of the
maintenance works.
Rural roads are the last links in transport
networks and thus form a critical link in
terms of providing access for people living
in rural areas. Permanent or seasonal

INTRODUCTION | 5
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absence of road connectivity acts as a crucial factor in terms of denying rural
communities access to basic services and economic opportunities.
The social and economic impacts of roads are well established1. Communities
and local governments often attach a high priority to road improvements.
Rural roads improve access to markets, schools, health services and other
public amenities. Better access provides the opportunity for increased income
and employment opportunities and can also contribute to the alleviation of
poverty. Still, maintenance of rural roads is seriously neglected many places.
Although the link between rural roads and poverty alleviation is mostly
indirect, experience clearly shows that areas with poor road access are
generally more disadvantaged than areas that are better served. Investments
in rural roads can therefore often be justified from both an economic and a
livelihoods improvement point of view. Nevertheless, whatever benefits they
provide are short lived if they are not maintained.
Rural roads have in recent years received increased attention, partly due
to a growing recognition to its role in poverty reduction. However, it is not
the construction of roads that ensures access over time. If roads are not
provided with adequate maintenance then their access value will be lost. It
is the maintenance applied to roads that provides the sustained access and
contributes to the improvement of livelihoods and economic development.
Furthermore, it is only as a result of sustained access through maintenance
that builds the confidence required for people to invest in improved farming
practices and other business opportunities in the rural areas.
Figure 6 below shows the relationship between investments in road
development and socio-economic benefits. It indicates that the initial
investments in providing first time access generate the fastest increase in
Figure 6: Illustration of relationship between road investments and maintenance
to socio-economic benefits

1
Ref: Rural Road Maintenance - Sustaining the Benefits of Improved Access, ILO Publication, 2007

INTRODUCTION | 7
socio-economic benefits, followed by investments that provide all year access
(in areas that only have seasonal access). The smallest increase in socio-
economic benefits results from further road improvement and upgrading.
Maintenance works sustain and compound the benefits generated, while lack
of maintenance results in a significant decrease in socio-economic benefits
over time.
Maintenance costs are generally small compared to other direct costs of road
travel. The impact of maintenance on vehicle operating cost and travel time
cost can be considerable. Figure 7 illustrates the effect on direct transport
costs (vehicle operating
cost and travel time) of Figure 7: Effects of neglecting maintenance of roads
neglecting maintenance.
In addition, with insufficient
maintenance, the road
will deteriorate and the
operation costs for the
road will also increase.
It needs to be noted that
this example does not
consider the costs of
any negative socio-economic impacts due to a lack of maintenance and a
possible negative impact on accidents.
As a result, the preventive action required as part of an effective maintenance
system often consists of minor repairs to the drainage system before water
causes any major damage to the road assets. If this is not carried out in a
timely manner, the pace of deterioration increases, leading to and accelerating
increases in rehabilitation costs.

Benefits of Sustained Access

•  Owners of vehicles incur lower operation costs and slower depreciation of their vehicles,
•  Reduces the cost of operating public transport services,
• Users of public transport benefit from reduced travel times, lower fares, higher frequencies, more
regularity of services and better comfort,
•  Farmers, entrepreneurs and traders retain access and incur lower transport costs,
•  Improves the business environment for farmers and local entrepreneurs,
•  Rural dwellers get easier access to health services,
•  Children and youth experience easier access to school, resulting in lower drop-out rates,
•  Communities as a whole can maintain social and economic ties to the outside world,
• Government agencies achieve better access to local communities in terms of providing outreach
services such as health, education, agricultural extension services, etc.,
•  Rural areas become more attractive to investors,
•  Improved access to employment opportunities and other economic activities,
•  Government avoid expenditures in reconstruction and rehabilitation works.

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The direct implications of poor maintenance are four fold:
1. Depreciation of the value of the road network;
2. Increasing transport costs;
3. Declining rural access; and
4. Loss of economic development and employment opportunities.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE

The maintenance of rural roads can be classified into:
(i) Routine maintenance,
(ii) Periodic renewal, and
(iii) Emergency maintenance works.
Maintenance activities are also categorised based on where the works are
located:
Off-carriageway works consist of maintaining shoulders and drains, clearing
of cross drainage structures, removal of debris, cutting of grass and bushes.
The works also include minor repairs to drainage and other structures in
the roadside area, maintenance of road signs and pavement markings,
side slopes and all surface areas within the road reserve. Off-carriageway
maintenance is normally a routine activity.
On-carriageway works relate to road pavement and surface repairs. This
work mainly consists of maintaining a good running surface on the road, free
from any obstructions and damage and with the necessary camber or cross-
fall to secure proper surface drainage.

1.2.1 Routine Maintenance
Every road requires routine maintenance to be carried out once or more to
upkeep pavement, shoulders and other facilities provided for road users,
as nearly as possible in their
constructed condition under Figure 8: Workers performing routine maintenance
normal conditions traffic and
forces in nature. These are
typically small-scale or simple,
but widely dispersed and most
can be performed using manual
labour. The need for routine
maintenance can a degree be
estimated and planned and are
carried out on regular basis at
fixed times during the year.

INTRODUCTION | 9
Routine Maintenance activities may further be defined as either cyclic or
reactive as stated below.
Cyclic activities are performed at predetermined intervals throughout the
year purely as a preventive measure because of events we know will occur
(e.g. cleaning of drains before and during seasonal rain fall).
Reactive activities are performed in response to a triggering condition that
require action before the problem gets out of hand (e.g. blocked culvert,
crack sealing and pothole patching).

1.2.2 Periodic Renewal
The Periodic Renewals (Periodic Figure 9: Road surface showing a history of
Maintenance) consist of the routine maintenance, now due for resealing
provision of a surfacing layer/
bituminous overlays over the
pavement at regular interval of
time; so as to preserve the required
characteristics of the pavement
and offset the wear and tear
caused by traffic, weathering etc.
Furthermore, the strengthening of
pavements and major repairs to
damages of drainage structures are
also undertaken under periodical
renewal works. In effect, periodic
renewals represent preventive
maintenance which is needed to
prevent deterioration of the pavement characteristics and to ensure that
initial qualities are kept up for the future requirements of traffic during the
design life of the pavement.
Depending upon the traffic levels, pavement type, geographical and climatic
conditions periodic renewal works are typically carried out after a period of
5 to 10 years. The work activities involved are normally larger and require
more equipment and specialist skills. As a result, this work is considerably
more costly and requires more detailed planning. The most common periodic
maintenance activities include renewal works such as bituminous overlays,
strengthening of pavements and major repairs of damaged drainage
structures. As such, periodic renewal works are more costly and requires
more detailed planning.

1.2.3 Emergency Maintenance
Emergency maintenance responds to occasional, unforeseen events such
as landslides, washouts, large trees or debris on the road and broken

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drainage structures. Such damages Figure 10: Emergency maintenance
require immediate attention in order to required for landslide
keep the road open, secure the stability
of the road/or to ensure the safety of the
road users. Emergency maintenance
can be categorised into (i) temporary
restoration works, re-opening safe
passage on the road, and (ii) permanent
restoration, securing the stability of the
road and reinstating all its components
to its former (or a better) condition.
While taking up immediate action for the
emergency situations as stated above,
priority should be given to such activities that ensures to keep the road (even
partially) passable. For example, disruption of passage of traffic may happen,
if a broken culvert is not attended immediately. While a landslide which covers
part of carriageway allowing the traffic to pass the affected section, remedial
action is still required to clear the full width of the road and remove all debris
from the drainage system. So, regular inspection and taking proper action to
prevent disruption of traffic, particularly during the period of heavy rains is of
utmost importance.

1.3 ROAD COMPONENTS

Below are the most common road components and terminology used in road
works.

Figure 11: Typical road components

Roadway:  Width of the road normally used by traffic, consisting of shoulders

and carriageway.
Carriageway:  The portion of road, intended for use by vehicles but excluding
shoulders.
Off-carriageway:  The portion of road component starting from shoulder up
to back slope of the drain.

INTRODUCTION | 11
Centre line:  The theoretical line running along the longitudinal axis (middle)
of the road.
Camber (cross-fall):  The lateral slope(s) on the road from the centreline to
the shoulder break point, constructed to drain rainwater from the carriageway
to the side drain.
Crown:  The highest point on the road cambered carriageway, usually on the
road centreline.
Cut Slope:  The constructed inclined soil surface in a cut.
Side Cut:  Excavation of the natural soil to construct the road to its designed
cross section and level. The excavated soil may be used elsewhere for
construction (cut to fill) or disposed of outside the formation area (cut to
spoil).
Side Drain:  The function of road side drain is to collect surface water from
the roadway and lead it to an outlet.
Shoulders: Unpaved edges of the roadway, between the edge of the
carriageway and the shoulder break point. The shoulder provides side
support for the pavement or gravel surface and allows vehicles to stop or
pass in an emergency.
Embankment:  Constructed and compacted soil base-course (or sub-base
course) fill below the roadway and the natural ground level.
Embankment/Side slope: The side slope of the embankment, usually
constructed at 1:2.
Formation level:  The top of the subgrade.
Formation width:  Full width of the road, including drains and embankments.
Wearing course:  The layer of compacted gravel or sealed surface on the
carriageway, which supports the traffic load.
Base course:  Is the immediate course below the wearing course and is the
medium through which the stress imposed from the traffic load are distributed
evenly.
Sub-based course: The layer below the base course which provides
additional help in distributing the loads.
Sub-grade:  The compacted natural earth immediately below the payment
layer.
Catchwater drain: Catch water drain is a ditch constructed on the uphill
side designed to intercept or collect and drain away surface runoff water
flowing towards the road from the uphill side, and lead it to a suitable point
of disposal.

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INTRODUCTION | 13
Culvert:  A drainage structure Figure 12: Drainage components
allowing water to pass under the
road to be discharged on the lower
side of the road.
Mitre Drain:  Mitre drain leads the
water out of the side drains and
safely disperses it onto adjoining
land.
Scour Check: Scour check is a
small structure placed across the
drain on steep gradients and is designed to slow down the flow of water to
prevent erosion of drain invert and slopes.
Super elevation: Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross-
section of a carriageway throughout the length of a horizontal curve to
reduce the effects of centrifugal forces on a moving vehicle. Super elevation
is expressed as a percentage.

1.4 RURAL ROADS STANDARDS

It is important to be aware of the standard design standards used in rural road
works to give guidance to the maintenance work. These Guidelines relating
to geometric design standards are intended to be applied to rural roads. For
these guidelines, the rural roads shall include Other District Roads (ODR)
and Village Roads (VR).

1.4.1 Terrain Classification
The general slope of the country classifies the terrain across the area. The
terrain is an important parameter governing the geometric standards and the
criteria are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Terrain classification

Terrain Classification Cross Slope of the Terrain

Plain 0 ~ 10 % More than 1 in 10
Rolling 10 ~ 25 % 1 in 10 to 1 in 4
Mountainous 25 ~ 60 % 1 in 4 to 1 in 1.67
Steep Greater than 60% More than 1 in 1.67

1.4.2 Design Speed
Design speed is a basic criterion for determining all geometric features of
horizontal and vertical alignments.

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Table 2: Design speed for rural roads

Design Speed (km/h)

Road Mountainous
Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain Steep Terrain
Classification Terrain
Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum
Rural Roads
50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
(ODR and VR)

1.4.3 Road Land Width

Road land width (also termed as Right-of-Way) is the width of land acquired
for road purposes.

Table 3: Recommended road land width

Plain and Rolling Terrain Mountainous and Steep Terrain

Road
Open Area Built-up Area Open Area Built-up Area
Classification
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Range Normal Range
Rural Roads
15 m 15~25 m 15 m 15~20 m 12 m 12 m 12 m 9m
(ODR and VR)

The lower value of land width may be adopted where the traffic intensity is less
than 100 vehicles per day, and where the traffic is not likely to increase due
to the situation, like, dead end, low habitation and difficult terrain condition.

1.4.4 Roadway Width
Roadway width inclusive of parapet, side drain for rural roads in different
terrain shall be as per Table 4.

Table 4: Recommended road width for different terrain classification

Terrain Classification Roadway Width

Plain and Rolling 7.5 m

Mountainous and Steep 6.0 m

For rural roads, where the traffic intensity is less than 100 vehicles per day,
and where the traffic is not likely to increase, the roadway width may be
reduced to 6.0m in case of plain and rolling terrain.
The roadway width for rural roads is on the basis of a single lane carriageway
of 3.75m.
On horizontal curves the roadway width should be increased corresponding
to the extra width of carriageway for curvature.

INTRODUCTION | 15
16 | RURAL ROAD MAINTENANCE TRAINING MODULES FOR FIELD ENGINEERS
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On roads subjected to heavy snowfall and landslides, where regular snow
and debris clearance is done over long period to keep the road open to
traffic, roadway width may be increased by 1.5m.

1.4.5 Carriageway Width
For rural roads, the carriageway width may be restricted to 3.0m, where the
traffic intensity is less than 100 vehicles per day and where the traffic is not
likely to increase.

Table 5: Recommended carriageway width

Road Classification Carriageway Width Remarks

3m if traffic intensity is less than 100
Rural Roads (ODR and VR) 3.75 m
vehicles per day

1.4.6 Camber
The camber on straight section of road be as per Table 6.

Table 6: Camber for different road surfacing

Camber (percent)
Surface Type Low Rainfall High Rainfall
(Annual Rainfall<1000mm) (Annual Rainfall>1000mm)
Earth Road 4% 5%
WBM and Gravel Road 3.5% 4%
Thin Bituminous Pavement 3% 3.5%
Rigid Pavement 2% 2.5%

1.4.7 Side Slopes
Side slopes for rural roads where embankment height is less than 3.0m is
given in Table 7.

Table 7: Side slopes for rural roads

Condition Slope (H:V)

Embankment in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 2:1
Embankment in clay or clayey silt or inundated condition 2.5 : 1 to 3 : 1
Cutting in silty/sandy/gravelly soil 1 : 1 to 0.5 : 1
Cutting in disintegrated rock or conglomerate 0.5 : 1 to 0.25 : 1
Cutting in soft rock like shale 0.25 : 1 to 0.12 : 1
Cutting in medium rock like sandstone, phyllite 0.08 : 1 to 0.06 : 1
Cutting in hard rock like quartzite, granite Near vertical

INTRODUCTION | 17
1.4.8 Scour Checks
Instalment of scour checks provides an efficient method for reducing soil
erosion in side drains in hilly terrains. The interval will depend on the gradient
of the drain and the type of soil. Steep gradient will require more frequent
scour checks while in sandy soil condition more score checks need to be
installed.

Table 8: Scour check interval

Drain gradient 4% 5% 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% >10%

Scour Check Lining of drain
Not required 20m 15m 10m 8m 7m 6m
interval is required

1.4.9 Cross Drainage Structures

The roadway width at drainage crossing shall be as given in Table 9.

Table 9: Road width at drainage structures

Terrain Type
Road Type of Drainage
Plain and Mountainous Remarks
Classification Structure
Rolling or Steep
Culvert 7.5 m 6.0 m Measured from outside
Causeway and to outside of the parapet
Rural Roads 7.5 m 6.0 m walls
Submersible Bridge
(ODR and VR)
Measured between the
Bridge 5.5 m
kerb for bridges

1.4.10 Widening at Curves
At sharp horizontal curves, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to
facilitate safe passage of vehicles.

Table 10: Widening of carriageway at curves

Radius of Curve (m) Up to 20 21 ~ 40 Above 40

Extra widening for 3.75m wide single lane 0.9 m 0.6 m Nil
carriageway

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INTRODUCTION | 19
Notes

20 | RURAL ROAD MAINTENANCE TRAINING MODULES FOR FIELD ENGINEERS

 This training module is produced through a collaborative effort between the International
Labour Organization and the National Rural Road Development Agency under the
technical assistance component of the World Bank supported Rural Roads Project-II of
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana Project (PMGSY).

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION NATIONAL RURAL ROADS DEVELOPMENT AGENCY

ILO DWT for South Asia and Country Office for India Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India
India Habitat Centre 5th Floor, 15-NBCC Tower
Core 4B, 3rd Floor, Lodhi Road Bhikaji Cama Place
New Delhi–110 003, INDIA New Delhi–110 066, INDIA

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